Ships and Offshore Structures

ISSN: 1744-5302 (Print) 1754-212X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tsos20

Studies of the buckling of composite plates in

compression

B. Hayman , C. Berggreen , C. Lundsgaard-Larsen , A. Delarche , H.

Toftegaard , R. S. Dow , J. Downes , K. Misirlis , N. Tsouvalis & C. Douka

To cite this article: B. Hayman , C. Berggreen , C. Lundsgaard-Larsen , A. Delarche , H.

Toftegaard , R. S. Dow , J. Downes , K. Misirlis , N. Tsouvalis & C. Douka (2011) Studies of the
buckling of composite plates in compression, Ships and Offshore Structures, 6:1-2, 81-92, DOI:
10.1080/17445302.2010.528283

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17445302.2010.528283

Published online: 18 Feb 2011.

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Ships and Offshore Structures
Vol. 6, Nos. 12, 2011, 8192

Studies of the buckling of composite plates in compression

B. Haymana , C. Berggreenb , C. Lundsgaard-Larsenb , A. Delarcheb , H. Toftegaardc , R.S. Dowd , J. Downesd , K. Misirlisd ,
N. Tsouvalise and C. Doukae
a
Det Norske Veritas AS, Hvik, and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; b Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark,
Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; c Materials Research Division, Ris National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, Technical University of
Denmark, Roskilde, Denmark; d Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, United Kingdom;
e
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
(Received 15 December 2009; final version received 31 August 2010)

As part of the Network of Excellence on Marine Structures (MARSTRUCT), a series of studies has been carried out into the
buckling of glass-fibre-reinforced polymer plates with in-plane compression loading. The studies have included fabrication
and testing of square, laminated panels with various thicknesses and initial geometrical imperfections, material testing,
advanced finite element modelling studies and finally parametric studies covering a range of slendernesses and imperfection
amplitudes. The paper provides an overview of the studies, which involved several participants in the Network.
Keywords: glass-fibre-reinforced polymer plates; material tests; geometric imperfections; ultimate strength

Nomenclature i, j, k Local coordinate system (subscripts 1, 2, 3).

a Unsupported panel length. m Matrix.
b Unsupported panel width. s Shear.
B Nominal panel width. t Tension.
d Damage variables associated with degradation
of material properties.
E Youngs modulus in the associated local (lam- 1. Introduction
ina) direction.
1.1. Background
G Shear modulus in the associated local (lamina)
plane. The application of composite materials in marine struc-
K Shear stiffness in the associated laminate tures is continuously increasing. Some examples include
plane. ship hull construction, lightweight superstructures in ship
L Nominal panel length. and offshore structures and wind/current turbine blades. For
t Section thickness. plates that are made of steel or aluminium, design strength
x, y, z Global coordinate system. curves have been established that specify the strength under
X, Y, S Material strengths in the fibre, transverse and in-plane compressive loading as a function of a slenderness
shear directions. parameter. Such curves take account of geometric imper-
o Amplitude of initial geometric imperfections. fections and have been established on the basis of extensive
, Normal and shear strain tensors, respectively. numerical, analytical and experimental studies. In contrast,
Major Poissons ratio (unless stated other- design of fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) structures against
wise). buckling is almost invariably treated in terms of the elastic
, Normal and shear stress tensors. critical load of the ideal structure, at best modified by a
knock-down factor based on limited test data. A separate
check for local material failure is performed, but usually this
does not consider the interaction with buckling nor does it
Subscripts take account of imperfections in a systematic way. This is
c Compression. probably due to the fact that relatively few test results are
f Fibre. available for buckling of FRP structures, and there is little

Corresponding author. Email: konstantinos.misirlis@newcastle.ac.uk

ISSN: 1744-5302 print / 1754-212X online
Copyright 
C 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17445302.2010.528283
http://www.informaworld.com
82 B. Hayman et al.
published information on the manufacturing imperfections
that need to be taken into account.
1.2. MARSTRUCT studies
As part of the Network of Excellence on Marine Structures
(MARSTRUCT), a wide-ranging series of studies has been
carried out into the buckling of glass-fibre-reinforced poly-
mer plates with in-plane compression loading. The studies
have consisted of the following:
r A series of square laminated panels was fabricated at
two locations, using similar lay-ups but two different
production methods. The panels were of three different
thicknesses. Some were made as flat as possible, while
others were fabricated with intentional out-of-flatness
imperfections.
r Extensively instrumented tests were performed on these
panels with in-plane compressive loading. It was in-
tended that the test rig should provide effectively
clamped conditions at the panel edges, but some move-
ment was observed. A digital image correlation (DIC)
system was used to measure the deformation of each
panel, including the movements at the edges.
r Material testing was performed in a round-robin study
to establish the mechanical properties of the laminates
(both elastic properties and strength).
r Advanced finite element modelling studies were per-
formed at several institutions, and the results were com-
pared with the panel tests to validate the methods and
establish the best practices for predicting the behaviour
up to ultimate failure. Various degradation models were
used in the range of non-linear material behaviour.
r Parametric studies of plates with idealised edge condi-
tions were performed, covering a range of slenderness
ratios and imperfection amplitudes.
The experimental and numerical programmes per-
formed for the purposes of the MARSTRUCT Network
have produced a systematic series of data for the assess-
ment of the effects from initial geometric imperfection on
the ultimate compressive strength of FRP panels. This infor-
mation will be used as an integral part of establishing both
the local and global collapse of the structure in a simplified
methodology for longitudinally stiffened composite hulls.
The paper provides an overview of the work done, together
with the main conclusions. Full details of each phase of the
work will be reported separately in future publications.
2. Panel tests
2.1. Objectives
Square panel specimens were tested with in-plane compres-
sion loading. The objectives were to observe the behaviour
up to failure and to obtain comprehensive test data for use
in validation of modelling approaches.
2.2. Plate specimens
Plate specimens for three panel series were produced at the
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA; Series
1 and 2) and by Vestas Wind Systems A/S on behalf of
the Technical University of Denmark (DTU; Series 3). The
composite systems used by the two fabricators were similar
but not identical, and the production methods followed were
also different.
The DTU material was a pre-preg E-glass fibre/epoxy
system. The fibre reinforcement comprised two types of E-
glass fabrics: a 1200 g/m2 unidirectional (UD) fabric and
a 600 g/m2 45 biaxial, knitted, non-crimp fabric. The
NTUA material was a wet lay-up E-glass/epoxy system. The
fibre reinforcement comprised a 623 g/m2 UD glass fabric
(with 50 g/m2 in weft direction) together with a 306 g/m2
45 biaxial, non-crimp fabric and an epoxy resin with low
viscosity (600750 MPas at 25 C).
With UD representing the unidirectional layers and
BIAX the biaxial layers, the lay-ups of the three series
are the following:
Series 1: [BIAX/4 UD/BIAX/3 UD]S
Series 2: [BIAX/4 UD/BIAX/4 UD/BIAX/3 UD]S
Series 3: [BIAX/4 UD/BIAX/4 UD/BIAX/2 UD]S
All lay-ups are symmetrical, and the actual weight of
the UD layers is 88% of the total weight of both the UD
and biaxial layers for Series 1 and 2 and 87% of the total
weight for Series 3. The thicknesses of most specimens were
measured using a 3-D contact digitiser, and the nominal
thicknesses of Series 13 were approximately 9, 15 and 20
mm, respectively.
Each plate had a nominal total length L of 400 mm
(parallel to the load direction) and width B of 380 mm
(Figure 1). When the plate was mounted in the text fixture,
its unsupported length a and width b were both 320 mm
(Figure 1). Each of the three plate series comprised nine
plates. Three of these plates were close as possible to being
perfectly plane, three had a small maximum built-in im-
perfection and the remaining three had a large maximum
imperfection. The values of the imperfection amplitudes o
were defined as a function of the unsupported width of the
plate and were as follows:
r small maximum imperfection: o = 0.01 320 = 3.2
mm,
r large maximum imperfection: o = 0.03 320 = 9.6
mm.
The shape of the geometric imperfection was a scaled
first buckling mode shape of a corresponding fully clamped
plate with dimensions a= b= 300 mm (Figure 1). This left
 Ships and Offshore Structures 83

Figure 1. Geometry of the test plates (top) and shape of geomet-

ric imperfections (bottom).

Figure 3. Hand lay-up in a double-sided mould used for DTU

panels (top, upper mould not positioned yet). Peel ply being re-
moved prior to positioning of upper mould (bottom).

a 10 mm wide plane strip near the plates clamped edges,

in order to ensure easy fitting into the test fixture.
All plates were produced using manual lay-up with vac-
uum bagging. For the NTUA plates with imperfections,
a convex mould, numerically machined from aluminium
plate, was placed under the composite lay-up. The glass
fabrics were laid up and impregnated with resin by hand
(Figure 2, top). Then the whole arrangement was covered
by the various vacuum materials, and the air and excessive
resin were pumped out (Figure 2, bottom). The vacuum
pressure used was 0.6 bar. The DTU panels (Figure 3) were
made with machined moulds against both faces. The lami-
nate was under vacuum of at least 0.9 bar, and curing was
performed for 2 hours at 120 C, ensuring at least 98% cure
and removing excessive resin from the specimen.

2.3. Test set-up

All panel tests were carried out at the DTU in an Instron
8508 5 MN servo-hydraulic test machine using a special test
Figure 2. Vacuum bagging technique followed by the NTUA. rig. Figure 4 shows a schematic 2-D view of the test rig.
84 B. Hayman et al.

Figure 4. Test rig (top) and actual plate boundary conditions

(bottom). Dimensions in millimetres. (This figure is available in
colour online.)

The test plates are inserted between the side flanges (No.
4 in Figure 4) of the two towers and are bolted between
the top and bottom flanges (No. 3 and No. 5 in Figure 4,
respectively). In this way, along the two vertical towers, the
test plate is free to move in x- and y-directions, whereas
out-of-plane movement and rotation are prohibited. Along
its horizontal edges (top and bottom flange), the test plate
is considered rotationally fixed.
Figure 4 (bottom) presents a schematic view of the plate
clamping devices, with detailed dimensions as measured
from the test rig. Thus, as indicated, the effective dimen-
sions of the plate after being installed into the test rig are
a = 325 mm and b = 320 mm.
An advanced, non-contact DIC system (ARAMIS 4M)
was applied to monitor deformations during testing. Two 4
megapixel digital cameras monitor the same specimen area
but with a relative angle to each other. A suitable speckle
pattern is sprayed onto the specimen surface so that the
digital images can be analysed digitally and a surface 3-D
displacement field and a 2-D strain field can be generated
for each time frame. A frame rate of one frame per second
was used for all specimens. The digital cameras and the
specimen speckle pattern can be seen in Figure 5 (top).
The DIC system and its cameras were placed on one
side of the specimen (the convex side for plates with im-
perfections), while linear variable differential transformers
(LVDTs) and strain gauges were placed on the opposite
Figure 5. The two sides of a plate specimen installed in the test
rig, ready for testing. (This figure is available in colour online.)
(concave) side. Figure 5 shows a plate mounted in the test
rig, ready to be tested. Figure 5 (bottom) shows the con-
cave side of the plate with positions of LVDTs and strain
gauges. In all cases, the compressive loading was applied in
the form of linearly increasing compressive displacement
with a speed of 1 mm/min.
2.4. Test results
Table 1 represents the ultimate failure loads for the indi-
vidual tested panel specimens. Generally, all specimens,
irrespective of imperfection magnitude, experienced
out-of-plane deformations prior to ultimate failure; see
the representative DIC out-of-plane measurements in
Figure 6. They were thus influenced by a mixture of
bending deformations due to specimen imperfections,
bending deformations due to test rig deformations and
instability/buckling behaviour of the plate specimens.
For the specimens in Series 1, which have a high slen-
derness ratio, the results in Table 1 indicate a decrease
in compressive strength when an initial imperfection is
 Ships and Offshore Structures 85

Table 1. Failure loads. drop in compressive strength can be observed when the
maximum imperfection magnitude is increased from 3.2 to
Imperfection Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 9.6 mm. However, comparing the compressive strength of
(mm) (kN) (kN) (kN)
the specimens having small imperfections with those hav-
0 N/A 1218 2250 ing no imperfection, a slight increase can be observed. This
415 1092 2070 is contrary to the expectation that the compression strength
390 1170 N/A of the specimens with no imperfection should be higher,
3.2 294 906 2380 with maximum imperfection sensitivity in this slenderness
213 882 2303
309 930 2327 range. However, as all specimens, and especially the Se-
9.6 294 750 1543 ries 3 specimens, are also influenced by test rig deforma-
320 780 1934 tions introducing displacements and rotations of the panel
N/A 792 1892 boundaries and thus acting as gradually increasing geomet-
rical imperfections, no general conclusion can be drawn
regarding the compressive strength of the specimens with-
introduced. However, approximately the same compressive out initial geometrical imperfections on the basis of the test
strength is observed for specimens with both small and large results. Furthermore, only two specimens have been tested
imperfections, suggesting a rather small imperfection sen- so that any conclusions have again to be taken with caution.
sitivity. It should be noted that these conclusions are based
on only two specimens for each of the cases with no imper-
fection and with large imperfection and must therefore be 3. Material testing
taken with reservations.
3.1. Objectives
For the specimens in Series 2 with a medium slender-
ness ratio, the compressive strength is seen to decrease con- Material testing was performed in order to provide reliable
sistently with increasing imperfection magnitude, and there ply properties for use in the modelling studies described in
is a higher imperfection sensitivity than for the specimens Section 4.
in Series 1.
Finally, for Series 3 with a small slenderness ratio, at
which the critical stress for elastic buckling is close to the 3.2. Materials and fabrication methods
compressive strength of the laminate material, a significant In order to establish in-plane ply properties for the plates
to be tested, a round-robin material characterisation test
programme was performed by the DTU and NTUA. Each
partner manufactured two identical sets of UD specimens
from its own material, using exactly the same UD materials
and fabrication method as for the panel test plates (see
Section 2.2). The first set was tested by the partner who
produced it, and the second was tested by the other partner.
The DTU material was a pre-preg E-glass fibre/epoxy
system. The plates from which the material specimens were
cut were made from 1200 g/m2 UD fabric by hand lay-up
and vacuum bagging in a double-sided mould. The speci-
mens produced by the DTU had, on average, a fibre volume
fraction of 0.62 and a ply thickness of 0.8 mm.
The NTUA material test specimens were made with a
623 g/m2 UD glass fabric (with 50 g/m2 in weft direction)
and the same low-viscosity epoxy resin as for the panel
specimens. The vacuum bag moulding method was used,
with a single-sided mould. The specimens produced by the
NTUA had, on average, a fibre volume fraction of 0.43 and
a ply thickness of 0.55 mm.
The testing programme included measurement of the
tensile, compressive and shear behaviours (moduli and
Figure 6. Out-of-plane displacement contour plot (measured
with DIC) for a Series 3 panel without imperfection for increasing strengths) of both the DTU and NTUA materials. Ten-
applied in-plane loads. The last contour plot (bottom right) is taken sile properties at 0 and 90 were measured in accordance
immediately prior to ultimate failure. (This figure is available in with the ASTM D3039M standard, compressive properties
colour online.) at 0 and 90 in accordance with ISO 14126 and shear
86 B. Hayman et al.

properties in accordance with ASTM D5379 (Iosipescu
shear test). Three material characterisation plates were fab-
ricated by each partner: one plate having a thickness of
approximately 1 mm for the 0 tensile test specimens, one
having a thickness of approximately 2 mm for the 90 ten-
sile and 0 compressive test specimens and one having a
thickness of approximately 4 mm for the shear and 90
compressive test specimens. The DTU tests were carried
out at Ris DTU (Ris National Laboratory for Sustain-
able Energy), while the NTUA tests were carried out at the
Shipbuilding Technology Laboratory of the NTUA.
3.3. Material property test results
The respective averaged results of the tests performed at
the DTU and the NTUA are given in Table 2, where E
is the Youngs modulus, G is the shear modulus, is the
Poissons ratio, X is the strength in the fibre direction, Y is
the strength normal to the fibres and S is the shear strength.
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote the directions parallel and normal
to the fibres, respectively, while subscripts t and c denote
tension and compression, respectively.
Table 2 reveals large differences between the proper-
ties measured for the DTU and NTUA materials, as well as
significant discrepancies between the measurements by the
two laboratories of the same property for the same material.
The measured properties of the DTU material are generally
higher than those measured for the NTUA composite. This
fact can be mainly attributed to the higher quality of the
raw materials used by the DTU (pre-pregs against conven-
tional composites) and the more advanced manufacturing
method (use of a double-sided mould against a single-sided
one). These two factors led generally to the manufacture
from the DTU of thinner composite materials of much bet-
ter quality, considerably higher fibre volume fraction (62%
against 43%) and smaller thickness variations. Moreover,
although void content measurements were not carried out, a
lower void content is normally expected for the DTU mate-
rial due to the pre-pregs and the more advanced fabrication
method followed. An additional reason may also be some
problems encountered with the curing of the NTUA epoxy
resin, which were discovered after the specimen fabrica-
tion and testing. More specifically, hardness measurements
carried out on the tested specimens revealed that the epoxy
resin might not had been fully cured.
Although the differences between the measured E1c
values at the two laboratories were acceptable, the discrep-
ancies between the measurements of the same mechanical
property for the same material were significant for the rest
of the tests. In general, the NTUA measurements gave lower
values than those of the DTU for the same material, with
the exception of shear modulus G12 . The greatest discrep-
ancies were noticed for the compressive tests normal to the
fibres, which usually present the greatest sensitivity to test
conditions. A possible contributory factor could be that the
quality of the bonding of the tabs to the specimens tested at
the NTUA was not as good as that achieved at the DTU.
4. Validation of finite element models
4.1. Introduction
In order to establish a valid modelling approach to be imple-
mented in the parametric studies, the Newcastle University
(UNEW) and the DTU performed a series of finite element
analyses (FEAs) to compare with the panel test results.
All analyses have been performed using Abaqus Standard
and involved both geometric non-linearity and non-linear
material behaviour using a progressive failure model. The
outcome of these analyses is described in the following
paragraphs. Preliminary studies that focused especially on
the modelling of the boundary conditions achieved in the
test rig are reported by Berggreen et al. (2007).

Table 2. Comparison of average material properties (in MPa). 4.2. Element selection
Owing to the anisotropic behaviour of fibre-reinforced lam-
NTUA material DTU material inates, with a fibre modulus much greater than that for
the matrix, the effects from transverse shear deformation
Property NTUA test DTU test NTUA test DTU test
are more significant than in isotropic materials. To predict
E1t 29658 (11) 33170 (4) 48634 (5) 56235 (9) these effects accurately in the large range of plate slender-
E1c 38671 (3) 37238 (6) 50619 (7) 56209 (34) ness ratios covered in the parametric study, the conventional
E2t 6563 (23) 9338 (7) 18535 (11) 20422 (4) eight-node quadratic quadrilateral thick shell element with
E2c 8501 (14) 9536 (7) 12325 (15) 15729 (6)
reduced integration (S8R type in Abaqus) and six degrees
G12 2034 (7) 2169 (22) 4800 (6) 4264 (4)
v12 0.290 (37) 0.268 (8) 0.274 () 0.284 (7) of freedom was chosen.
Xt 559 (21) 698 (10) 968 (11) 1141 (7) The S8R-type element represents thick shells that allow
Xc 253 (23) 191 (21) 915 (34) 952 (26) for large rotations and transverse shear deformation. First-
Yt 60 (20) 43 (14) 24 (33) 22 (23) order shear deformation theory is used which, together with
Yc 59 (17) 69 (12) 118 (14) 127 (2)
a Simpsons integration scheme for the constitutive relation-
S 31 (3) 30 (3) 65 (3) 64 (3)
ships through the shell thickness, allows for interlaminar
Note: Values in parentheses indicate the % coefficient of variation. stresses to develop (Abaqus 2007).
 Ships and Offshore Structures 87

In the reduced formulation of the S8R element, a penalty ditional damage variable for shear; 21 = minor Poisson
method is applied in the integration scheme for the calcu- ratio; D = 1 (1 df ) (1 dm ) 12 21 .
lation of the transverse shear strains that prevents shear The material properties are then degraded linearly up
locking behaviour. The shear stiffness takes the form to failure, which occurs at a maximum strain of twice the
strain at the initiation of failure (Matzenmiller et al. 1995).
K = kGtAfp , (1) Additional investigations with alternative failure
methodologies developed by the partner institutions have
where k = correction factor based on experimental results, been performed and will be presented at future publica-
G = transverse shear modulus, t = section thickness, A = tions in detail. The results presented here are limited to
reference area assigned to an integration point and fp = the solutions obtained with the Abaqus failure methodol-
dimensionless factor defined as ogy. This demonstrated faster convergence of the solutions,
compared with instantaneous degradation models devel-

1
4 A
oped by the institutions, with small sacrifice to accuracy.
fp = 1 + 0.25 10 2 . (2) The post-failure methodology appeared to have a bigger in-
t
fluence in the ultimate strength predictions than the failure
criteria adopted, as long as the latter included interaction
terms between normal and shear stresses.
4.3. Progressive failure
Prior to damage initiation, the material behaviour is lin-
early elastic. Damage is initiated according to the Hashin
4.4. Finite element model
quadratic failure criteria (Hashin and Rotem 1973), the gen-
eral forms of which are as follows: Both sets of material property definitions described in Sec-
tion 3.3 were employed in the FEA models to predict the

2
11 collapse of the tested panels. The elasticity moduli from the
fibre tension: Fft = , (3a) tensile and compressive tests were averaged for the defini-
Xt

2 tion of single properties in the longitudinal and transverse
11 directions. For the remaining material property definitions,
fibre compression: Ffc = , (3b)
Xc transverse isotropy has been assumed with the transverse

2
2 shear modulus in the 23 planes equal to the in-plane shear
22 12 modulus to ensure stability in the analysis. Owing to limi-
matrix tension: Fmt = + , (3c)
Yt S tations on space, only results obtained with the NTUA data

2
2 set are presented in this paper. These are the material data
22 12
matrix compression: Fmc = + , (3d) adopted in the parametric studies described in Section 5.
Yc S
The initial geometric imperfections imposed in the FEA
models are the same in magnitude and shape as those built
where Xt , Xc , Yt , Yc and S are as defined in Section 3.3;
into the test panels during fabrication. To nucleate buck-
ii , ij = effective stress tensors; i, j = 1, 2 represent local
ling in the case of the panels with no initial imperfections,
coordinates.
an imperfection with a magnitude ( o ) of 5% of the panels
At the onset of damage the material response is com-
thickness has been imposed. The effective panel dimensions
puted from
of 320 320 mm have been used in the models with sim-
ply supported and clamped boundary conditions. The area
11
included in the model was later reduced to 300 300 mm,
1
22 = and the displacements and rotations measured at the edges


D
12 of this region by the DIC system were imposed as boundary
conditions. This case is referred to as having non-linear
(1 df )E1 (1 df ) (1 dm ) 21 E1 0 boundary conditions in the results. The rotations imposed
sym. (1 dm ) E2 0
at the boundaries induce out-of-plane displacements in the
sym. sym. (1 ds ) GD panel. Thus, for the panels without imperfections, it was
unnecessary to introduce an initial imperfection to nucleate
11
buckling with these boundary conditions.
22 , (4)



A mesh refinement study was performed to determine
12 the number of elements required to achieve convergence of
the FEA model. From this study, it was concluded that a
where , = strain tensors; df , dm = damage variables mesh of 46 46 S8R elements would be used in the 320
corresponding to failure in the fibres and matrix; ds = ad- 320 mm models. For the case of the 300 300 mm models,
88 B. Hayman et al.

Table 3. Clamped boundary condition. Table 5. FEA correlation with panel tests when various boundary
conditions are assumed (failure stresses in MPa; deviations from
Loaded edge Reaction edge Unloaded edges test results in %).

X Displacement X 0 X Free Test FEA CC FEA SS FEA non-linear

Y 0 Y 0 Y 0
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0 Panel (MPa) (MPa) Dev% (MPa) Dev% (MPa) Dev%
RX 0 RX 0 RX 0
RY 0 RY 0 RY 0 S1-0-2 115 123 6.96 105 8.70 133 15.65
RZ 0 RZ 0 RZ 0 S1-32-2 106 111 4.72 104 1.89 100 5.66
S1-96-1 91 103 13.19 88 3.30 96 5.49
S2-0-2 183 184 0.55 113 38.25 256 39.89
S2-32-2 149 148 0.67 113 24.16 140 6.04
the same size of elements has been considered, and the S2-96-2 133 133 0.00 107 19.55 130 2.26
number of elements in the mesh was reduced accordingly. S3-0-2 287 517 80.14 289 0.70 564 96.52
The boundary conditions applied in the 320 320 mm S3-96-1 218 382 75.23 277 27.06 181 16.97
models are defined in Tables 3 and 4 with the axis direc-
Note: CC, clamped boundary condition; SS, simply supported boundary
tions defined in Figure 1. In order to define the non-linear condition.
boundary conditions in the smaller models, the nodes at
the edges were divided into sets of master and slave nodes.
The master nodes are the ones where the displacements as in the FEA models, more accurate solutions were obtained
measured during the tests are applied. These are located in most cases. Clear exceptions were the thick and medium
30 mm apart. The nodes located between two master nodes thickness panels with no initial imperfections (Figures 10
are grouped into a set of slave nodes with displacements and 13). For these panels, the initial part of the measured
linearly interpolated from their neighbouring master nodes. end-shortening response shows a stiffening behaviour that
is not seen for the other panels and is probably not well
represented in the modelling.
4.5. Numerical results The buckling loads as predicted from the linear eigen-
Eight cases were considered in total for the validation of value analysis for the first buckling mode are also presented.
the numerical models: six from the NTUA lay-up (thin The solutions for the panels with no initial geometric im-
and medium thickness panels) and two from the DTU lay- perfections demonstrate the influence of the deformations
up (thick panels). These are presented in terms of average of the test rig at the boundaries. The failure load of the thin
stress (in MPa) versus end shortening (in mm) in Figures 7 panel (Figure 7) is very close to the eigenvalue solution
14, and the values of average stress at failure are compared with clamped boundary conditions. As the panel thickness
in Table 5. is increased and the slenderness is reduced, the supports ex-
The solutions with the simply supported and clamped hibit significant deformations. The medium thickness panel
boundary conditions represent limiting cases between (Figure 10) fails between the critical loads from the simply
which the tested panels are expected to perform. This supported and clamped solutions. In the case of the thick
was observed in most cases; the main exceptions being
the cases where no initial geometric imperfections were
present (see Table 5). More representative modelling of the
actual boundary conditions can improve the solutions (as
in Figure 14, for the case when the panel is modelled with
simple supports at the loaded edges with the other edges
clamped), but these need further investigation before they
can be generalised for the full range of panels tested. With
the displacement measurements of the boundaries applied

Table 4. Simply supported boundary condition.

Loaded Edge Reaction Edge Unloaded Edges

X Displacement X 0 X Free
Y 0 Y 0 Y 0
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0
RX 0 RX 0 RX Free
RY Free RY Free RY 0
RZ 0 RZ 0 RZ 0 Figure 7. End shortening of Series 1 panel S1-0-2 with no initial
imperfections.
 Ships and Offshore Structures 89

Figure 8. End shortening of Series 1 panel S1-32-2 with 3.2 mm Figure 11. End shortening of Series 2 panel S2-32-2 with 3.2
initial imperfection. mm initial imperfection.

Figure 9. End shortening of Series 1 panel S1-96-1 with 9.6 mm Figure 12. End shortening of Series 2 panel S2-96-2 with 9.6
initial imperfection. mm initial imperfection.

Figure 10. End shortening of Series 2 panel S2-0-2 with no initial Figure 13. End shortening of Series 3 panel S3-0-2 with no initial
imperfections. imperfection.
90 B. Hayman et al.
Figure 14. End shortening of Series 3 panel S3-96-1 with 9.6
mm initial imperfection.
panel (Figure 13), the rigidity of the supports is further re-
duced, relative to the plate, and the failure of the panel is
very close to the critical load for simple supports. This is
also demonstrated by the good correlation between the test
results and the non-linear solution with simply supported
boundary conditions.
The validation studies are still in progress, as a number
of issues require more detailed investigation.
5. Parametric studies
5.1. Definition of parameters
The parametric study is confined to the idealised case of
simply supported boundary conditions. It incorporates three
lay-up configurations for two plate geometries: an aspect
ratio of 1 (square plates) and an aspect ratio of 4 (long
plates). The width b of the panels is set to 500 mm in
all cases. The imposed imperfections for the square plates
have a half-sine waveform with amplitudes of 0.1%, 1%,
2% and 3% of the panel width. For the long plates, the same
amplitudes are assumed but for a combined imperfection
of 20% of the preferred buckling mode shape and 80% of a
half-sine wave. The preferred buckling modes for the three
lay-up configurations have three half waves for case A and
four for cases B and C.
The imperfection shape imposed in the case of the long
plates has been based upon current knowledge from steel
structures. The effects of this assumption on the panels
Table 6. Definition of lay-up configurations.
Case A: triaxial [45/+45/04 /+45/45/04 /45/+45/03 ]S
lay-up
Case B: quadriaxial [0/+45/90/45]X,S
lay-up
Case C: WR [0]X
Figure 15. Applied boundary conditions for parametric studies.
ultimate strength, in comparison to alternative imperfec-
tion shapes, have been investigated in preliminary studies
(Misirlis et al. 2009) prior to their application here.
The three lay-up configurations are presented in Table 6.
In the triaxial lay-up (case A), the thicknesses for each layer
are scaled up to achieve the desired plate thickness and slen-
derness. In the other two lay-up configurations [quadriaxial
and woven (WR) roving], increased thickness is achieved
by increasing the number of plies (X).
The material property definitions for the first two cases
are the same as the NTUA data set for the DTU material
(see Table 2, average of tensile and compressive proper-
ties). For the woven roving material, properties have been
adapted from an earlier study referred to by Hayman and
Echtermeyer (1999). These are provided in Table 7.
For the purposes of the parametric study, some features
were modified in the FEA model in order to reduce the anal-
ysis time. The mesh consists of the same size of elements
as in the validation study. However, by examining the first
buckling mode shapes for all configurations, it was con-
cluded that half symmetry would be applied about an axis
parallel to the panels length (x-direction; see Figure 15).
To simulate the effect of surrounding structure (stiffen-
ers and adjacent panels), the unloaded edge was constrained
to remain straight but free to displace in the y-direction.
5.2. Parametric study results
In Figures 1621, the ultimate strength (in MPa) for a range
of b/t values between 10 and 50 is presented. The re-
sults from the square plates are presented in Figures 16
18 and from the long plates in Figures 1921. These in-
clude ultimate strength predictions for panel geometries
Table 7. Assumed WR material properties (in MPa).
E1 17180 12 0.17 G12 3520
E2 17180 13 0.27 G13 5150
E3 10800 23 0.27 G23 5150
Xt 238.6 Yt 238.6 S12 80.9
Xc 324.5 Yc 324.5 S23 60.7
 Ships and Offshore Structures 91

Figure 16. Case A: triaxial lay-up; aspect ratio = 1. Figure 19. Case A: triaxial lay-up; aspect ratio = 4.

Figure 17. Case B: quadriaxial lay-up; aspect ratio = 1.

Figure 20. Case B: quadriaxial lay-up; aspect ratio = 4.

Figure 18. Case C: WR lay-up; aspect ratio = 1. Figure 21. Case C: WR lay-up; aspect ratio = 4.
92 B. Hayman et al.
without initial geometric imperfections and their critical
(buckling) loads as predicted from a linear eigenvalue
analysis.
In these results, it is observed that in the case of the
square plates initial imperfections have very little effect
on the panel strength for b/t values greater than 30. In
the quadriaxial and WR lay-up configurations, this effect is
further extended down to b/t values of 25 or less. Similarly,
for the long plates in the high b/t region (above 30), the
effects from initial imperfections are negligible.
In the lower b/t region (less than 30), long plates ap-
pear to have less sensitivity to initial imperfections than the
square panels. This, however, has been influenced by the
imposed imperfection shape. The preferred buckling mode
shape yields more conservative results than a single half-
wave imperfection for a long plate or the combined shape
of imperfection applied in this study.
For all cases considered in the high b/t range, the plates
experienced significant post-buckling displacements prior
to ultimate collapse. The shape of deformation followed the
preferred buckling mode shape whether that was applied
initially or not. In the case of the long plates specifically,
this change in the deformation shape was indicated with
a snap-through that is visible in the load/end-shortening
response.
Note that the triaxial lay-up considered here has about
87% of its reinforcement in the loading direction. This
contrasts with the quadriaxial lay-up, which is quasi-
isotropic, and the WR lay-up, which is balanced, having
equal amounts of reinforcement in the 0 and 90 direc-
tions.
6. Conclusions
A comprehensive, collaborative study of the buckling
and post-buckling behaviour of composite plates under
compressive loading, with and without built-in geomet-
ric imperfections, has been carried out. This has included
instrumented tests that provide a substantial database for
validating modelling approaches. Corresponding material
properties for use in modelling work have also been
established.
In laboratory testing of plates subjected to buckling
phenomena, it is extremely difficult or impossible to obtain
clearly defined boundary conditions. However, using a DIC
measurement system, it is possible to monitor the actual
displacements and rotations at the plate boundaries during
a test. These can be imposed in an FEA in place of ide-
alised boundary conditions for the purposes of validating
the modelling approach. Once validated, the modelling ap-
proach can be used to predict the behaviour of plates with
other idealised boundary conditions. It is then possible to
perform parametric studies for plates with given boundary
conditions.
An advanced modelling approach, based on FEA, has
been described. With a few exceptions, this modelling ap-
proach appears to be able to reproduce the main aspects
of the behaviour of the panels tested with in-plane com-
pression, provided the boundary conditions are modelled
correctly. This includes estimates of the ultimate collapse
loads. There is some uncertainty about the boundary con-
ditions in some of the tests, and some issues require further
investigation. However, sufficient confidence in the mod-
elling approach was established to permit the conduct of
limited parametric studies.
Parametric studies performed on simply supported,
square and long plates with three different composite lay-
ups indicated very little sensitivity to geometric imperfec-
tions in sinusoidal shape, provided the b/t ratio is greater
than a value in the range 2030, depending on the lay-up.
For thicker plates, i.e. with lower b/t, however, the failure
load is more appreciably reduced by the presence of such
imperfections and is dependent on their shape.
Only a brief outline of the work has been presented
here. More detailed descriptions of the experimental and
modelling studies will be presented in future publications.
Acknowledgements
This work has been performed within the context of the Network
of Excellence on Marine Structures (MARSTRUCT), partially
funded by the European Union through the Growth Programme
under contract TNE3-CT-2003-506141. The provision of test spec-
imens by Vestas Wind Systems A/S is highly appreciated.
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