BACK TO BASICS
AC Fundamentals
Alternating current circuits improve the versatility
and usefulness of electric power systems
By R. Fehr, P.E., Engineering Consultant
When taking field measurements with a digital multimeter its important to note the difference be-
tween peak and rms readings.
I
n the late 1800s, Nikola Tesla demon-
strated phenomena with alternating
current (AC) electricity that werent
possible with direct current (DC)
power, two of which were transformer
action and the principle of the induction
motor. AC still plays a vital role in todays
energy generation; much of our electricity
is generated by turbine-driven alternators,
changed in voltage by iron-core transform-
ers, and consumed by induction motors.
AC waveforms. In the United States, elec-
tricity is generated at various voltages,
which oscillate, or alternate at 60 times per
sec. This oscillating voltage is described as
having a frequency of 60 cycles per sec, or
60 Hz. As these generated voltages are ap-
plied across an impedance or resistance to
alternating current, current will flow as
defined by Ohms Law:
V=I Z
where V, I, and Z represent voltage, cur-
rent, and impedance, respectively. The
54 EC&M January 2003
current will have the same frequency as the
applied voltage, thus the term alternating
current.
Since AC voltages are generated by
round rotors revolving inside circular
stators, the resulting waveform is a sine
AC currents produce
the magnetic fields
that make transformer
and induction motor
operation possible.
wave. The height, or amplitude, of a sine
wave is called the peak value. Instead of
peak values, the amplitude of a sine wave
is often described as an effective, or root-
mean-square (rms) value, which is about
71% of the peak value (Figure at left). Most
analog and digital meters measure rms
quantities.
Electric and magnetic fields. AC volt-
ages vary in amplitude as a function of time,
so their electric fields also vary with time.
Similarly, AC currents produce time-vary-
ing magnetic fields. Time-varying fields
make possible electromagnetic induction,
the principle upon which transformers and
induction motors are based. Induction cant
occur in DC circuits because the electro-
magnetic fields in a DC environment are
constant. (The process of electromagnetic
induction will be discussed next month).
Skin effect. Current density, or the den-
sity of electrons flowing in a conductor, is
uniform across the cross-section of the con-
ductor in DC circuits. But as the frequency
of the current increases, the flowing elec-
trons tend to concentrate at the outer sur-
face of the conductor. At 60 Hz, more than
63% of the electrons travel within the outer
1 cm of an aluminum conductor and within
the outer 0.85 cm of a copper conductor.
This phenomenon, known as skin effect, re-
duces the effective cross-section of a con-
ductor, and is a reason for using hollow
conductors for some high-ampacity bus
work. Its more pronounced at higher fre-
quencies, so harmonic currents can lead to
extreme heating of conductors. Where a
significant harmonic content is expected,
paralleling several smaller conductors is
preferred to using one large conductor.
Although inductive and capacitive cir-
cuit elements are affected differently by AC
and DC, resistive elements behave the same
under both conditions. AC circuit analysis
methods are more involved than the corre-
sponding DC methods, but the basics re-
main the same. EC&M
Fehr is an engineering consultant based in
Clearwater, Fla.