Lecture 1- 31 Jan 2017

Power Generation:

Course Objectives

Different Types of power plants

Modes of energy conversion to generate
electrical energy
Design and analysis of Power plants and of
fuel cells by modeling and simulation
(a cell producing an electric current direct from a chemical reaction)

Energy exists in various forms like

Mechanical Energy--In the physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of

potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the energy associated with the motion and position of
an object

Electrical energy--is the energy created by electrons moving through an electrical conductor.
The world is made of matter. All matter contains atoms that contain electrons that are always
moving. When electrons are forced down a conductive path, such as a wire, the movement
produces electricity, or electric energy

Thermal energy --is the energy that comes from heat. This heat is generated by the
movement of tiny particles within an object. The faster these particles move, the more heat is
generated

and so on. One form of energy can be converted into another form by suitable
arrangements. Out of these forms, electrical energy is preferred due to the following
reasons.

It can be easily transported from one place to another,

 Losses in energy transportation are minimum,
It can be easily controlled and regulated to suit requirements,
It can be easily converted into other forms of energy particularly
mechanical and thermal,
It can be easily sub-divided.

SOURCES OF ENERGY:
Some of the sources of energy are

1. Fuels:
Solid fuels: wood, charcoal, peat, coke, pulverized coal, pulverized coal.

Liquid fuels: petroleum based like petrol, diesel, shale oil etc. Non-petroleum fuels like
ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, benzene etc.

Gaseous fuels: producer gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, water gas.

2. Energy of water as used in hydroelectric plants where potential

energy of water is converted into electrical energy

Run of river
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity (ROR) is a type of hydroelectric generation plant whereby
little or no water storage is provided. Run-of-the-river power plants may have no water
storage at all or a limited amount of storage, in which case the storage reservoir is referred
to as pondage.
Reservoir
Typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir.
Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity.

3. Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make
up every object in the universe.
4. Solar energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving
technologies

PV
Concentrated Solar

5. Wind power.
Horizontal Axis

Vertical Axis

6. Wave power.
Wave energy uses the kinetic force of waves to produce energy. A object inside buoys,
booms, or other floating objects will shake as each wave passes

7. Tidal power.
Tidal energy uses the gravitational pull of the Earth and moon to generate energy. The tides at
shorelines of oceans will rise and fall about twice a day

8. Geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth.

9. Fuel cells
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction

10. Thermo electric power

Electricity is produced by temperature differnce

11. Thermionic converter.

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a
potential energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful electric power output

12. Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) generator

Magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) is a magnetohydrodynamic device that
transforms thermal energy and kinetic energy into electricity.

13. Bionic Energy

Imagine for a moment that you could generate enough energy by walking to power your cell
phone

In all power stations, electric energy is generated from other forms of energy e.g.,

(i) Chemical energy of fuel (thermal energy),

(ii) Energy of falling water (hydraulic energy),
(iii) Atomic energy (nuclear energy).

Accordingly power stations are classified as :

Thermal power stations:

Those power stations which convert chemical energy of fuel (coal, diesel etc.) into electrical
energy are called thermal power stations. The fuel used in thermal power stations may be
solid fuel (coal) or liquid fuel (diesel).
The chemical energy of fuel is used to run the prime mover to which is coupled the
alternator (A.C. generator). Thus electrical energy is obtained from the alternator.

According to the prime-mover employed for driving the alternate, thermal power stations
may be broadly divided into the following two important types :

(a) Steam power stations:

Steam power stations employing steam engine or turbine as the prime-mover. Coal is used
fuel.

(b) Diesel power stations:

Diesel power stations employing diesel engine as the prime-mover.

Electric Power Generation: Steam Power

Station:
Here steam turbine or engine is used as a prime-mover.
Fuels used in Steam Power Station:
Fuels for thermal power plants should have sufficient calorific value, easy availability in large
quantities, ease of handling, storing and transporting. Common fuel for most of the plants is
coal. Several varieties of coal are available - charcoal, lignite, peat, coke, briquetted coal,
bituminous coal etc. A coal may have :

Fixed carbon 35 to 45 percent

Volatile matter 25 to 35 percent

Ash 8 to 22 percent
 Moisture 10 to 18 percent

Heating value 5000 to 6500 kcal/kg.

There are several considerations in the selection of coal for a power plant. However, ash
content is a major problem which needs careful consideration.

Coal is classified by:

1. Rank degree of metamorphism :

Rank degree of metamorphism or progressive alteration, in the natural series from fignite
(inferior quality) to anthracites (superior quality).

2. Grade quality :

Grade quality determined by designation, calorific value, ash content, ash softening
temperature and sulphur.

3. Type of coal :

Coal based on original plant ingredients and subsequent alterations e.g. boghead coal,
cannel coal, split coal, common bonded coal, etc.
The pulverization of coal is done in coal crushers and ball mills. Pulverized coal is
transferred to bankers and then to burners where coal dust along with air is fed to the boiler
through burners.

Stokers in steam power station :

Stokers In this coal is fired as received from the mines, without any major preparation. A
stoker continuously feeds fuel to the boiler furnace. In over feed stokers, coal is supplied on
the top of the gate. As the coal burns, ash and clinkers are formed which collect at the
bottom. Primary air is supplied under pressure from the bottom of the gate which gets
heated up while passing through the layer of ash. Secondary air is supplied from the sides.
However in case of underfeed stokers primary as well as secondary air is supplied through
grate.
(Traveling Grate Stoker)

(Spreader Stoker)

Pulverized coal system in Steam Power

Station :
The firing of coal in pulverized form involves primarily the function of breaking coal into line
panicles, mixing of coal with air, delivery of coal air mixture to the burners and combustion.

(Pulverized Coal System)

The coil is crushed in a bowl mill or ball mill (using impact of steel balls). A classifier is used
to regulate the fineness of particles.

Water treatment in steam power station:

Water is one of the most important raw materials for steam power plants. However
impurities from water must be removed before feeding to the boiler. The impurities may be in
the form of:

(i) Visible impurities : like algae, bacterial slimes, turbidity etc.

(ii) Dissolved gases : like carbon dioxide oxygen, nitrogen,
methane, hydrogen, sulphide, etc.

(iii) Minerals and salts : of iron, manganese, sodium,

potassium, etc.

Summary of Water Treatment Processes in

steam power station:
Impurity Trouble Limit of tolerance in feed water Kind of treatment
30 cc per kilo
chemical de-oxidation
Oxygen Corrosion
liter thermal deaeration

3 parts per million,

thermal dearation
Carbon dioxide, Corrosion 20 ppm for low pressure boilers ;2
Calcium, Magnesium ppm for high pressure boilers, as external softening
Scale CaCO3
salts internal softening

SiO2
40 ppm for low pressure and 5
Carry over, scale deionization
ppm for High pressure boilers

Embrittlement, 5 ppm as CaCO3 for HP boilers.

Na alkalinity acid neutralizer
Foaming Variable for LP boilers
Total dissolved
Priming foaming as specified de-concentration
solids

coagulation
Turbidity Sludge sediments5 ppm or less
sedimentation filtration
coagulation, filtration
Oil Foaming 5 ppm or less
surface blow off
Condenser in steam power station :
Thermal efficiency of a steam power plant can be improved by reducing the turbine exhaust
pressure. Low pressure at the exhaust can be maintained, by condensing material
discharged from the turbine. In a way condenser is a heat exchanger in which heat from the
exhaust steam is transferred to circulating boiler. There are two types of condensers - jet
and surface type. Surface condensers are commonly used in power plants. A condenser
needs huge quantity of cooling water. For this purpose cooling towers are used so that
water can be re-circulated through the condenser.

Ash Handling in steam power station:

Usually 10 to 20 percent of the coal field in station is released in the form of ash thus a plant
burning 50 tonnes of coal per hour will have 5 to 10 tonnes of ash produced which must be
are moved immediately for the continuous operation of the plant.

The problems in ash handling are due to high temperature of ash and its contents which
range from fine particles of fly as to large clinkers.

Most of the plants have arrangements for quenching ash with water and then carrying it
through pipe lines to distant places used as pumps. Motive power may be provided by
steam or pumps. For arresting fly ash, electrostatic precipitators are used, before flue gases
are laid to chimney.

Power land cycle of steam power generation :

The idealized cycle for a steam power plant is the Rankin cycle. As the aim is always to
achieve higher efficiency, following feature exist in modem power plants :

1. Re-heating of steam after partial expansion in high pressure turbine.

2. Regeneration - bleeding part of the steam to heat the cold condensate from
condenser.

3. Use of steam at high-pressures for improvement of thermal efficiency most of the

power plants use high pressures usually more than l00 kg/cm3, 500 MW units being
fabricated at M/s. BHEL will use steam at 170 atm.

Steam power Station > Boilers:

High steaming rates at higher pressures steam call for careful designing of boilers. A power
station has to operate continuously for longer periods of time, hence boiler must be
available for longer period-without need for shut downs on account of breakdowns or
repairs.
On one hand a boiler furnace must have high temperature to heat the water, at the same
time the gases discharged through chimney must have low temperature (to minimize losses)
and least pollution producing gases. This calls for incorporating rapid heat transfer devices.
The boilers in modern power plants are water tube boilers, with water walls. In addition to
this super-heaters, re-heaters and economizer are installed to utilize maximum possible
heat available inside the furnace. Furthermore, higher steaming rates require high flow
velocities of water, steam, flue gases etc., with adequate controls and safety devices.

(Heaters in Boilers)
( Steam Turbine Arrangements )

Steam power Station > Turbines :

In order to obtain full benefit from high steam conditions, it is necessary to use large
turbines. On large turbines of 100 MW and over, the cycle efficiency can be improved,by
using external re-heating and expanding steam in turbine in two or three stages usually
designated as high pressure, intermediate pressure and low pressure stages.

Axial flow turbines are commonly used in power plants. Maximum permissible speed for
alternator being 3000 rpm, reduction gear boxes are used wherever turbine rotor speed is
higher.

(B) Diesel Power Stations :

(Diesel Power Plant)

Here diesel is used as a prime-mover.

Advantages of diesel power Station:

1. Occupies less space.

2. Design and installation simple.

3. Less quantity of water required for cooling purposes.

4. Overall capital cost is less than steam plants.

5. Can be started quickly.

6. More efficient than steam plant.

7. Less supervising staff than steam plant.

8. Can be used in emergency e.g. hospitals, cinema houses.

Disadvantages of diesel power station:

1. Diesel is costly, therefore, high running cost.

2. Smaller capacity. Suitable for generation of small power.

3. High maintenance cost.

Hydroelectric Power Generation :

These convert energy of falling water (hydraulic) into Electrical energy. The entire
arrangements can be divided into the following stages for the sake of simplicity :

1. Water reservoir.

2. Dam.
3. Valve house.

4. Penstock

5. Water turbine.

6. Alternator.

(Hydro Electric Power Station)

Hydro-electric plants may be classified according to the available head as:

(i) Hydroelectric Power Generation > Low head

plants:
For such plants a small dam is constructed across the river to provide necessary head. The
excess water is allowed to flow over the dam itself. No surge tank is required for such
plants. In figure shows the arrangements of such a plant.

(Low Head Plant)

(ii) Hydroelectric Power Generation > Medium

Head Plants:
The forebay provided at the beginning of penstock serves as water reservoir for such plants.
In such plants water is generally carried in open channels from main reservoir to the forebay
and then to the power house through the penstock. The forbay itself work as surge tank in
this case. The common types of prime movers used in these plants are Francis, Propeller
and Kaplan. General arrangement of such a plant is shown in the figure.
(Medium Head Plants)

(iii) Hydroelectric Power Generation > High

Head Plants :
A typical arrangements for this type of plant is shown in the figure in such plants first of all
water is carried from the main reservoir by a tunnel up to the surge tank and then from the
surge tank to the power house in penstocks. For heads above 500 meters pelton wheels are
used while for lower heads Francis turbine is used.

(High Head Plants)

Hydroelectric plants may also be classified as :

1. Hydroelectric Power Generation > Peak load

plants :
A plant used only when the demand of power exceeds the limits of other power plants in the
connected system.

2. Hydroelectric Power Generation > Base

load plants :
Such plants have high load factors and continue to run for longer durations. Such plants
must have enough availability of water. Peak load of such system may be shared by a diesel
engine plant, gas turbine plant or even steam power plant

3. Hydroelectric Power Generation > Pumped

storage plant :
Such plants are used when the quantity of water available for power generation is sufficient
During peak period such plants generate power and the discharged water is collected in tail
water pond. During off-peak hours, this water is pumped back to head water pond.
Reversible turbines are used in these units so that the same unit can run as turbine for
power generation and also as pump for pumping water.

Classification of Turbines:

(a) According to the action of water:

(i) Impulse turbines

(ii) Reaction turbines.

(b) According to the direction of flow:

(i) Radial outwards

(ii) Radial inwards

(iii) Axial flow

(iv) Mixed flow.

(c) Position of shaft:

(i) Horizontal

(ii) Vertical.

Following are the impulse turbines:

(i) Pelton wheel

(ii) Girard wheel

(iii) Jonal turbine

(iv) Banki turbine

(v) Turgo turbine.

Following are the reaction turbines:

(i) Fourneyron turbine

(ii) Francis turbine

(iii)Thomson turbine

(iv) Kaplan turbine

(v) Propeller turbine.

Performance of hydro turbine Turbines commonly used in hydro-power stations are Pelton
wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. The relative performance of these turbines is
shown in the figure.
(Performance of Hydro Turbine)

Some terms associated with hydro-electric power plants are given below:

(a) Spillways , Hydro Spillways of hydroelectric

power plant :
A spill way provides discharge of surplus water from storage reservoir into the river down
stream side of the dam. It is a sort of safety valve for the dam.

(b) Run off of hydroelectric power plant :

A run off is that portion of precipitation which makes its way towards stream, lakes or
oceans. Run off is possible only when the rate of precipitation is more than the rate of water
infiltration into the sub-oil.

(c) Hydrograph of hydroelectric power plant :

Hydrograph is a graphical representation between discharge and time. It shows the variation
of flow with time.

(d) Unit hydrograph of hydroelectric power

plant :
Unit hydrograph is a hydrograph with a volume of 1 cm (or meter) of run-off resulting from a
rainfall of specified duration and a real pattern.

(e) Flow duration curve of hydroelectric power

plant :
It is a plot of flow available during a period against percentage of time.

(f) Mass curve of hydroelectric power plant :

Mass curve is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from stream flow
versus time in days, weeks or months.

(g) Run of the river plant without pondage :

These plants do not have facilities for storage of water. Flowing water of the stream is used
for generating power.

(h) Run of the river plant with pondage :

The utility of a run off the river plant is enhanced by providing storage facilities for water.
Such plants can be operated even during off season when the flow of water in the river
declines.

Trash rack of hydroelectric power plant :

Trash rack is provided at the inlet end of penstock on the dam to prevent entry of debris
which might damage the wicket gates and turbine runners. These are made of steel bars.

Forebay of hydroelectric power plant:

This is a regulating reservoir used to store water temporarily when the load on the plant is
reduced. The water from forebay can be used when the load on the turbine increases.
Surge tank of hydroelectric power plant :
Surge tank is provided usually on medium and high head plants. As the load on the turbine
decreases the surge tanks acts as a reservoir for holding water. Also pressure variations
due to rapid changes of flow of water are taken care of by the surge tanks.

Penstock of hydroelectric power plant :

Penstock is a conduit for conveying water from storage to the turbines. Generally steel pipes
are used for this purpose.

Runway speed of hydroelectric power plant :

It is the maximum speed at which a turbine wheel would run under the worst conditions of
operation (with all gates open allowing maximum flow of water under maximum head).

Governor of hydroelectric power plant:

Governor is a device used on turbines to regulate the flow of water in proportion to the load
on the plant so that constant turbine speed may be maintained.

Draft tube of hydroelectric power plant:

Draft tube a pipe work installed at the turbine discharge to permit a negative or suction head
to be established at the runner exit so that turbine can be installed above the tail race. It
also converts a large proportion of the velocity energy rejected from the runner into useful
pressure head i.e., it acts as recuperator of pressure energy.

Cavitation of hydroelectric power plant:

Cavitation is the formation of bubbles or cavities when the pressure in any part of the
turbine drops below the vapour pressure cavitation causes pitting of metal surfaces.

Gas turbine power plant :

A gas turbine power plant consists of a rotary multistage compressor, generally of axial flow
type, in which air or working substance is compressed. Compressed air flows to the
combustion chamber where fuel is burnt, thereby raising the temperature of the working
substance. The high pressure, high temperature working substance expands in a turbine
producing mechanical power. Turbine in turn drives a generator for producing electrical
energy. A gas turbine works on Brayton cycle.
Simple Gas Turbine Cycle:

(Gas Turbine cycle modified for higher efficiency)

Improving efficiency of simple Brayton cycle

The efficiency of simple Brayton cycle can be improved by

(i) Use of heat exchanger between compressor delivery and combustion chamber,
utilizing heat of exhaust gases;

(ii) Use of two stage expansion with re-heating;

(iii) Use of multistage compression with inter-cooling.

A gas turbine using atmospheric air as working medium is known as open cycle gas turbine.
In closed cycle gas turbine the working substance is recirculated and it does not come into
direct contact with atmospheric air. A fluid with better thermodynamic properties can be
used as working substance in such turbines.

Gas turbines can run on gaseous, liquid as well as solid fuels. As compared to a steam
turbine, it does not require condenser and associated bulky cooling arrangements. Gas
turbines operate on lower pressures as compared to steam turbines hence stress on various
parts is less.

For starting a gas turbine enough power is required to drive the compressor which is nearly
30 to 40% of the normal output.

Sometimes gas turbines are used in combination with steam cycle where exhaust heat of
the gas turbine is used in boiler for steam cycle.

Nuclear Power Stations :

These convert nuclear energy into

electrical energy.
Nuclear power reactor :

Nuclear power reactor is basically that part of nuclear power plant where energy released
as a result of nuclear fission of radioactive material is utilized to heat the coolant which may
in turn generate steam or be used in a gas turbine. The nuclear reactor may thus be
regarded as a substitute for the boiler fire box of steam plant or combustion chamber or a
gas turbine plane. The steam or the gas may be used as working fluid in nuclear power
plant. The nuclear power plant may be of steam driven turbine or gas driven turbine as per
the choice of the fluid.

The following functions are associated with the working of nuclear reactor:

(i) Producing a chain reacting or critical system,

(ii) Controlling the level of power release from the system,

(iii) Using spare neutrons to convert fertile into fissile material,

(iv) Protecting personnel from harmful radiations emanating from the core.
(Nuclear Power Station)

The purpose of the moderator in the reactor core is to moderate or reduce the neutron
speeds to a value that increased the probability of Fission occurring. The moderator is a
material having low atomic number and small neutron absorption cross-section which slows
down the fast neutron by elastic collision. Three commonly used moderators are:

(i) Graphite

(ii) Heavy water

(iii) Beryllium.
A control rod in a nuclear power reactor is used to initiate the nuclear chain reaction when
starting the reactor from cold; and to maintain the chain reaction at a steady value during
the operation of the reactor. Also control rod shuts down the reactor automatically under
emergency conditions. All this is being done without melting of fuel rods disintegration of
coolant and destructive of reactor as the amount of energy released is enormous.

The materials used for control rods must have very high absorption capacity for, neutrons.
The commonly used materials for control rod are:

Cadmium, boron

Three different types of fuel used in nuclear reactors are:

(i) Uranium 92 U 235

(ii) Secondary Uranium 92 U 235

(iii) Plutonium 92 U 235

Classification of nuclear reactors :

Nuclear reactors may be classified on the basis of neutron energies as follows:

1. Fast Nuclear reactors :

Here fusion occurs with high energy neutrons, in the absence of moderator.

2. Intermediate reactors :
With the use of some moderator, the reactors are known as intermediate reactors.

3. Thermal Reactors :
When the energy of neutrons is reduced to low electron voltages i.e. thermal range, the
reactors are known as thermal reactors.
On the basis of fuel reproduction characteristics, the nuclear reactors may be classified as

A. Non regenerative type Nuclear Reactors :

These reactors do not create an appreciable amount of replacement fuel as the fuel is
burned. Reactors using highly enriched fuel containing 90% or more of U 235 in the fuel are of
non-regenerative type.

B. Regenerative type :
In these reactors fuel is slightly enriched. These reactors do not replace the used fuel fully.

C. Heterogeneous reactors :
Here fuel is in the form of rods, plates and is placed in the matrix of moderator.

D. Fast Breeder reactor :

These reactors use highly enriched uranium or plutonium as fuel. A small core of few cubic
meters is sufficient to give a heat output of about 100 MW. The core is surrounded by a
blanket or ordinary fertile Uranium 238 or thorium which can be converted to fissile
plutonium or Uranium 233, It is possible to get more new atoms of fissile material in the
blanket than are destroyed by fission in the core. Such a reactor is known as breeders type.
The major problem in such reactors is the removal of from the core. Liquid sodium is used
as the coolant. A primary and secondary coolant circuit is used to transfer heat. Foolproof
arrangements are incorporated to guard against the failure of coolant circuit. Even a
momentary stoppage of the blow of coolant will result in disastrous rise in temperature.

(Fast Breeder Reactor)

Terms associated with nuclear reactions are given below :

Reflector in nuclear reactor:

In order to keep the size of the reactor small, and hence the amount of the fashionable
material, it is necessary to conserve the neutrons. For this purpose the reactor core is
surrounded by a material which reflects the escaping neutrons back into the core. This
material is known as reflector.

Shielding in nuclear reactor:

The intensity of gamma and neutron radiation coming from the reactor core is far greater
than the human body can tolerate. Hence it is necessary to surround the reactor with a
shielding material to reduce the radiation intensity to the levels which are not harmful to
personnel.