Chapter 1: Biological Molecules

1. (a)
. Cellulose as structural compound.
. Made up of long chain of -glucose.
. Unbranched chains run parallel to each other.
. Have cross-linkages that give stability and strength.
. Insoluble in water
. Fibres laid in layer in different directions adding further strength.

(Max 4)
. Starch as storage compound.
. Mixture of amylase and amylopectin.
. Amylase unbranched chain of a-glucose forms helix structure
. Amylopectin branched chain of a-glucose
. Compound stabilised by countless hydrogen bonds.
. Compact and insoluble
. Readily hydrolysed to form sugar when required.

(Max 4)

(b)(i)

The esterification involves the condensation reaction between one molecule of

glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. Three ester bonds are formed to
produce a molecule of triglyceride and three water molecules.

(ii)
. Lecithin is a type of phospholipid molecule consisting of a hydrophilic
head and two hydrophobic tails.
. The cell membrane is made up of two phospholipids layers with the
hydrophilic head on the outside of the bilayer.
. The lecithin bilayer forms a boundary separating the cell contents from
the external environment.
. Being hydrophobic, it is selectively permeable and regulates the
movement of substances across the membrane.

2.
. Polymerisation is the formation of long repeated units of monomer.
. By condensation with the removal of water molecule.
. In cellulose, the monomer unit is -glucose.
. .-glucose linked together by -1,4-glycosidic bonds.

(Any 3)
. The formation of polysaccharides does not involves ribosomes while
formation of polypeptides involves ribosomes.
. The formation of polysaccharides only involves one type of monomer,
which is hexose sugar while polypeptides involves 20 different types of
amino acids.
. The formation of polysaccharides involves the formation of glycosidic
bonds between monomers while polypeptides involves the formation of
peptide bonds between monomers.
. The formation of polysaccharides does not involve DNA/ gene but
polypeptides involves DNA/ gene to code the amino acids sequence.
. The formation of polysaccharides does not involve tRNA & mRNA but
polypeptides involve tRNA & mRNA.
. No transcription & translation occurs in the formation of polysaccharides
but transcription & translation occurs in formation of polypeptides.

(Any 4)

3
. Fibrous proteins do not have tertiary structure, the secondary structure is
the most important but globular proteins have tertiary structure,
quaternary structure may or may not be present.
. In fibrous proteins, polypeptide chains are cross-linked at interval. In
globular proteins, polypeptide chains are tightly folded to form a spherical
shape.
. Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water due to the presence of large
number of hydrophobic R group but globular proteins dissolve in water to
form colloidal solution due to the hydrophilic R groups.
. In fibrous proteins, amino acids sequence may vary slightly. In globular
proteins, amino acid sequence is highly specific between two samples.
. The length of polypeptides in fibrous proteins may vary in two samples
but in globular proteins, they are identical in two samples.
. In fibrous proteins, amino acid sequence is remarkable regular but in
globular proteins, amino acid sequence rarely exhibits regularity.
. Fibrous proteins perform structural function while globular proteins
perform metabolic functions.
. Example of fibrous proteins are keratin and collagen while globular
protein is enzymes.
Chapter 2: Cell Structure

1
(a)(i)
. Collenchyma are living cells that are polygonal in shape and are
elongated.
. They are closely packed with little or no intercellular air space.
. The primary cellulose cell wall are unevenly thickened at the corners with
deposits of cellulose and pectin.
. This structure allows collenchyma acts as a supporting tissue in non-
woody plants.
. It provides mechanical strength yet is flexible.
. Collenchyma tissues can expand and stretch as the young stem grows.

(ii)
. Xylem vessels are formed by vessel elements arranged end to end with
the end walls perforated or broken down.
. These vessels form long continuous tubes for transporting water and
minerals with less friction from the roots to all parts of the plant.
. The cell walls are lignified, allowing mechanical strength and making it
waterproof.
. Water will not seep out and at the same time this prevents xylem from
collapsing due to water tension within.
. When mature, the dead cells have no protoplasm or organelles, leaving
a narrow empty lumen.
. High capillarity in the narrow lumen allows water to be transported
upwards against gravitational pull.
. Pits in the side walls allow lateral movement of water to neighbouring
vessels.

(iii)
. Erythrocytes are biconcave disc-shaped cells in mammals.
. Mature erythrocytes do not have nucleus or organelles.
. This allows more space to pack the respiratory pigment haemoglobin,
enzymes and inorganic salts.
. Haemoglobin allows erythrocytes to function in transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
. It also acts as a buffer in blood, preventing pH changes in blood.
. The thin elastic plasma membrane allows erythrocytes to squeeze
through the fine blood capillaries.

(b)
. The specimen must be dehydrated and thin sliced, which means only
dead specimen can be studied.
. Complex preparation may cause distortion of specimen
. The microscope is large in size and must be operated in special rooms
away from magnetic field.
. Preparation of specimen is time consuming, expensive and requires
technical skills to operate the complex equipment.
2(a)
Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells
Average diameter of cell 0.5 - 5m
Average diameter of cell 10 - 100m
Genetic material is a circular double-
stranded, naked DNA not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane
Genetic material is linear
chromosomes made up of DNA and
histone protein, chromosomes
surrounded by a double nuclear
membrane.
Some bacteria have additional small
circular DNA called plasmids.
No plasmids present
No mitosis or meiosis, division is by
simple binary fission
Mitosis and meiosis occur during cell
division.
No membrane-bound organelles
Membrane-bound organelles present,
for example mitochondrion, vacuole,
ER
Cell wall contains peptidoglycan
Cell wall if present contains cellulose
(plants and algae) or chitin (fungi)
Smaller 70S ribosomes present in
cytoplasm
Larger 80S ribosomes present either
freely in cytoplasm or bound to ER.
70S ribosomes found only in
mitochondria and chloroplasts
Respiratory enzymes embedded in
the infolding of the plasma
membrane, called mesosome. No
mitochondrion present.
Mitochondrion is respiratory site.
Small flagella, if present contains
flagellin
Flagella, if present has a 9+2
microtubule arrangement

(b)(i)
. Lysosomes are small, spherical single membrane-bound sacs produced
by the Golgi apparatus or directly from ER.
. Filled with concentrated hydrolytic enzymes such as lipase, protease,
DNAase and carbohydrase.
. The contents inside is highly acidic, membrane surrounding lusosome is
resistant to digestion, preventing the release of the hydrolytic enzymes
within the cell.
. Main function: intracellular digestion of food particles swallowed by
phagocytosis.
. Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole, releasing hydrolytic enzymes
into the new secondary lysosome.
. The food particle is digested, the nutrients within are released into
cytoplasm to be utilised.
. Lysosome also fuses with vacuoles containing non-functional organelles,
called autophagy.
. In phagocytic leucocytes/macrophage, lysosome fuses with phagocytic
vacuoles, digesting and breaking down the pathogen trapped.
. In old and worn out cells, lysosome ruptures inside the cells releasing all
hydrolytic enzymes into the cell, the whole cell is digested, called
autolysis.

(ii)
. Ribosomes are spherical, non-membranous granular organelles.
. Composed of RNA and protein.
. Each ribosome is made up of a large subunit and a small subunit
synthesised in the nucleus.
. The subunits move out through the nuclear pores where they combine to
form a functioning unit in cytoplasm during protein synthesis.
. Contains binding sites for mRNA and tRNA, the ribosome moves along
the mRNA strand to translate the genetic code into a sequence of amino
acids during protein synthesis.
. Ribosomes are either attached to ER forming rough ER or are found free
in cytoplasm.
. Ribosomes attached to ER synthesis proteins to be transported out of the
cell through exocytosis.
. Free cytoplasmic ribosomes synthesis proteins for intercellular use.

3. - Cell fractionation technique is used to separate and isolate organelles in

a cell so
that they can be studied separately.
- A fresh liver tissue is first cut up in a cold, isotonic buffer solution.
- Low temperature is maintained to deactivate hydrolytic enzymes released from
vesicles damaged in cell disruption, therefore minimising self-digestion of orga
nelles.
- The isotonic solution prevents damage to the shape and size of organelles caus
ed
by osmosis.
- Buffer is used to maintain the pH and to prevent any denaturation of the prote
in
enzymes released.
- The tissues fragments are then homogenised in a blender to rupture the cells a
nd
release the contents.
- The suspension is called homogenate is filtered using muslin cloth to remove l
arge
cell debris.
- The filtrate is then placed in an ultracentrifuge chamber and centrifuged at d
ifferent
speeds and length of time. The organelles are separated according to their size
and
density.
- At the lower speed of 800g, the largest cell organelle, nucleus is fractionate
d after
10 minutes, the nuclei sediment forms the first pellet.
- The suspension called supernatant with the remaining organelles is centrifuged
at
increasing higher speeds and longer times.
- The mitochondrion and lysosome are isolated at 10000g after 15 min.
- Next, the fragments of the membrane and endoplasmic reticulum are centrifuged
out at 100000 g after one hour.
- Finally, the smallest organelles like ribosome will sediment after 3 hours at
150000g.
Chapter 3: Plasma membrane

No.
Answer
1. (i)
. Diffusion is the net movement of solute/ solvent molecules down a
concentration gradient while osmosis is the net movement of water
molecules down the water potential gradient.
. In diffusion, membrane may or may not be present while osmosis
involves a partially permeable membrane (permeable to water but not
solute molecules)

(ii)
. In phagocytosis, material taken into cell is in solid form while in
pinocytosis, material taken into cell is in liquid form.
. Phagocytosis is a selective process, where cell can discriminate between
particles taken into the cell and those not taken into cell. Pinocytosis is
not selective process where substances dissolve in surrounding medium
will be taken into cell.
. In phagocytosis, particles are taken into cells by invagination of
membrane or by pseudopodia. In pinocytosis, liquid is taken into cell by
invagination of membrane.

(iii)
. Molecular size of the substance
. Solubility of the substance in lipid
. Charge on the particles of the substance

2. (a)
(b)
. The biological cell membrane acts as barrier and are selectively
permeable.
. The membrane consists of a fluid bilayer of phospholipids and various
protein molecules embedded in it. Some of these protein molecules act
as ion channels, carrier proteins or pumps.
. The phospholipid bilayer has a hydrophobic middle region made up of
hydrophobic fatty acids tails.
. The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to very small uncharged
molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide, steroid based hormones, fatty
acids and alcohol.
. Simple diffusion of water molecules across the semi-permeable
membrane is called osmosis.
. Some integral membrane proteins form hydrophilic ion channels. This
allows diffusion of various charged ions, eg K+, Na+, Ca2+ and HCO3-
down their concentration gradient.
. Some of these ion protein channels can open or close called the gated
channels, eg voltage-gated channels and ligand-gated channel.
. Other large size hydrophilic molecules such as glucose are transported
across the plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion using a protein
carrier molecules.
. In facilitated diffusion, the binding of substances to the specific protein
carrier causes the carrier to change its shape and the substance is
released into the cell.
. Transport protein on the cell membrane can also transport substances
across the cell membrane against the concentration gradient through
active transport.
. In active transport, the shape of protein carrier changes using ATP
energy.
. Exocytosis and endocytosis are active transport processes that move
material in bulk across the cell membrane.
. Exocytosis involves the transport of substances out of the cell in bulk
through the fusion of vesicle membrane with the cell membrane.
. In endocytosis, the bulk substances is transported into the cell through
the invagination of the cell membrane.
. Pinocytosis occurs when the cell membrane invaginates to actively
transport a small amount of fluid into the cell.
. In receptor-mediated endocytosis, ligand (cholesterol molecules) bind to
specific receptors in coated pits on cell membrane.
. all these structures and its related process enable the cell membrane to
function as semipermeable membrane as well as enable the cell
membrane to regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell

3.
*Any 4
Chapter 4: Enzymes

1.
. The active site of an enzyme is flexible.
. And not exactly complementary / fit to the shape of substrate.
. The active site of an enzyme can be modified when it interacts with
substrate.
. The active site changes its shape slightly as the substrate enters.
. The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely
bound and final shape is determined.
. Making the fit more precise.
. These structural changes may help to stabilise the transition state.
. When the substrate binds to the enzyme, it forms an enzyme-substrate
complex.
. The substrate is then converted to products.
. The products are released from the active site.
. The enzyme returns to its original conformation.

2.
3.
(a)

(b)
Chapter 5: Respiration

1. (a)

. NADH and FADH2 (produced during glycolysis, the link reaction and the
Krebs cycle) transfer the hydrogen atoms to specific carriers on the inner
membrane of mitochondrion.
. The hydrogen atoms passed along carriers and then split into protons
(H+) and electrons along the pathway.
. The electrons are passed from one carrier to another along the electron
transport chain at progressively lower energy levels, thus energy is
released.
. Energy released is used to synthesis ATP.
. 3 ATP are produced for every NADH and 2 ATP for every FADH2 that
enter the electron transport chain.

(b)
Similarities
. The pyruvate formed in both plants and animal cells undergo further
reactions and do not accumulate in the cells.
. Both reactions oxidise NADH and NAD+ is regenerated.

Differences:
. In plant cells, pyruvate forms ethanol while in animal cells, pyruvate forms
lactate.
. In plant cells, pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation to release carbon
dioxide while in animal cells, pyruvate does not undergo decarboxylation,
no carbon dioxide is released.
. Plant cells involve pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase
while animal cells involves lactate dehydrogenase.
2.
(a)

(b)
3.
Chapter 6: Photosynthesis

1(a)

(b)
Rate of photosynthesis
2.(a)

guard cell

(b)
3.(a)

(b)

(c)
4.

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

5.(a)
(b)
6.(a)
(b)
7.
8.(a)

(b)
9.