CHAPTER 6: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN BUSINESS ETHICS

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
To explain the importance of identifying gender issues in organization
To understand organizational approaches towards handling gender differences
To examine work life conflict in organizations
To understand how to balance the family and work life
To discuss organizational and individual consequences of failure of family to work
life balance
6.1 Gender and Ethics
As economies develop and businesses become more interdependent across the globe, the
potential for ethical or moral problems that have to be addressed by management has been
increasing. Such managerial dilemmas result from the need to maintain a right or proper
or justice balance between economic performance and social performance (Hosmer, 1996).
Todays business organizations operate in an environment that is characterized by an
unprecedented level of
complexity,
intense worldwide competition,
Social obligations for a vast variety of constituencies.
Managers may use three types of analysis in determining the right, proper, justice
balance between economic and social performance: economic analysis, legal analysis, and
philosophic ethical analysis (Hosmer, 1996).
Economic analysis focuses on market forces, revenue maximization and cost minimization
whereas legal analysis is based on impersonal social and political processes and assumes that
in a democracy laws represent the collective moral judgment of members of a society and
must always be obeyed. Although useful, both analyses have serious theoretical and practical
shortcomings.
Philosophic, ethical analysis is also associated with some problems, but perhaps not as
serious as in the other two types of analysis.
Philosophic, ethical analysis is based on rational thought processes, moral reasoning. In
this view, a manager should have a single principle of behavior or a single statement of belief
that is right and proper and justice in and by itself. Such a principle will guide the
decision maker through a decision on the duties we owe to others.
More important than ever, managers today must be able to address moral, ethical dilemmas
that result from an imbalance between economic and social performance. In addition to
understanding the economic and legal aspects, managers must develop a thorough
understanding of how to conduct a philosophical, ethical analysis. Although some progress in
this area has been made during the past decade, due in part to the widely publicized ethical
scandals of well-known and well-respected corporations, managers today are generally least
prepared for this type of analysis.
In todays economically advanced countries, women constitute about fifty percent of the
workforce (Blau et al., 2002). Furthermore, an increasing number of women are represented
in management. For instance, in the United States (U.S.) thirty to forty percent of managerial
positions are held by women (Blau et al., 2002). Although ethical decision-making has
emerged as a critical issue in both the academic and popular press (e.g., Jones, 1991; Labich,
1992; Paine, 1994), research that considers the role of gender in perceptions of ethical
decision-making is in its early stages (e.g., Akaah, 1989; Schoderbeck and Deshpande, 1996;
Sikula and Costa, 1994).
This research is descriptive and identifies gender differences in ethical decision-making but
does not provide theoretical underpinnings for these findings (e.g., Ford and Richardson,
1994; Serwinek, 1992; Tsalikis and Fritzsche, 1989). The ethics literature, hence, provides an
answer to whether gender differences exist, rather than to why such differences might occur.
In general, the results of the existing research show that women tend to be more ethical than
men (e.g., Betz et al., 1989; Glover et al., 2002; Lane, 1995; Whipple and Swords, 1992).
Several theories have been proposed to explain gender differences in a variety of traits. With
respect to gender differences related to ethical perceptions in business decisions, the literature
implies that the following three considerations may be most useful to understanding such
differences: socialization and moral development, the specific ethical perspective employed
such as teleological versus deontological versus relativism versus justice, and the moral
intensity of the situation. This study explores the relevance of these factors to gender
differences in business ethics by focusing on two ethical perspectives, relativism and justice,
and three situations with different levels of moral intensity. The results of this study will
further our understanding of the philosophical, ethical analysis of managerial dilemmas.
Specifically, new insights will be provided on how and why ethical perceptions between men
and women may differ which in turn will improve communication effectiveness and
understanding between male and female managers who work side by side.
 Both sexes at every employment level can examine and improve their workplace ethics.
However, if you are in a position to mould and enforce company values, you must mobilize
ethical workplace codes and create systems that reward the right business practices. Gilligan
concluded that women are not inferior (or superior) in their moral development, but different,
because we focus on connections with others and lean toward exercising an ethic of care
over an ethic of mere justice. It is this unique difference that we should utilize and integrate
into our workplace interactions. Women have spent decades proving their business abilities,
so we should now take a pledge to hone our ethics skills:
Going forward we can and will set strong ethical standards at the corporate table.
Ethics will be on the table in every sales meeting, production meeting, safety meeting,
and boardroom meeting.
We can and will look hard at ourselves and be open to ongoing critique. We will seek
feedback about ourselves from those we like as well as those who we may or may not
like but have something tough but good to tell us.
We will look at our everyday decisions in terms of their consequences on ourselves
and/or others and celebrate those moments when we or our colleagues did the right
thing even if it meant not attaining something we wanted, including immediate
profits.
We will remember that attaining ethical behavior is a journey of a lifetime.
6.2 FAMILY AND WORK-LIFE
Work-life conflict is prevalent. It is estimated that more than one quarter employees around
the world suffered from some form of work-family conflict.
6.2.1 Work-life conflict and health
Work-family conflict may be viewed as a stressor for individuals. Research has established
and documented that conflict between the work and family domains has a number of
significant negative consequences for individuals. Research has observed work-life conflict
to be associated with a myriad of indicators of poor health and impaired wellbeing including:
poorer mental and physical health;
less life satisfaction;
higher levels of stress;
higher levels of emotional exhaustion;
less physical exercise;
higher likelihood to engage in problem drinking;
 increased anxiety and depression levels;
poor appetite and;
Both work to family conflict and family to work conflict are associated with negative effects
for the individual. Frone and colleagues conducted a study examining the relationship of
work to family conflict, and family to work conflict on health outcomes. The results indicated
that both are associated with depression, poor physical health and heavy alcohol use. No
significant gender differences were found in this study. Kossek and Ozeki found that both
directions of work-family conflict have negative relationships with job-life satisfaction.
Additionally, this relationship was stronger for women. Canivet and colleagues found that
work to family conflict and family to work had a strong relationship with exhaustion in a
Swedish sample. While work-family conflict was more prevalent in men, it had a stronger
association with exhaustion in women. Rupert, Stenvanovic and Hunley examined the
relationships between work-family conflict and burnout in a group of practicing
psychologists. Their results indicated that both work to family conflict and family to work
conflict are significantly related to burnout. Specifically, conflict is related to lower personal
accomplishment, greater emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation. However, no gender
differences were found.
Levels of work-life conflict have also been associated with workaholism. Bonebright, Clay
and Ankenmann examined the differences between two typologies of workaholics in relation
to work-life conflict, life satisfaction and purpose in life. Enthusiastic workaholics and non-
enthusiastic workaholics may be defined as those who exhibit high work involvement and a
high drive to work; with the former differing in high enjoyment in work, and the later
reporting low enjoyment of work. The study found both types of workaholism report higher
levels of work-life conflict, but enthusiastic workaholics have more life satisfaction and
purpose in life16.
These studies provide evidence for the negative consequences experienced by the individual
as a result of work-family conflict. However, there are disparities on whether or not gender
differences exist. In their recent literature review, Rose and colleagues concluded that while
both genders experience negative consequences, the relationships are stronger in women.
Not only does work-family conflict cause problems for individuals, but it is also detrimental
to organizations.
6.3 WORKS-LIFE CONFLICT AND ORGANISATIONAL OUTCOMES
There can be many knock on effects for organisations in many areas as a result of employees
experiencing work-family conflict. Work-life conflict has been found to be associated with:
decreased employee job satisfaction;
increased staff turnover and absenteeism;
Lower performance and increased job stress levels; and intention to leave the
organisation.
For example, Price water house Cooper implemented a number of work-life balance
initiatives. They have been able to provide workers with increased control over where, when
and how they work. As a result satisfaction scores for staffs work-life balance increased by
30%.