Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng.

, IoT Hawassa University

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition

A bridge is a structure which carries uninterrupted flow of traffic across any obstacle like,
river or any water body, deep gorges or valleys etc. A fly-over is a structure which
allows traffic over any other traffic flow or conveyance system below it. A viaduct is also
synonymous to a bridge. An aqueduct is a water channel over any traffic flow or
obstacle like water stream or deep gorge below it.

1.2 Components of a bridge

The main parts of a bridge structure are,

(a) Decking, consisting of deck slab, girders, trusses, handrails, parapets, guard
stones etc.,
(b) Bearings for the decking,
(c) Abutments, wing walls and piers,
(d) Foundations for the abutments and the piers,
(e) River training works, like revetment for slopes for embankment at abutments and
(f) Approaches to the bridge to connect the bridge proper to the roads on either side.

The components above the level of bearings are grouped as superstructure, while the
parts below the bearing level and above the foundation are classed as substructure. The
portion below the bed level of the river is called the foundation.

Post Railing Guard

Rail

Eart
h fill Approac
Bearin Deck h slab
g

Pie Shelf
r Abutme
Water level nt

Bed
level of Foundatio
River n

1.3 Classification

Bridges can be classified in many ways as below:

(a) According to function as aqueduct, viaduct, pedestrian, highway, railway, road
cum railway bridge
(b) According to the material of construction of superstructure as timber, masonry,
steel, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, composite bridge

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
(c) According to the form or type of superstructure as slab, girder, truss, arch, cable
stayed or suspension bridge
(d) According to the inter-span relations as simple, continuous or cantilever bridge
(e) According to the position of the bridge floor relative to the superstructure as deck,
through, half through and suspended bridges
(f) According to the road level relative to the highest flood level of the river below,
particularly for the highway bridge, as high level or submersible bridge
(g) According to the method of clearance for navigation as high-level, movable-
bascule, movable swing or vertical lift type of bridge
(h) According to the length of the bridge as culvert (less than 6 m), minor bridge (6 m
to 60 m), major bridge (above 60 m), or long span bridge when the main span of
the major bridge is above 120 m.
(i) According to the degree of redundancy as determinate or indeterminate bridge
(j) According to the anticipated type of service and duration of use as permanent,
temporary, military bridge
(k) According to the alignment of the super structure with the formation of the river or
gorge as straight bridge or skew bridge.

1.4 Selection of bridge site

It may not be possible always to have a wide choice of sites for a bridge. This is
particularly so in case of bridge in urban areas and flyovers. For river bridges in rural
areas, usually a wider choice may be available.

For selection of a suitable site for a bridge, the investigating engineer should make a
reconnaissance survey for about one km on the upstream side and one km on the down
stream side of the proposed bridge site and should journey along the road for about one
km on either side of the road from the bridge site in order to form the best suited and
economical alignment of the road with the suitable bridge site by considering the
topographical features and soil conditions. To the extent possible, it is desirable to align
the bridge at right angles to the river, i.e. to provide a square crossing, which facilitates
minimum span length, deck area and pier lengths, with accompanying economies.
Further, a square crossing involves simpler designs and detailing. Sometimes, a skew
crossing which is inclined to the center line of the river at an angle different from a right
angle has to be provided in order to avoid costly land acquisition or sharp curves on the
approaches. A skew bridge usually poses more difficulties in design, construction and
maintenance.

Following are the factors to be carefully considered while selecting the ideal site for a
proposed bridge.
1. Connection with roads: The bridge site shall be such that, as far as possible, the
roads leading to the bridge on either side may have a shorter component along
the obstruction. The bed of approaches connecting ends of bridge with the roads
should be dry and hard. The approaches at the ends of the bridge site should be
such that they do not involve heavy expenditure.
2. Firm embankments: Firm high and solid embankments at the abutment sides
could guard the bridge at the time of heavy floods and they do not allow the
course of river to alter.
3. Foundations: The nature of the soil at the bridge site should be such that good,
proper and economical foundation can be provided for the bridge

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
4. Material and labor: Material and labor shall be available at a least possible
expense at the site.
5. Square crossing: Square crossing is preferred as the advantage has been stated
earlier.
6. Straight stretch of river: Straight stretch of river ensures smooth and uniform flow
of water with out any whirling. This does not cause much disturbance during
construction and also does not cause much problems of maintenance.
7. Velocity of flow of water: It is better if the bridge site is so selected that the
velocity of water flow is to the acceptable limit to avoid scouring and silting.
8. Width of the river: It is quite evident that the width of river indicates length of the
bridge. It is desirable to have minimum width of river at the bridge site. The
smaller the width of river, the cheaper will be the bridge construction cost.

1.5 Economic considerations to be made for bridge design

Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be selected with due consideration of
projected cost. The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the
bridge should be considered. Regional factors, such as availability of material,
fabrication, location, shipping, and erection constraints, shall be considered.
If data for the trends in labor and material cost fluctuation are available, the effect of
such trends should be projected to the time the bridge will likely be constructed. Cost
comparisons of structural

alternatives should be based on long-range considerations, including inspection,

maintenance, repair, and/or replacement. Lower first cost does not necessarily lead to
lowest total cost.

1.6 General design requirements (from ERA design manual)

Free (clear) opening is the face-to-face distance between supported components.

It shall be measured perpendicular to the supports. If the supports are not parallel, the
free opening is the least distance between them, see Figure 1-1.
Total (overall) bridge length is the distance between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
It shall be measured parallel to the alignment between the rear ends of the wingwalls or
abutments.
Span length should be:
For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not exceed
clear span plus thickness of slab.
For members that are not built integrally with their supports: the clear span plus the
depth of the member but need not exceed the distance between centers of supports.
Span length should give the placing of the piers regardless of type or dimensions
selected at a later stage.
It is normally measured at the alignment and given as stations.
Theoretical span length is the distance between the center of bearings. At the
abutments or at special wide piers it will be better to give the dimension from face to
face of the pier or abutment front wall.

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University

Span length Alignment of Road

Free opening

Overall length of bridge

MINIMUM DIMENSIONS
The minimum dimensions listed in table below (As specified in ERA manual) shall be used
in bridge design and construction.

Component Dimension
Footing depth 0.25 m
Stem and Head wall/ballast wall of abutment thickness 0.25 m
Bearing shelf of abutment or pier 0.40 m
Wingwall thickness 0.20 m
Pier columns in water, thickness 0.50 m
Pier walls thickness 0.30 m
Concrete deck depth, excluding any provision for grinding 175 mm
and sacrificial surface
Concrete deck for pedestrians bridge 150 mm
Width of Edge beam of bridge deck 350 mm
Depth of Edge beam of bridge deck 400 mm
Thickness at the crown of arch barrels of stone masonry 500 mm

WIDTH OF BRIDGE DECK

The width is to be measured between the inside of the railings or the curbs.
Total width of bridge is defined as the distance between the inside of the outer railings
including walkways, island/refuge and similar. If the width will vary along the bridge all
dimensions should be given.
A listing of bridge configurations and corresponding widths are given in the following
table.

Application Width
(m)
Two-lane in urban 10.30
area

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
Two-lane in rural area 7.30
Single Lane 4.20
Pedestrian Overpass 3.0
Table of Bridge Widths

The dimensions of 7.30m for a two-lane bridge are based on trucks with widths of 2.6m
meeting, providing 0.7m clearance between vehicles and at the sides, the greater
clearance allowing a higher average speed.
At higher design speed, and/or in the vicinity of densely populated areas, a bridge
allowing for the shoulder width should be considered. Here the bridge width becomes
10.30 meters (7.30 meters plus 2 x 1.5 m shoulders). This allows for opposing trucks
and pedestrians to meet safely. This width is recommended for bridges nearer than 5 km
to a town/village of at least 10,000 inhabitants.
All dimensions are valid regardless of the length of the bridge, due to safety reasons.
For pedestrian overpasses, the minimum width is 3.0 m, which can accommodate three
pedestrians, or a bicycle and a pedestrian in width.

PEDESTRIAN LANE WIDTHS

Segregated pedestrian lane (footway) protected by a barrier (railing) with end treatment
having protection for both pedestrians and vehicles shall not be less than 1.5 m wide. To
be safe, a pedestrian walkway should permit two pedestrians to meet comfortably, which
translates to 2 x 0.6 m width plus 0.3m clearance equals 1.5m. For safety considerations,
the height of the railings along the footways shall be 1.5m by means of a top rail made
of steel pipes.

FREE BOARD HEIGHT

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and
the floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of
sedimentation under or downstream of the bridge. Therefore, the freeboard above the
design water level should not be less than the values given in the table below. For
arched structures, the clearance shall be measured at the quarter points of the span.
The clear height of roads shall normally be 5.1 meters for underpasses. Light
superstructures (i.e. timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc) above roadways shall have
a clearance height of at least 5.3 m.

Discharge Q (m3/s) Vertical clearance (m)

0 - 3.0 0.3
3.0 - 30.0 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
300 1.2
Vertical Clearance at Design Flood Level (DFL)

Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles should not be less than 2.4 m height. For
cattle and wildlife underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual
kind of animal plus 0.5 m and for horse-riding the clear height should not be less than
3.4 m. Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1 m - if not
otherwise stated - to facilitate future electrification.

CROSSFALL
For adequate dewatering while minimizing the use of materials for the bridge deck, a
crossfall of 2% (1 to 50), as well as longitudinal slope/grade of 1% (1 to 100), should be

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
provided. Sometimes this is not achievable at transitions to skews. In these cases a close
cooperation with the road designer should be established in order to find an acceptable
solution.

DEFLECTION
In the absence of other criteria, the following deflection limits shall be considered for
concrete, and/or steel construction:

Vehicular load, general ...................................................... Span/500

Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads...................................... Span/800
Vehicular load on cantilever arms....................................... Span/300
Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads on cantilever arms........ Span/400
Uplift of a free end of the bridge deck .. 5 mm.

(ex:. A span of 16.4m may not deflect more than 16400/500=32mm, due to vehicular
loads)

DESIGN WORKING LIFE

Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be designed for 100 years working life. Concrete
and Steel culverts with an opening or diameter less than 2.0 m and all timber bridges
shall be designed for 50 years working life.

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar