Computers, Culture, and Philosophy

ismsof
Philosophy
Justification

Weve had an interesting array of readings

and articles about the history of computing
and I can see by your research proposals
that you might benefit by getting to know
some of the philosophic lenses through
which you can observe your topics. Here
are some possible contributions from the
discipline of Philosophy that you might be
able to use in your work.
Philosophy
Being...
The study of general
problems concerning matters
such as existence, knowledge,
truth, beauty, justice, validity,
mind, and language.
Philosophy
Philosophy is distinguished
from other ways of addressing
these questions (such as
mysticism or mythology) by its
critical, generally systematic
approach and its reliance on
reasoned argument.
Philosophy
The word philosophy is of
Ancient Greek origin:
(philosopha),
meaning "love of wisdom.
Absolutism
The position that in a particular domain of
thought, all statements in that domain are
either absolutely true or absolutely false:
none is true for some cultures or eras while
false for other cultures or eras. These
statements are called absolute truths. A
common reaction by those who newly
criticize absolutism is the absolute truth
statement: Absolute truths do not exist.
Accidentalism
Any system of thought which denies the causal
nexus and maintains that events succeed one
another haphazardly or by chance (not in the
mathematical but in the popular sense). In
metaphysics, accidentalism denies the doctrine
that everything occurs or results from a definite
cause. In this connection it is synonymous with
Tychism (ruxi, chance), a term used by Charles
Sanders Peirce for the theories which make
chance an objective factor in the process of the
Universe.
Aestheticism
Proponents of aestheticism hold that art
does not have any didactic purpose, it need
only be beautiful. Life should copy Art. The
main characteristics of the movement are:
suggestion rather than statement,
sensuality, massive use of symbols, and
synaesthetic effects - that is,
correspondence between words, colors and
music.
Altruism
The belief that people have a moral
obligation to serve others or the "greater
good"; term coined by Auguste Comte.
Generally opposed to self-interest or
egoism.
Anarchism
In politics, any of a number of views
and movements that advocate the
elimination of rulership or
government. Other than being
opposed to the state, there is no
single defining position that all
anarchists hold.
Animism
"Animism" is most commonly applied to
vitalism, which makes life, or life and mind, the
directive principle in evolution and growth,
holding that life is not merely mechanical but
that there is a directive force which guides
energy without altering its amount. In
discussions of religion, "animism" refers to the
belief in in dwelling souls or spirits, particularly
so-called "primitive" religions which consider
everything to be inhabited by spirits.
Animism
"Animism" is most commonly applied to
vitalism, which makes life, or life and mind, the
directive principle in evolution and growth,
holding that life is not merely mechanical but
that there is a directive force which guides
energy without altering its amount. In
discussions of religion, "animism" refers to the
belief in in dwelling souls or spirits, particularly
so-called "primitive" religions which consider
everything to be inhabited by spirits.
Anthropomorphism
A form of personification (applying human or
animal qualities to inanimate objects) and the
attribution of human characteristics and qualities
to non-human beings, objects, or natural
phenomena. Animals, forces of nature, and
unseen or unknown authors of chance are
frequent subjects of anthropomorphosis. An
example is the attribution of a human body or of
human qualities generally to God (or the gods).
Asceticism
Denotes a life which is characterised by
refraining from worldly pleasures (austerity).
Those who practice ascetic lifestyles often
perceive their practices as virtuous and pursue
them to achieve greater spirituality. In a more
cynical context, ascetic may connote some form
of self-mortification, ritual punishment of the
body or harsh renunciation of pleasure. However
the word certainly does not necessarily imply a
negative connotation.
Atomism
The theory that all the objects in the universe are
composed of very small, indestructible elements.
Buddhists have well-developed theories of
atomism which involve momentary, or non-
eternal, atoms, that flash in and out of existence.
Social Atomism the point-of-view that
individuals rather than social institutions and
values are the proper subject of analysis since all
properties of institutions and values merely
accumulate from the strivings of individuals.
Atomatism
Automatism or Surrealist automatism,
to be more specific, is an artistic
technique of spontaneous writing,
drawing, or the like practiced without
conscious aesthetic or moral self-
censorship.
Behaviourism
Behaviorism (not to be confused with
behavioralism of political science) is an
approach to psychology based on the
proposition that behavior can be researched
scientifically without recourse to inner mental
states. It is a form of materialism, denying any
independent significance for the mind. Its
significance for psychological treatment has
been profound, making it one of the pillars of
pharmacological therapy.
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which all or
most of the means of production are privately
owned and operated (usually through employing
wage labour, and for profit), and in which the
investment of capital and the production,
distribution and prices of commodities and
services are determined mainly in a free market.
Capitalism has also been called laissez-faire
economy, free market economy, free enterprise
system, economic liberalism, and economic
individualism.
Cognitivism
In ethics, cognitivism is the philosophical view
that ethical sentences express propositions, and
hence are capable of being true or false. More
generally, cognitivism with respect to any area
of discourse is the position that sentences used
in that discourse are cognitive, that is, are
meaningful and capable of being true or false.
In psychology, cognitivism is the approach to
understanding the mind which argues that
mental function can be understood as the
'internal' rule bound manipulation of symbols.
Collectivism
A theoretical or practical emphasis on the group,
as opposed to (and seen by many of its opponents
to be at the expense of) the individual.
Collectivists typically hold that that the "greater
good" of the group, is more important than the
good of any particular individual who is one part
of that larger organization. Some collectivists
argue that the individual incidentally serves his
own interests by working for the benefit of the
group.
Collectivism
A theoretical or practical emphasis on the group,
as opposed to (and seen by many of its opponents
to be at the expense of) the individual.
Collectivists typically hold that that the "greater
good" of the group, is more important than the
good of any particular individual who is one part
of that larger organization. Some collectivists
argue that the individual incidentally serves his
own interests by working for the benefit of the
group.
Communalism
Communalism describes a broad range of social
movements and theories which are centered upon
the community. Communalism can take the form
of communal living or communal property, among
others. Communalism is sometimes said to put
the interests of the community above the interests
of the individual, but this is usually only done on
the principle that the community exists for the
benefit of the individuals who participate in it, so
the best way to serve the interests of the
individual is through the interests of the
community.
Communism
A theoretical system of social organization and a
political movement based on common ownership
of the means of production. As a political
movement, communism seeks to establish a
classless society. A major force in world politics
since the early 20th century, modern communism
is generally associated with The Communist
Manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,
according to which the capitalist profit-based
system of private ownership is replaced by a
communist society in which the means of
production are communally owned.
Consequentialism
The belief that what ultimately matters
in evaluating actions or policies of
action are the consequences that result
from choosing one action or policy
rather than the alternative.
Contextualism
Contextualism is a collection of views which
emphasize the context in which an action,
utterance or expression occurs, and argues
that, in some important respect, the action,
utterance or expression can only be understood
within that context. Some philosophers hold
that context-dependence may lead to
relativism; nevertheless, contextualist views are
increasingly popular within philosophy.
Conventionalism
A philosophical attitude that fundamental
principles of a certain kind are grounded on
(explicit or implicit) agreements in society,
rather than on external reality. Although this
attitude is commonly held with respect to the
rules of grammar and the principles of
etiquette, its application to the propositions of
law, ethics, science, mathematics, and logic is
more controversial.
Cynicism
Cynicism was originally the philosophy of a group
of ancient Greeks called the Cynics. Now the word
describes the opinions of those inclined to
disbelieve in human sincerity, in virtue, or in
altruism: individuals who maintain that only self-
interest motivates human behavior. A modern cynic
typically has a highly contemptuous attitude
towards social norms, especially those which serve
more of a ritualistic purpose than a practical one,
and will tend to dismiss a substantial proportion of
popular beliefs, conventional morality and accepted
wisdom as irrelevant or obsolete nonsense.
Deconstructionism
Deconstructionism is a school and a set of methods
of textual criticism which aim at understanding the
assumptions and ideas that form the basis for
thought and belief. Also called "deconstruction", its
central concern is a radical critique of the
metaphysics of the Western philosophical tradition,
in which it identifies a logicentrism or "metaphysics
of presence" which holds that speech-thought (the
logos) is a privileged, ideal, and self-present entity,
through which all discourse and meaning are
derived. This logocentrism is the primary target of
deconstruction.
Defeatism
Defeatism is acceptance and content with defeat
without struggle. In everyday use, defeatism has
negative connotation, and is often linked to treason
and pessimism. The term is commonly used in the
context of war: a soldier can be a defeatist if he or
she refuses to fight because he or she thinks that
the fight will be lost for sure or that it is not worth
fighting for some other reason. The term can also
be used in other fields, like politics, sports,
psychology and philosophy.
Determinism
Determinism is the philosophical proposition
that every event, including human cognition
and behavior, decision and action, is causally
determined by an unbroken chain of prior
occurrences.
Technological
Determinism
Technological determinism is the belief in
technology as a key governing force in
society or the idea that technological
development determines social change. A
determinist view holds that the uses made of
technology are largely determined by the
structure of the technology itself, that is,
that its functions follow from its form.
Dogmatism
An approach to ideas that emphasizes rigid
adherence to doctrine over rational and
enlightened inquiry. The opposite approach
is probably best characterized as rationalism
(in the sense of devotion to clear reasoning
and independent thinking) or, perhaps,
eclecticism.
Dualism
Dualism is a set of beliefs which begins with
the claim that the mental and the physical
have a fundamentally different nature. It is
contrasted with varying kinds of monism,
including materialism and phenomenalism.
Dualism is one answer to the mind-body
problem. Pluralism holds that there are even
more kinds of events or things in the world.
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism is a political doctrine that
holds that all people should be treated as
equals and have the same political,
economic, social, and civil rights. Generally
it applies to being held equal under the law
and society at large. In actual practice, one
may be considered an egalitarian in most
areas listed below, even if not subscribing to
equality in every possible area of individual
difference.
Empiricism
In the philosophy of science, empiricism
emphasizes those aspects of scientific
knowledge that are closely related to
evidence, especially as discovered in
experiments. It is a fundamental part of the
scientific method that all hypotheses and
theories must be tested against observations
of the natural world, rather than resting solely
on intuition, or revelation. Hence, science is
considered to be methodologically empirical
in nature.
Environmentalism
Environmental philosophy articulates a
concern and privileges beliefs in the intrinsic
value of the natural world. Proponents of this
philosophy include Rachel Carson, Al Gore,
and David Suzuki. Earlier, these values were
espoused by Aldo Leopard, who pictured
humans as belonging to, rather than owning
the biotic community and Arne Naess, who
advocated forms of identification with the
non-human world and ecofeminism.
Existentialism
Existentialism is the philosophical movement
that views human existence as having a set of
underlying themes and characteristics, such
as anxiety, dread, freedom, awareness of
death, and consciousness of existing, that are
primary. That is, they cannot be reduced to or
explained by a natural-scientific approach or
any approach that attempts to detach itself
from or rise above these themes.
Expressionism
Expressionism is an aesthetic and artistic
movement that distorted reality for enhanced
or overexaggerated emotional effect. It can
also apply to some literature; the works of
Franz Kafka and Georg Kaiser are often said
to be expressionistic, for example.
Extropianism
Extropianism is an evolving framework of
values and standards for continuously
improving the human condition. Extropianism
describes a pragmatic consilience of
transhuman thought guided by a conscious,
pro-active, self-directed approach to human
evolution and progress. Extropians were once
concisely described as libertarian
transhumanists, and some still hold to this
standard.
Fallibilism
A doctrine that absolute certainty about knowledge
is impossible; or at least that all claims to
knowledge could, in principle, be mistaken. Unlike
scepticism, fallibilism does not imply the need to
abandon our knowledge- we needn't have logically
conclusive justifications for what we know. Rather, it
is an admission that because empirical knowledge
can be revised by further observation, all knowledge,
excepting that which is axiomatically true (such as
mathematical and logical knowledge) exists in a
constant state of flux.
Fatalism
Fatalism is the view that human deliberation and
actions are pointless and ineffectual in determining
events, because whatever will be will be. One ancient
argument, called the idle argument, went like this:
"If it is fated for you to recover from your illness,
then you will recover whether you call a doctor or
not. Likewise, if you are fated not to recover, you
will not do so even if you call a doctor. So, calling a
doctor makes no difference." Arguments like this are
usually rejected even by causal determinists, who
may say that it may be determined that only a doctor
can cure you.
Feminism
Feminism is the belief in the right of women
to have political, social, and economic
equality with men. It is a discourse that
involves various movements, theories, and
philosophies which are concerned with the
issue of gender difference, advocate
equality for women, and campaign for
women's rights and interests.
Formalism
In the study of the arts and literature, formalism
refers to the style of criticism that focuses on artistic
or literary techniques in themselves, in separation
from the work's social and historical context.
In the study of film and film theory, formalism is
used to refer to a style of criticism that focuses on
the technical aspects of filmmaking (e.g., lighting,
sets, costumes, etc.). It was also used to describe an
avant-garde experimental film movement, often
seen as odd or extremist, which was concerned with
the beauty of the actual physical form of film (i.e.,
the celluloid itself).
Freudianism
Freudianism is the beliefs and practice of
psychoanalysis as devised by Sigmund
Freud; particularly, the mechanism of
psychological repression; the situation of
sexual desire as central to the development
of the persona; and the efficacy of the
"talking cure" or psychoanalytic technique.
Functionalism
Functionalism is the dominant theory of
mental states in modern philosophy.
Functionalism was developed as an answer
to the mind-body problem because of
objections to both identity theory and logical
behaviourism. Its core idea is that the
mental states can be accounted for without
taking into account the underlying physical
medium (the neurons), instead attending to
higher-level functions such as beliefs,
desires, and emotions.
Hedonism
Hedonism an ethical or aesthetic view which
holds pleasure as the highest good or most
valuable thing. Hedonism is usually
associated with a more physical, egoistic,
unrefined, or sexual definition of "pleasure"
than than that found in the related
utilitarianism.
Hegelianism
Hegelianism is a philosophy developed by
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel which can be
summed up by a favorite motto by Hegel
"The rational alone is real". Which means
that all reality is capable of being expressed
in rational categories. His goal was to reduce
to a more synthetic unity the system of
transcendental idealism.
Humanism
Humanism is a range of ethical views which
consider common human nature to be the
source of values.
Posthumanism is a development of
humanism which rejects a special position in
nature for humanity.
Transhumanism is an emergent philosophy
analysing or favouring the use of science
and technology, especially neurotechnology,
biotechnology, and nanotechnology, to
overcome human limitations and improve
the human condition.
Idealism
Idealism is an approach to philosophical
enquiry. The ideal, in these systems, relates
to direct knowledge of subjective mental
ideas, or images. It is usually juxtaposed
with realism in which the real is said to have
absolute existence prior to and independent
of our knowledge.
Intellectualism
Intellectualism is a doctrine about the
possibility of deriving knowledge from
reason alone, intellectualism can stand for a
general approach emphasising the
importance of learning and logical thinking.
Criticism of this attitude, sometimes
summed up as Left Bank, caricatures
intellectualism's faith in the mind and puts it
in opposition to emotion, instinct, and
primitivist values in general.
Liberalism
Liberalism, in politics, is a position which
favors liberty as a political value. Liberalism
has taken many meanings throughout
history, but commonalities include a focus
on individual liberty, democratic
republicanism (liberal democracy), and
equality under the law.
Liberarianism
Libertarianism is a term used by a spectrum
of political philosophies which seek to
promote individual liberty and seek to
minimize or even abolish the state.
Since the late 19th century the term often
has been used as a synonym for
anarchism.The word libertarian is an
antonym of authoritarian.
Materialism
Materialism is the philosophical view that
the only thing that can truly be said to 'exist'
is matter; that fundamentally, all things are
composed of 'material' and all phenomena
are the result of material interactions.
Naturalism
Any of several philosophical stances, typically
those descended from materialism and
pragmatism, that do not distinguish the
supernatural from nature. Naturalism does not
necessarily claim that phenomena or
hypotheses commonly labeled as supernatural
do not exist or are wrong, but insists that all
phenomena and hypotheses can be studied by
the same methods and therefore anything
considered supernatural is either nonexistent,
unknowable, or not inherently different from
natural phenomena or hypotheses.
Humanisitic Naturalism
Humanistic naturalism is the belief that human
beings, as well as plants and animals, are
divine and intricate extensions of nature.
Followers share a mutual respect for things
created directly by nature, even though life
must feed upon life for continuance. While
most believers are able to adapt to modern
change, naturalists prefer the a fair exchange
of resources, as was in the case of former
agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies.
Industry and technology are in exact
opposition to naturalism.
Nihilism
Nihilism is a philosophical view that the world,
and especially human existence, is without
meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or
essential value. It is more often a charge
leveled against a particular idea than a position
to which someone is overtly subscribed.
Movements such as Dada, Deconstructionism,
and punk have been described by various
observers as "nihilist".
Pacifism
Pacifism, in ethics or politics, is an
opposition to war or violence. Can range
from advocacy of peaceful solutions to
problems, to a stance where all violence
or force is considered morally wrong.
Pessimism
It describes a general belief that things are bad,
and tend to become worse; or that looks to the
eventual triumph of evil over good; it contrasts
with optimism, the contrary belief in the
goodness and betterment of things generally. A
common conundrum illustrates optimism
versus pessimism with the question - does one
regard a given glass of water as: "Is the glass
half empty or half full?"
Phenomenalism
Phenomenalism, in epistemology and the
philosophy of perception, phenomenalism
is the view that physical objects do not
exist as things in themselves but only as
perceptual phenomena or sensory stimuli
(e.g. redness, hardness, softness,
sweetness, etc.) situated in time and in
space.
Positivism
Positivism is the philosophical position
that the only authentic knowledge is
scientific knowledge. It is an approach to
the philosophy of science, deriving from
Enlightenment thinkers.
Postmodernism
Philosophical movement characterized by the
postmodern criticism and analysis of Western
philosophy. Beginning as a critique of
Continental philosophy, it was heavily influenced
by phenomenology, structuralism and
existentialism.Within postmodern philosophy,
there are numerous interrelated fields, including
deconstruction and several fields beginning with
the prefix "post-", such as post-structuralism,
post-Marxism, and post-feminism. In particular
postmodern philosophy has spawned a huge
literature of critical theory.
Relativism
Relativism the view that the meaning and value of
human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute
reference. Relativists claim that humans
understand and evaluate beliefs and behaviors only
in terms of, for example, their historical and
cultural context. Philosophers identify many
different kinds of relativism depending upon what
allegedly depends on something and what
something depends on ie moral, linguistic, and
methodological relativism
Reductionism
Reductionism is a number of related,
contentious theories that hold, very roughly,
that the nature of complex things can always
be reduced to (be explained by) simpler or
more fundamental things. This is said of
objects, phenomena, explanations, theories,
and meanings. In short, it is philosophical
materialism taken to its logical consequences.
Sensualism
Sensualism is a philosophical theory in which
sensations and perception are the basic and
most important form of true cognition. This
opposes realism. The base principle of
sensualism is "there is not anything in mind,
which hasn't been in feelings". Philosophers of
sensualism include John Locke.
Singularitarianism
Singularitarianism is a a moral philosophy based
upon the belief that a technological singularity -
the technological creation of smarter-than-
human intelligence - is possible, advocating
deliberate action to effect and ensure its safety.
While some futurologists and transhumanists
speculate on the possibility and nature of this
supposed singularity a Singularitarian believes it
is not only possible, but that it can also be
guided, and acts in ways that he/she believes will
contribute to its safety and early arrival.
Socialism
Socialism is an ideology with the core belief that a
society should exist in which popular collectives
control the means of power, and therefore the
means of production. Though the de facto
meaning of socialism has changed over time, it
remains strongly related to the establishment of
an organized working class; created through
either revolution or by social evolution, with the
purpose of building a classless society.
Symbolism
Symbolism is applied use of any iconic
representations which carry particular
conventional meanings. "Symbolism" may
refer to a way of choosing representative
symbols abstractly rather than literally,
allowing broader interpretation of their
meaning than more literal concept-
representations allow.
Syncretism
Syncretism is the attempt to reconcile
disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld
practices of various schools of thought. It is
especially associated with the attempt to
merge and analogize several originally
discrete traditions, especially in the theology
and mythology of religion, and thus assert an
underlying unity.
Teleology
The supposition that there is design, purpose,
directive principle, or finality in the works and
processes of nature, and the philosophical study
of that purpose. Teleology stands in contrast to
philosophical naturalism, and both ask questions
separate from the questions of science. While
science investigates natural laws and
phenomena, Philosophical naturalism and
teleology investigate the existence or non-
existence of an organizing principle behind those
natural laws and phenonema. Philosophical
naturalism asserts that there are no such
principles. Teleology asserts that there are.
Totalitarianism
A typology employed by political scientists to
describe modern regimes in which the state
regulates nearly every aspect of public and
private behavior. Totalitarian regimes mobilize
entire populations in support of the state and a
political ideology, and do not tolerate activities
by individuals or groups such as labor unions,
churches and political parties that are not
directed toward the state's goals. They maintain
themselves in power by means of secret police,
propaganda and and widespread use of terror
tactics.
Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism is a group of new ideas
in literature, religion, culture, and
philosophy that advocates that there is an
ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the
physical and empirical and is only realized
through a knowledgeable intuitive
awareness that is conditional upon the
individual.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is theory of ethics based on
quantitative maximization of total welfare for
a population. It is a form of consequentialism.
Utilitarianism is sometimes incorrectly
summarized as "The greatest happiness for
the greatest number." As the distribution of
happiness is irrelevant to utilitarian
calculations, the greatest number component
of this common phrase is misleading. An
accurate summary would be, "One ought act
so that the consequences of one's act will
produce the greatest possible total welfare
across all members of the population."
Utopianism
Utopianism is the many various social and
political movements, and a significant
body of religious and secular literature,
based upon the idea of paradise on earth.
Value Pluralism
Value pluralism is the idea that two or more
moral values may be equally ultimate (true),
yet in conflict. In addition, it postulates that
in many cases, such incompatible values,
may be rationally incommensurable. As
such, value-pluralism is a theory in
metaethics, rather than an ethical theory or a
set of values in itself.
Vitalist
Vitalism is the doctrine that "vital forces" are
active in living organisms, so that life cannot
be explained solely by mechanism. That
element is often referred to as the "vital
spark" or "energy" which some equate with
the "soul".