2 types of attraction in molecules:

Intramolecular bonds
Ionic, polar, non-polar
Hold atoms together in a molecule

Intermolecular bonds (IMF)

Have to do with the attraction between molecules

Intermolecular vs. Intramolecular

41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
930 kJ to break all 0-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra) [stronger because it will take
more energy and heat to break the bond]

3 basic types of IMF:

Dipole-dipole interaction
Occurs between polar covalent molecules (the greater the EN, the
greater the dipoles)
Attractive forces between polar molecules
Constant
*H2+ O2+ N2+ are nonpolar substances, symmetrical molecule

London dispersion forces

Dependent on size of atom/molecule
Weakest IMF
Only type of van der Waals force present in nonpolar substances
Present in all substances(in polar substances, in addition to dipole-dipole
interaction)
Temporary
Present in all substances
A dipole forms in one atom or molecule, inducing a dipole in the other

Effects

Instantaneous dipole:
dipoles form

eventually electrons are situated so that tiny

Hydrogen bonding
H-bonding is a special type of attraction that is very strong (due to
high EN)
Occurs when N, O or F are bonded to H
Strongest IMF

of hydrogen bonding
High boiling point
Low density of ice
(huge number of hydrogen bonds) holds the DNA together and gives it a
helical shape
High surface tension

Phase Changes

GAS
Vaporation
Sublimation

Condensation
Deposition

LIQUID
Melting

Freezing

SOLID
Energy changes accompanying phase changes
All phase changes are possible under the right conditions (ex. water sublimes
when snow disappears without farming puddles)
Heating curves
Plot of temperature change versus heat added is a heating curve
During a phase change, adding heat causes no temperature change
Phase changes heating curves(Terminologies)
Supercooling: when a liquid is cooled below its melting point and it still
remains a liquid
Achieved by keeping the temperature low and increasing kinetic energy to
break intermolecular forces
Vapor pressure on the molecular level
Dynamic equilibrium: the point when as many molecules escape the surface
as strike the surface
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted when the liquid and vapor are in
dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium
# of molecules vaporized = # of molecules condensed
*liquid evaporates and no dynamic equilibrium is still established
Vapor

pressure (volatility, vapor pressure and temperature)

If equilibrium is never established then the liquid evaporates
Volatile substances evaporate rapidly
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy, the faster
the liquid evaporates

Vapor

pressure and boiling point

Liquids boil when the external pressure equals the vapor pressure
Temperature of boiling point increases as pressure increases
Normal boiling point is the boiling point at 760 mmHg (1 atm)

Phase Diagrams
Any temperature and pressure combination put on a curve represents a
single phase
What is a solution?
A homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances in a single physical state
In a solution, the solute (being dissolved) is dispersed uniformly throughout
the solvent (does the dissolving and has more amount)
Ex. air, body fluids, bass (Zn in Cu), ocean water
Solvated surrounded by solvent
Hydrated solvent is water
*a mixture can be solvated
Properties of solution
Particles are very small
Particles are evenly distributed or intermingled uniformly
Particles will not separate no matter how long the solution is allowed to stand
under constant conditions
Types of solution
Solid solution
Solvent:
solid
Solute:
gas
(H in
palladium)
Solute:
liquid
(liquid Hg
in solid
Na)
Solute:
solid
Bronze
(tin in
copper)

Alloys

Liquid solution
Solvent:
liquid
Solute:
gas
(HCl gas in
H2O)
Solute:
Liquid
wine
(ethyl
alcohol in
H2O)
Solute:
solid
(NaOH
pellets in
H2O)

Gas solution
Solvent:
gas
Solute:
gas air
(CO2 in
nitrogen)
Solute:
liquid
(moistureloaded air)
Solute:
solid
Nephthale
ne
sublimed
in air

Solid solution containing 2 or more metals like:

Coinage bronze Cu, Sn,
Sterling silver Ag, Cu
Zn
Nichrome Ni, Fe, Cr, Mn
16 karat gold Au, Cu, Ag

Solubility
The maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at
a specified temperature
Ex.
Saturated
Contains the maximum amount of solute that the given solvent can dissolve
at that temperature
Unsaturated
Less than the maximum amount
Supersaturated
More than the capability of the
solute

Heating/adding energy

Soluble dissolves
Insoluble doesnt dissolve
Miscible mix
Immiscible doesnt mix

Nature of solute and solvent

In the formation of solution, solute particles are dispersed among solvent
particles uniformly
Rough rule:like dissolves like (like similar in polarity)
Polar solutes (NaCl) tend to dissolve in polar solvent (H 2o) but not in nonpolar
solvent (oil)
Nonpolar solutes (grease stains) dissolve in nonpolar solvent but not in polar
solvents
What

is the effect of temperature on solubility?

If solubility would decrease then the temperature would increase
The opposite is true of gases, higher temperature drives gases out of solution
For solid and liquid, solubility would increase as temperature is increased
Carbonated soft drinks are more bubbly if stored in the refrigerator
Warm lakes have less O2 dissolved in them than cool lakes
For solids dissolved in liquid, for many substances, solubility increases with
temperature
Small changes in pressure have little effect on solids in liquids or liquids in
liquids but have a marked effect in gases in liquids

The effect of pressure on solubility

Small changes in pressure have little effect on solids in liquids or liquids in
liquids but have a marked effect in gases in liquids

Gases in solution
Increasing pressure above solution forces more gas to dissolve
Solubility of liquids and solids does not change appreciatively with pressure
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportioned to its pressure
Factors that affect the rate at which substances dissolve
Particle size small particle will dissolve more readily than larger ones
Agitation/ Stirring increase the rate of dissolution
Increase in temperature increase the rate of dissolution
Concentration of solution decrease the rate of dissolution