Agrt01 10

Austroads
GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS
Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels
Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1:

Introduction to Road Tunnels
Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels

Summary
This Austroads Guide provides a comprehensive introduction to planning for road tunnels and
describes important issues and considerations relating to implementation, general planning,
regulation, structural and geometric design, drainage, geology, the environment as well as
operation, construction and maintenance. It also covers critical considerations such as flood
protection, fire and life safety, ventilation and risk management.
Keywords
Road tunnel, implementation process, planning requirements, regulatory requirements, traffic
considerations, structural design considerations, geometric design, geotechnical considerations,
drainage, flood protection, functional safety, operations, maintenance, construction methods,
environmental considerations, water quality, air quality, noise, fire and life safety, risk management
Published July 2010
Austroads Ltd. 2010
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may
be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.
ISBN 978-1-921709-27-2
Austroads Project No. TP1567
Austroads Publication No. AGRT01/10
Project Manager
Ricky Cox, DTMR Qld
Prepared by
Les Louis
Published by Austroads Ltd

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road
authorities may vary their practice according to local circumstances and policies.
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept
responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should
rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1:

Introduction to Road Tunnels
Sydney 2010
Austroads profile
Austroads purpose is to contribute to improved Australian and New Zealand transport outcomes
by:
providing expert advice to SCOT and ATC on road and road transport issues
facilitating collaboration between road agencies
promoting harmonisation, consistency and uniformity in road and related operations
undertaking strategic research on behalf of road agencies and communicating outcomes
promoting improved and consistent practice by road agencies.
Austroads membership
Austroads membership comprises the six state and two territory road transport and traffic
authorities, the Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development
and Local Government in Australia, the Australian Local Government Association, and New
Zealand Transport Agency. Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of the chief executive
officer (or an alternative senior executive officer) of each of its 11 member organisations:
Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure South Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
Department of Lands and Planning Northern Territory
Department of Territory and Municipal Services Australian Capital Territory
Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government
Australian Local Government Association
New Zealand Transport Agency.
The success of Austroads is derived from the collaboration of member organisations and others in
the road industry. It aims to be the Australasian leader in providing high quality information, advice
and fostering research in the road sector.
GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS
C ONT E NT S
1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Structure of the Guide to Road Tunnels ...................................................................................1

Purpose of this Guide ...............................................................................................................1
Scope of Part 1 of the Guide to Road Tunnels .........................................................................1
Safety Systems.........................................................................................................................2
1.4.1
Providing a Safe System ........................................................................................... 2
Objectives of Road Tunnels......................................................................................................4
1.5.1
Planning Objectives ................................................................................................... 4
1.5.2
Design Objectives...................................................................................................... 5
1.5
ROAD TUNNEL IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS....................................................................7
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Overview...................................................................................................................................7
What is a Road Tunnel? ...........................................................................................................7
Road Tunnels according to their Operating Procedures...........................................................9
Types of Road Tunnel Construction .........................................................................................9
GENERAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................11
3.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................11
3.1.1
General .................................................................................................................... 11
3.1.2
Scope of the Road Tunnel Planning Process .......................................................... 11
3.1.3
Output of the Road Tunnel Planning Process ......................................................... 12
Issues to be Considered .........................................................................................................12
Design Considerations............................................................................................................13
3.3.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 13
3.3.2
Site Investigation ..................................................................................................... 13
3.3.3
Design Life............................................................................................................... 13
3.3.4
Human Factors ........................................................................................................ 13
3.3.5
Serviceability............................................................................................................ 14
3.3.6
Transport of Dangerous Goods ............................................................................... 15
3.3.7
Transport of Combustible Goods ............................................................................. 15
Land Tenure ...........................................................................................................................15
Risk Management of Road Tunnel Works ..............................................................................16
3.5.1
General .................................................................................................................... 16
3.5.2
Risk Assessment ..................................................................................................... 16
3.5.3
Risk Registers.......................................................................................................... 17
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS.........................................................................................19
4.1
4.2
National Legislation ................................................................................................................19

State Legislation .....................................................................................................................19
4.2.1
General .................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.2
Project Specific Legislation...................................................................................... 19
TRAFFIC CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................................20
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
General Considerations ..........................................................................................................20

Analysis Techniques...............................................................................................................20
Capacity Analysis ...................................................................................................................20
Ventilation ...............................................................................................................................21
Austroads 2010
i
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.......................................................................22
6.1
6.2
General ...................................................................................................................................22
Design Elements.....................................................................................................................22
GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................................23
7.1
7.2
7.3
General ...................................................................................................................................23
Grades ....................................................................................................................................23
Cross-section..........................................................................................................................23
7.3.1
General .................................................................................................................... 23
7.3.2
Lane Widths............................................................................................................. 24
7.3.3
Shoulder Widths ...................................................................................................... 24
7.3.4
Working Width ......................................................................................................... 25
7.3.5
Auxiliary Lanes ........................................................................................................ 25
7.3.6
Tunnel Envelope and Vehicle Clearance................................................................. 25
7.3.7
Ramp Connections/Diverges and Merges ............................................................... 25
7.3.8
Portal Traffic Diversion ............................................................................................ 25
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................26
8.1
8.2
Overview.................................................................................................................................26
Specific Requirements for Tunnels.........................................................................................26
8.2.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 26
8.2.2
The Planning Stage ................................................................................................. 27
8.2.3
The Concept Stage.................................................................................................. 27
8.2.4
The Design Stage .................................................................................................... 28
8.2.5
Supplementary Geological Investigations................................................................ 28
8.2.6
Geological and Geotechnical Reports used by Constructors .................................. 29
DRAINAGE, WATER AND FLOOD PROTECTION ..............................................................30
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.5
General ...................................................................................................................................30
Drainage of the Road Surface ................................................................................................30
9.2.1
Surface Drainage..................................................................................................... 31
9.2.2
Spillage Management .............................................................................................. 31
Flooding ..................................................................................................................................31
9.3.1
General .................................................................................................................... 31
9.3.2
Flood Immunity at the Tunnel Portals ...................................................................... 31
9.3.3
Flood Protection....................................................................................................... 32
9.3.4
External Hydraulic Impacts ...................................................................................... 32
Management of Groundwater .................................................................................................32
Climate Change ......................................................................................................................33
10
FUNCTIONAL SAFETY AND OPERATIONS........................................................................34
9.3
10.1 General ...................................................................................................................................34

10.2 Traffic Safety Infrastructure ....................................................................................................34
10.2.1 Intelligent Transport Systems .................................................................................. 34
10.2.2 Signs and Signals .................................................................................................... 35
10.3 Fire and Life Safety.................................................................................................................35
10.3.1 Overview.................................................................................................................. 35
10.3.2 Fire Safety Objectives.............................................................................................. 36
10.4 Ventilation of Tunnels .............................................................................................................36
10.4.1 General .................................................................................................................... 36
10.4.2 Ventilation Effects of Tunnel Location and Form ..................................................... 37
Austroads 2010
ii
10.4.3 Key Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 38

10.4.4 Ventilation Performance Criteria.............................................................................. 38
10.4.5 Other Ventilation Aspects ........................................................................................ 39
10.4.6 Fans......................................................................................................................... 40
10.5 Lighting ...................................................................................................................................40
10.6 Electrical Supply .....................................................................................................................40
10.6.1 General Requirements............................................................................................. 40
10.6.2 Dual Power Supply .................................................................................................. 40
10.6.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems ............................................................................... 40
10.7 Communications and Monitoring Devices ..............................................................................41
10.8 Operations ..............................................................................................................................42
10.9 Maintenance ...........................................................................................................................42
10.10Public Utility Plant ...................................................................................................................43
10.10.1 Tunnel Requirements .............................................................................................. 43
11
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................44
11.1 General ...................................................................................................................................44

11.2 Water Quality ..........................................................................................................................44
11.2.1 During Construction ................................................................................................. 44
11.2.2 During Operation ..................................................................................................... 44
11.3 Air Quality ...............................................................................................................................44
11.4 Noise.......................................................................................................................................45
11.5 Settlement...............................................................................................................................46
12
CONSTRUCTION METHODS................................................................................................47
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
Overview.................................................................................................................................47
Constructability .......................................................................................................................47
Workplace/Occupational Health and Safety ...........................................................................47
Vibration..................................................................................................................................48
Spoil Disposal .........................................................................................................................48
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................49
Austroads 2010
iii
FIGURES
Figure 1.1:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 7.1:
A conceptual overview of the Safe System framework...............................................4

The road tunnel implementation process....................................................................7
Typical tunnel cross-section .....................................................................................24
Austroads 2010
iv
INT R ODUC T ION
1.1
Structure of the Guide to Road Tunnels
The Guide to Road Tunnels is written in three Parts:

Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels
Part 2: Planning, Design and Commissioning
Part 3: Operation and Maintenance.
While the total document has been separated into three Parts, there is considerable
inter-dependence between the Parts and appropriate cross-references have been made where
necessary. For example, in planning for road tunnels, the design requirements must be
considered in conjunction with the way the tunnel will be operated and how it will be maintained.
1.2
Purpose of this Guide
This document provides high level guidance to those making decisions in the planning, design,
operation and maintenance of new road tunnels in Australia and New Zealand. Principles and
standards identified are based on experience both in Australasia and in other countries where
tunnels have been constructed over a long period of time. Practices referred to in other countries
have been considered in the light of Australasian experience and adopted (where appropriate),
cognisant of Australasian conditions and legislation.
It is expected that this Guide will be used by engineers and technical specialists in tunnel
technology working on the planning, design and operation of road tunnels, proponents of road
tunnel solutions, senior decision makers (in an overview role) and regulators in the various
jurisdictions associated with the construction of tunnels. It is intended that this Guide provide
guidance to these users on the acceptable standards for planning, design, implementation,
operation and maintenance of road tunnels in Australia and New Zealand.
It is intended that users of this Guide will be able to determine standards for road tunnel design
and operation acceptable to Austroads members, either directly from this Guide or from other
references defined by this Guide as providing the appropriate standards for adoption. Planners
and designers will be able to ascertain the range of factors to be considered and use the defined
standards to produce an acceptable design. Senior decision makers will be able to determine the
range of factors to be considered and from that assess whether the proposal will meet the
requirements of the Austroads members.
In reaching a conclusion on the acceptable requirements for a particular tunnel, designers should
use a risk-based approach to justify the parameters to be used. This approach will need to
consider the issues involved and the range of values for a parameter that will satisfy the identified
issues.
1.3
Scope of Part 1 of the Guide to Road Tunnels
This Part of the Guide to Road Tunnels is intended to provide an overview of the requirements for
new road tunnels in Australia and New Zealand, setting out the essential factors to be considered
in the planning, design, operation and maintenance of road tunnels in these countries.
This includes tunnels for busways but does not cover the requirements for bus stations associated
with those tunnels.
Austroads 2010
1
It provides guidance on the planning process to ensure that all of the necessary factors affecting
the design, construction, maintenance and operation of the tunnel under consideration are
adequately considered. It does not cover the requirements for upgrading existing tunnels.
This Part of the Guide covers those matters which have a significant impact on the strategic
planning of a tunnel solution while more details are included in the other two Parts. Because
tunnels are of relatively high cost, and because future enhancements to the overall dimensions of
the tunnel are very expensive, care has been taken to ensure that all functions that affect the
overall dimensions have been discussed and appropriate guidance given on where to access the
minimum acceptable standards for those functions in the other Parts of this Guide.
Emphasis is placed on risk analysis and management in determining the minimum requirements
for tunnels. Such analysis requires agreement between several stakeholders and the process for
achieving agreement on these matters is provided in this Part of the Guide. It is part of the risk
management process to determine whether dangerous goods may or may not be carried through
the tunnel.
The requirements for fire and life safety are often fundamental to the design of a tunnel and can
have significant impact on the dimensions of the tunnel and the ancillary equipment that has to be
provided (e.g. fans, ventilation outlets, evacuation facilities). This Part of the Guide introduces the
process to be adopted to establish the fire and life safety requirements and refers to appropriate
sources of information (including Parts 2 and 3) to determine the needs for the particular tunnel in
question.
The effects of different construction methods are discussed, as are the operational factors and
maintenance needs that affect the details of the tunnel dimensions, equipment and facilities
required. More detailed discussion of planning, design and commissioning is provided in Part 2,
while operations and maintenance are covered in Part 3.
1.4
Safety Systems
The Guide to Road Tunnels should be considered in the broad context of road safety and the
contribution that the Guide can make to the design of safer roads.
1.4.1
Providing a Safe System
Safe System principles are acknowledged in the National Road Safety Action Plan 2009 and 2010
as the guiding principles for road safety programs in Australia, while in New Zealand it underpins
its Safer Journeys 2010-2020 road safety strategy.
The Safe System recognises that there are limits to the forces the human body can withstand in a
collision, and seeks to ensure that no road user is subject to forces which will result in death or a
serious injury from which they cannot recover. It must be recognised that human error is a feature
of the transport system and that while much can be done to reduce it, it cannot be eliminated.
Adopting a Safe System approach to road safety recognises that humans, as road users are
fallible and will continue to make mistakes, and that the community should not penalise them with
death or serious injury when they do make mistakes. The design of the road transport system
must therefore take into account the inevitability of road user errors by using factors such as
operating speed, recovery space and energy-absorbent structures to ensure that impact forces in
collisions do not result in death or serious injury.
Austroads 2010
2
The Safe System framework requires that:
the road system is designed, built and maintained so that the forces road users are subjected
to in collisions will not result in death or serious injury
roads and roadsides be improved to reduce the risk of crashes and the severity of impacts
when crashes do occur
effective active and passive safety systems be encouraged in vehicles to reduce the number
of crashes which occur and reduce the impact forces on occupants and road users outside
the vehicle when they do occur
speeds are managed, taking account of the risks on different parts of the road system.
Safer road user behaviour, safer speeds, safer roads and safer vehicles are the four key elements
that make a safe system (Figure 1.1). In relation to speed, the Australian Transport Council (2006)
reported that the chances of surviving a crash decrease markedly above certain speeds,
depending on the type of crash, for example:
pedestrian struck by vehicle
20 to 30 km/h
motorcyclist struck by vehicle (or falling off)
20 to 30 km/h
side impact vehicle striking a pole or tree
30 to 40 km/h
side impact vehicle to vehicle crash
50 km/h
head-on vehicle to vehicle (equal mass) crash
70 km/h
Designers should be aware of, and through the design process actively support the philosophy and
road safety objectives covered in the Austroads Guide to Road Safety.
Austroads 2010
3
Source: Adapted from National Road Safety Action Plan 2009 and 2010.
Figure 1.1: A conceptual overview of the Safe System framework
1.5
Objectives of Road Tunnels
1.5.1
Planning Objectives
Planning objectives for a tunnel project are developed as part of the overall project inception. A
strategic objective for a tunnel project is likely to be the same as for a surface road where a
connection or bypass is provided to enhance the overall network efficiency and productivity.
From the key functional transport objectives, a tunnel may be selected as the most suitable form of
infrastructure on the basis of:
impact on surface features
land acquisition costs
terrain constraints
sustainability
traversing waterways
any combination of these.
Austroads 2010
4
This guideline assumes that planning objectives (and constraints) are set prior to or during route
selection and the strategic transport planning process. Therefore, as part of the design process, it
is important that key objectives and constraints are identified and the impacts on the tunnel design
assessed.
1.5.2
Design Objectives
On the basis that strategic planning objectives have been set, and that the option to build a tunnel
is to be assessed, the following provides guidance on tunnel design objectives.
Tunnel design objectives need to consider:
alignment options
geometric options (horizontal and vertical alignment, cross-section, clearances)
interchange configurations
traffic management (including speed zoning)
traffic volumes and characteristics
tunnel system options
road safety
tunnel safety
ground conditions
requirements for access to portal during construction
flooding protection
underground obstructions (e.g. sewers, building foundations and other road/rail tunnels)
cost
environmental effects including climate change considerations. Note that environmental

effects can extend to the network (due to implications on border traffic flow) and more locally
to include the areas near the tunnel portals and ventilation stations.
Each of these items needs to be assessed in combination such that the outcome is functional,
buildable, operable, maintainable, durable and affordable.
The design objectives therefore need to be structured around this outcome and include the
following:
Functional
Provision of a traffic link and/or means of distribution within a traffic network (freight,
commuter or other) with appropriate levels of connectivity and capacity for predicted
demand levels and land use changes.
Provision of an adequately safe roadway.
Provision of an adequately safe tunnel.
Buildable
Provision of a tunnel construction methodology that takes into account ground

conditions and geometrical constraints/requirements and other factors.
Austroads 2010
5
Operable
Provision of an operational methodology that takes into account the functional

requirements of the tunnel and is able to deliver the required service levels.
Maintainable
Provision of a maintenance methodology that meets functional and operational

requirements of the tunnel.
Provision of allowances for future upgrading of systems during the life of the tunnel.
Durable
Provision of a tunnel construction methodology that is safe to build.
Provision of a tunnel design which meets durability requirements taking into

consideration the required life of the assets and the environment to which the asset is
exposed.
Affordable
Provision of a tunnel design which takes into account all capital, operational,
environmental and social costs and benefits.
Austroads 2010
6
R OA D T UNNE L IMP L E ME NT A T ION P R OC E S S
2.1
Overview
Implementing a tunnel solution requires the consideration of many factors involving many
stakeholders including the road authorities, other government regulators (e.g. environmental
protection agencies), proponents of tunnel solutions, the users and the general public affected by
the construction and operation of the tunnel. The process for the implementation is of necessity, a
detailed and time consuming activity to ensure that all of the factors are properly considered.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the overall process and shows the potential time frames for the various
components of the project life cycle.
Strategic assessment, feasibility studies, decision to use
Strategic planning, feasibility

studies and concept design
tunnel solution based on desktop analysis; decision on

functionality required; capacity required; limited
geotechnical site investigations
Route selection, development of a concept design for
Environmental assessment
environmental assessment; environmental approvals

as required (1 to 3 years)
Delivery method; tenders; decision on contractor
Procurement
(1 to 2 years)
Detailed design, documentation and delivery (1 to 5
Detailed design and construction
years depending on the scope of the tunnel)
Systems testing; hand-over (6 months)
Commissioning
Management of use of the tunnel; maintenance
Operation and maintenance
of all features (ongoing 100 years)
Figure 2.1: The road tunnel implementation process
2.2
What is a Road Tunnel?
Any fully enclosed length of roadway may be called a road tunnel but there is general agreement
that a structure less than 80 m in length is not a tunnel. Tunnels may be generally classified as
short or long but there is no definitive cut-off point with various jurisdictions identifying a minimum
length of between 80 m and 150 m as the length above which the structure is considered to be a
tunnel. Whether a tunnel is considered to be short or long is based on the risks involved and can
also be related to the function being considered (e.g. lighting; ventilation; fire and life safety).
Austroads 2010
7
With a distinct relationship between tunnel length and risk a tunnel can be considered long, for
example, on the basis of the level of hindrance to emergency operations (Australasian Fire
Authorities Council 2001), including:
evacuees have no line of sight to a portal or obvious means of escape
evacuees have no direct exit but access to safe rooms instead
fire fighting products are likely to come into contact with tunnel users during evacuation
fire fighting is likely to take place after conditions become untenable
the fire brigade control point is beyond the maximum useful penetration distance of a
breathing apparatus set.
While definitions do vary, long tunnels are generally those over 300 to 500 m in length and this
latter group is the specific target of the European directive for harmonisation of road tunnel safety
(European Union 2004). While targeted on existing tunnels in the European network and adopting
standards that are considered inappropriate for new tunnels, it does contain concepts and
approaches that are applicable to a range of new road tunnels in Australia.
The need to include the various safety features in a the tunnel will increase with increasing length
until the point is reached where the tunnel requires all of the treatments considered to be
necessary for safe operation. However, in regard to the application of the tunnel design criteria,
each case must be considered in context and the appropriate features used, regardless of the
length.
A short tunnel may also be termed an underpass, but in general any covered length of road over
80 m long should be treated as a tunnel (National Fire Protection Association 2008).
An underpass is in general created out of its own geometry, such as that from a large interchange.
While some aspects of tunnel design may be appropriate for an underpass (such as lighting,
egress and fire and life safety) the full range of tunnel criteria, systems and guidelines may not be
applicable (e.g. mechanical ventilation, deluge systems and CCTV). It should be noted that the
classification of a tunnel in accordance with AS/NZ1158.5:2007, Lighting for roads and public
spaces Tunnels and underpasses is limited to the impact on the lighting design only.
Busway tunnels differ from normal road tunnels in the following ways:
Busway tunnels generally have two-way traffic whereas road tunnels often have one-way
traffic.
Busway tunnels are not trafficked by general road traffic, including pedestrians and cyclists.
Busway tunnels are not used by hazardous goods vehicles.
Busway tunnels are managed as part of an actively managed busway.
Buses carry significantly more people per vehicle than private motor vehicles hence the
people-carrying capacity of each busway tunnel lane is much greater than a general road
traffic lane.
Bus passengers may not be familiar with the tunnel environment due to the fact that they are
passengers, not drivers, may not be regular users of the busway and may not even perceive
that they are within a tunnel environment.
Austroads 2010
8
2.3
Road Tunnels according to their Operating Procedures
The operating procedures adopted for a road tunnel will determine many of the features that
should be included in its design. The planning process should determine the most appropriate
form of operation to suit the particular conditions prevailing at the time of implementation and the
tunnel should be designed accordingly. It may be necessary to consider future changes to the way
the tunnel will be operated and allowance made for any features that may have to be added at a
later date.
In general, tunnels in Australia and New Zealand are one-way with twin bores for the two
directions. This has a major influence on the design of the mechanical and electrical systems (e.g.
ventilation). On the other hand, busway tunnels are usually two-way and this has to be
accommodated in the design of the systems for those tunnels.
Various broad categories of road tunnel operation need to be considered:
Tunnels that have their own dedicated management structure and resources to operate the
tunnel and which retain responsibility for traffic surveillance and safe operation, including
response to incidents and emergencies.
Tunnels that are designed to operate as fully automatic facilities and do not entail the
resources of permanent operating and monitoring staff. For example, short tunnels on rural
freeways/motorways and other major roads may be designed to operate in this way.
Tunnels that are designed to have manually operated facilities and depend on surveillance
(on site or remote) to determine the need for intervention in the event of an incident.
Underpasses/short tunnels that are designed to maintain the operational requirements of the
connecting roads. Additional services may be required as described in Section 2.2 .
2.4
Types of Road Tunnel Construction
Tunnels are constructed in a wide range of geological and geographical conditions and
environments that will impact upon the selection of the most appropriate construction approach to
use, which may include:
cut-and-cover at shallow depth where surface constraints permit
pile wall
top down
jacked box
cast in situ in a waterway using a coffer dam
immersed tube sunk into place for underwater crossings
mined or bored tunnels
combinations of the above.
The type of construction method to be used may have a significant effect on the details of the
tunnel dimensions and the requirements for the way that ventilation, lighting, fire and life safety are
designed and operated. The essential shape of the tunnel will depend on the method of
construction (e.g. a tunnel produced with a tunnel boring machine may be circular while a
cut-and-cover tunnel will usually be rectangular in shape) and this will affect the design and
location of equipment and evacuation facilities.
Austroads 2010
9
On any one project, various types of construction may be adopted depending on the specific
requirements of particular locations along the project.
Details of various types of road tunnel construction are included in Commentary 1.
Austroads 2010
10
G E NE R A L P L A NNING R E QUIR E ME NT S
3.1
Introduction
3.1.1
General
Selecting a tunnel solution may be justified:
on new routes under densely developed urban areas where land acquisition costs are high
and community impacts need to be minimised
through hills or mountains to avoid steep grades, longer routes or risk of road closures due to
rock or snow all
under rivers and large bodies of water to keep shipways clear or which are beyond bridge
span capability
to separate modes of transport, for example using a busway tunnel to separate bus traffic
from general road traffic
to avoid impact on cultural, heritage or environmentally sensitive areas
where over water, clearance requirements or land use prevent construction of bridges or
surface roads.
Because the basic size of a road tunnel is determined by a range of factors, and it is difficult and
sometimes not possible to change the basic dimensions once the construction has commenced, it
is important that all of the relevant factors are fully considered in the planning stage when the
essential decisions are taken. Therefore, all of the factors that will have an effect on the tunnel
size and location must be included in the planning process and determined in sufficient detail to
ensure that the tunnel will perform adequately in the particular environment being considered.
Part 2 of this Guide provides the detailed requirements for the features to be considered.
3.1.2
Scope of the Road Tunnel Planning Process
In many cases, the planning for the tunnel will be part of the overall planning for the road link
involved, taking account of the network requirements and including a full community engagement
process. In those cases, the extent of tunnel planning involves only the technical requirements for
the tunnel itself. Social and environmental considerations (including the effects of the tunnel) will
be considered as part of the overall planning process.
In cases where the tunnel is the total project (e.g. long tunnels with short connections to the
existing road system), the tunnel planning process will include consideration of the network effects
and community engagement in accordance with the policies of the relevant jurisdiction will be
essential. All of the usual planning process requirements of the relevant jurisdiction will be
required.
The planning may also require the tunnel to be considered as part of a network of tunnels.
Potential issues include:
equipment redundancy
consistency of tunnel vertical clearances
all signage types (e.g. route signage; directional signage)
interaction of fire and life safety systems between tunnels
location of traffic control centre(s)
Austroads 2010
11
location of emergency centres
access for emergency vehicles incident management
level of surveillance
community education as to tunnel use and behaviour
behaviours, skills and training for professional drivers and freight operators
workplace health and safety issues for long-term exposure for bus operators and road-based
workers.
3.1.3
Output of the Road Tunnel Planning Process
It is intended that the planning process produce a concept design of the tunnel where all of the
major features have been identified and decisions made on the location of the tunnel and the
equipment and facilities required for its construction, maintenance and operation. The extent of
essential equipment and features will have been decided with the intention that detailed design will
not require any expansion in the dimensions of the tunnel to meet the minimum standards
required.
3.2
Issues to be Considered
Planning and design should consider:
regulatory requirements
design year
design life
design vehicles and vehicle mix
design traffic volumes
design fires
geology of the site, geotechnical requirements and hydrogeological factors
seismic effects and seismic loading
geometric requirements including horizontal and vertical alignment and cross-section

dimensions
sun glare in generally east-west aligned tunnels
functional safety and operations (including maintenance)
environmental considerations
impact on the community
property impact
ventilation outlet locations
construction methods and construction duration
traffic impact during construction.
Austroads 2010
12
3.3
Design Considerations
3.3.1
Introduction
Design of a tunnel requires all of the features of the tunnel to be determined, having regard to the
safety of the structure, the durability of the structure and equipment used, and the safety of the
users during operation of the tunnel and the efficient operation of the tunnel during its lifetime.
Design must ensure that the required functionality of the tunnel is provided and preserved
throughout its design life.
An essential consideration in the design is the constructability of the tunnel and the safety of the
people carrying out the construction. Reference should be made to the codes of practice adopted
by the various jurisdictions in providing for this; for example, New South Wales and Queensland
each have codes of practice (Work Cover NSW 2006; Workplace Health and Safety Queensland
2007).
3.3.2
Site Investigation
A comprehensive site investigation is required to minimise the risk of failure of the structure and to
provide the essential information for the design of the tunnel. The extent of the investigation will be
determined to some extent by the size of the tunnel and the complexity of the area through which
the tunnel passes.
Site investigation should include but not be limited to:
geological structure
geotechnical properties
hydrogeological conditions.
Refer to Part 2 for more details on these issues and the extent of investigations required.
3.3.3
Design Life
The design life to be adopted for various elements in the tunnel structure and ancillary
infrastructure will depend on the nature of the element under consideration and the ease with
which that element can be maintained or replaced. For example, the basic tunnel structure will be
expected to last for a period of the order of 100 years while replaceable items such as
computerised operating systems, fans and pumps will have a much lower life expectancy.
Decisions on the required design life of the tunnel and features of the tunnel should be made
before the detailed design of the tunnel commences.
3.3.4
Human Factors
Central to adopting appropriate designs is an understanding of the human factors involved in the
driving task associated with tunnels. The way people react to different situations, and their needs
with respect to coping with these situations and taking the appropriate action have a significant
effect on the design of various features of the tunnel. Human Factors and Road Tunnel Safety
Regarding Users PIARC (2008b) provides a comprehensive discussion of this issue and may be
used as a guide to developing more appropriate tunnel designs.
Human factors can be considered in two broad categories, namely:
behaviour in normal driving conditions
entering the tunnel
Austroads 2010
13
inside the tunnel
exiting the tunnel.
behaviour in critical situations
congestion
vehicle breakdown
incidents involving injuries and/or vehicle damage
fires.
The PIARC (2008b) report concluded that:
the design of tunnels and their operation should take into account human factors
drivers need a better appreciation of how they should behave in tunnels
a rather long stretch of road (if possible 150 200 m) before the tunnel portal should contain
no signs and signals
such signs and signals should be succinct in form and repeated for clarity
the safety provisions of the tunnel should be easily recognisable even in normal traffic
alarm signals should be provided by multiple-redundant sources.
These considerations will affect the design of tunnel portals, the design of the interior of the tunnel
and the information requirements for the users to provide the level of safety desired.
Communication with the users using signs, signals, variable message signs, radio and telephones
is an important feature of the safety systems in the tunnel. The cross-section design is also
affected by these considerations, especially with respect to lateral clearances and the provision of
lay-bys or break-down bays.
3.3.5
Serviceability
Serviceability refers to the ability of the infrastructure to perform satisfactorily and safely over its
life. A tunnels serviceability can be assessed having regard to:
continuity of service users can expect the tunnel to be available most of the time with few
closures
service to the community and industry there can be confidence in the availability of the
infrastructure for carrying out the business of the community
air quality in the tunnel and in the surrounding environment
durability of the tunnel structure and its associated equipment requirements for durability
are discussed in detail in Part 2.
Planning and design must ensure that the tunnel type and its associated infrastructure can meet
these requirements and that the contract documents define what is required.
Austroads 2010
14
3.3.6
Transport of Dangerous Goods
It will be necessary to decide whether a tunnel will be used for the transport of dangerous goods
(i.e. used by placarded vehicles). Whether to allow the free passage of dangerous goods vehicles
operating within the law should be determined through a risk management approach and involve
all relevant stakeholders (e.g. the tunnel owner and operator, fire and rescue authorities and
regulators). One consideration is that diverting such vehicles off the major road system could
transfer risk to locations that may not have facilities or ready access to deal with any emergency
incident involving fire or spillage.
On the other hand, an incident involving a vehicle transporting dangerous goods has the potential
to be severe and may be exacerbated by the confines of the tunnel (Rechnitzer et al. 1999).
If the decision is to ban the transport of dangerous goods through the tunnel, then appropriate
measures to enforce this ruling will be necessary. The operating procedures for the tunnel will
need to be drawn up to accommodate this requirement for the operator (refer to Part 3).
In any case, the operational requirements for the tunnel will need to be designed to accommodate
the possibility of an incident involving an illegal entry of a vehicle transporting dangerous goods.
The probability of such an incident will be reduced when a ban applies and this will affect the detail
of the system design.
3.3.7
Transport of Combustible Goods
Combustible goods in this section refers to goods which are combustible but are not designated as
dangerous goods under the Australian Dangerous Goods Code.
A significant proportion of goods transported through tunnels will be combustible. This includes
combustible liquids such as diesel and combustible items such as furniture.
There are no limitations or restrictions on the transport of combustible goods in tunnels.
Therefore, assessment of the risks and resulting combustible goods fire scenarios should be
undertaken to inform the design of appropriate fire safety measures within the tunnel. More
information on fire scenarios is included in AS4825.
3.4
Land Tenure
It is desirable that the land required for the project is obtained well in advance of construction and
that the amount of land acquired accommodates the entire tunnel and ancillary works
requirements, as well as any land required on a temporary basis for the construction period.
Careful consideration of the tunnel and associated works design requirements is necessary to
ensure that the land required is accurately identified.
The way in which land is acquired for tunnels and other road infrastructure varies according to the
legislation that applies in each jurisdiction. In some states, project-specific legislation applies for
tunnels including land acquisition requirements. In other states, general transport and land
legislation applies.
The land associated with a tunnel must consider:
land required for permanent access to the tunnel (approach roadways and maintenance)
land required for construction access to the tunnel site and any temporary works
land required for providing evacuation facilities and areas for assembly
Austroads 2010
15
land required for tunnel-related buildings and equipment
land use above the tunnel and any restrictions on its use to ensure the safety of the tunnel
preservation of the integrity of any elements (e.g. rock anchors) extending beyond the limits
of the tunnel itself
ongoing access requirements for the complete and permanent tunnel structure including the
enclosed void, adjacent drainage, canopy tubes and permanent rock anchors
potential use of land above cut-and-cover tunnels after construction has been completed
other ongoing access requirements including maintenance access to ensure the entity
responsible for maintaining the structure has unfettered access including for construction,
inspection, maintenance, repair, demolition and replacement of structures.
Tunnel access requirements (including land requirements), must comply with the relevant
jurisdictions legal framework.
In some cases, limitations on development may need to be imposed on adjacent landowners
including:
limitations on future excavation or future filling
limitations on the height of adjacent buildings particularly in the vicinity of portals and
ventilation stations (to avoid creating an elevated receptor of tunnel emissions)
limitations on applied pressure during building construction
limitation on vehicles travelling above the tunnel.
These limitations would need to be carefully considered and may trigger compensation rights for
adjacent land owners through easements, conditioning under development legislation and through
other legal arrangements.
3.5
Risk Management of Road Tunnel Works
3.5.1
General
Hazard identification and the management of risks to ensure their reduction to an appropriate level
are necessary and ongoing considerations in the planning, design, procurement, construction,
operation and maintenance of tunnels (refer to Association of British Insurers/British Tunnelling
Society 2003). Risk management is discussed in detail for the planning, design and
commissioning of tunnels in Part 2 and for the operation and maintenance of tunnels in Part 3.
Risk management is a continuous process from concept through planning and design,
construction, commissioning and operation and maintenance of any tunnel project.
It is necessary to adopt a formalised risk management process to properly document the
identification, evaluation and allocation of risks. Reference should be made to AS/NZS ISO 31000:
2009 Risk Management Principles and Guidelines, and PIARC (2008c), Risk Analysis for Road
Tunnels. Reference may also be made to OECD and PIARC (2001).
3.5.2
Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is the formalised process of identifying hazards and evaluating their
consequence and probability of occurrence together with strategies as appropriate for preventive
and contingent actions.
Austroads 2010
16
The parameters to be used in the assessment of risks, in terms of probability of occurrence of a

hazard and its severity of impact/consequence on cost, program, environment, third parties and
existing facilities must be both project specific and appropriate to the project under consideration.
Risk assessment and evaluation of options should take into account:
socio-political risks to the project
availability of funding or restrictions on funding for the project
requirement for third party approvals (e.g. environmental agencies, public utility authorities)
changes in tunnel requirements because of changes in legislation (e.g. brought about by

incidents with existing tunnels)
changes in design standards
the geology and hydrogeology of the site
tunnelling techniques appropriate to the nature of the ground and environment and the
selected alignment options
safety (encountering hazardous materials and constructions methods)
fire safety risks during construction
temporary, initial and permanent ground-support systems
ground and groundwater treatment measures, their impact on the environment and on third
parties
ground movements and settlements at the ground surface and their impact on a third party or
subsurface ground movements and their impact on buried structures such as utility services,
adjacent tunnels and underground structures
environmental considerations including dust, noise, vibrations, traffic, groundwater

contamination movement and construction equipment movements
associated costs, health, safety and program implications
appropriate forms of contract
hazardous materials including gases, chemicals, other pollutants or naturally occurring

substances that could be injurious to health or affect durability
operations and maintenance requirements
all other particular factors relevant to the proposed project location, geology and
environment.
Risk assessments and evaluations must include identifying and evaluating the hazards and
consequent risks of all of the options and should be documented formally.
Risk assessments required at each stage of the project are to be summarised in appropriate risk
registers.
3.5.3
Risk Registers
Risk registers are needed to clearly identify and clarify ownership of risks and detail clearly how the
risks are to be allocated, controlled, mitigated and managed. Systems to be used to track risks are
required and they should enable management and mitigation of risks through contingency
measures and controls to be monitored through all stages of a project.
Austroads 2010
17
Risk registers are to be live documents that are continually reviewed and revised to take account
of the results of investigations and further and better information that becomes available through
the project development process and should be available for scrutiny at any time. In addition to
identifying the hazards, consequent risks, mitigation and contingency measures, they also need to
document proposed actions, responsibilities, critical dates for completion of actions and when
required actions have been closed out.
The risk registers should be maintained through the life of the project and be continuous through
the concept development, preliminary and detailed design and construction phases of the project.
This will require an agreed protocol for the maintenance of the registers as they are transmitted
between stages of the project and their eventual return to the owners at the end of the project. The
required form of the register and the way it is to be managed for each of the various stages of the
project will need to be established at the start of the project to ensure that the integrity of the
document is retained throughout.
Austroads 2010
18
R E G UL A T OR Y R E QUIR E ME NT S
4.1
National Legislation
Planners must establish what, if any, of the Commonwealth of Australia or New Zealand
Government legislation may be applicable to the project in question and apply it as required.
The Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 should be
consulted in all Australian projects to ensure compliance with its requirements.
If the tunnel is to be part of any federally funded road program, then the relevant legislation for
those roads must be considered in determining the requirements.
4.2
State Legislation
4.2.1
General
All legislation relating to infrastructure planning, transport infrastructure and environmental

protection will apply to some degree in all tunnel projects. Other legislation relating to workplace
health and safety and fire protection will also be important in planning a tunnel project.
Planners should establish the range of applicable legislation for their jurisdiction and ensure that
the project under consideration will be in accord with the requirements of the relevant legislation.
In particular, the requirements of agencies external to the tunnel implementation agency must be
determined and included in the planning and design process. Environmental requirements and the
needs of the relevant fire and rescue authorities as well as those of other emergency services
agencies must be included.
4.2.2
Project Specific Legislation
Some projects will be subject to or require specific legislation passed to enable the project to
proceed and/or to specify the method of delivery. Planning will have to be in accordance with such
legislation or recognise that such legislation may be implemented to facilitate the delivery of the
project.
Austroads 2010
19
T R A F F IC C ONS IDE R A T IONS
5.1
General Considerations
Since the size of the tunnel constructed in the first instance cannot be increased (e.g. widened)
cost-effectively beyond the confines of the tunnel dimensions, it is critical that the assessment of
the design traffic volumes and operating requirements is undertaken thoroughly. The tunnel will
form a part of the overall road network and its performance in terms of level of service must be
consistent with the level of service of the roads servicing it.
The network considerations are of great importance and it will be necessary to develop the tunnel
to provide long-term capacity requirements consistent with the approach roadways. It may be
necessary to build in the ability to increase the capacity of the tunnel as the approach roadways
are enhanced (additional first stage width used as shoulders or break-down lanes that may later be
converted to running lanes; or the ability to build an additional adjacent tunnel to increase corridor
capacity).
Appropriate traffic volumes are required for different purposes in the planning and design of a
tunnel. The volume to adopt for the different purposes will be based on the time frame relevant to
the particular consideration. For example, the volume to be adopted to determine the number of
lanes will be for a time horizon of at least 10 years after opening, while the volumes for assessing
the ventilation requirements will be based on the traffic volumes at opening (allowing for future
enhancement as the traffic volumes and mix of traffic changes refer to Section 5.4).
5.2
Analysis Techniques
Assessing the appropriate design traffic volume to be used for a specific project may be done by:
Adopting the agreed network traffic volumes determined by a study of the overall network
using parameters to satisfy appropriate policy requirements for controlling travel demand.
Carrying out appropriate traffic studies to assess the demands on the proposed
infrastructure, using output from overall transportation studies of the area in question (refer to
Austroads 2009a).
In conjunction with traffic studies, analysing the effects of the new infrastructure on traffic
demand and distribution using appropriate analytical techniques including simulation.
5.3
Capacity Analysis
Having established the design traffic volume for the facility, it is necessary to determine the number
of lanes for the tunnel to provide for this volume at an appropriate level of service. The basic
number of lanes can be established by applying the principles of the Highway Capacity Manual
(TRB 2000) and Austroads Guide to Traffic Management Part 5: Road Management (Austroads
2008a). This will depend on the level of service desired in the design year and should be
consistent with the roads feeding the tunnel structure.
If the tunnel includes an interchange or parts of an interchange, the requirements for the access
ramps will have to be established in determining the overall tunnel dimensions. Although the
requirements for interchanges are given in Austroads Guide to Traffic Management Part 6:
Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings (Austroads 2007) and in the Guide to Road Design
- Part 4C: Interchanges (Austroads 2009c), variations from these requirements for tunnels are
detailed in Part 2.
Austroads 2010
20
The tunnel size will have to be sufficient to accommodate these requirements within the bounds of
any demand management policies adopted for the corridor in question. At all times, the
requirements for the safe movement of all traffic including all classes of vehicles should be
considered and appropriate traffic management measures adopted.
5.4
Ventilation
The ventilation requirements for any tunnel will be dependent on the traffic volumes and mix to be
accommodated and the efficiency of the movement of traffic through the tunnel. It will be
necessary to determine the total volume of traffic and its distribution throughout the day to allow a
suitable system to be designed. Further, measures to ensure the continuous, efficient movement
of the traffic stream will contribute to a more efficient and affordable ventilation system.
The design of the ventilation system should be based on the projected traffic emission data
(adjusted for projected improvements in emissions) or peak emergency air volumes required,
whichever is the greater. Thus the equipment will need to be designed with the flexibility to
accommodate the immediate traffic (next five years) and to be adjustable to accommodate the
traffic mix and volumes as they change over the life of the facility.
The ventilation system adopted will depend on its interaction with the fire and life safety system to
be used. An optimal combination of these systems is the desirable outcome.
Details of the different types of ventilation systems and their design and application are provided in
Part 2.
Austroads 2010
21
S T R UC T UR A L DE S IG N C ONS IDE R A T IONS
6.1
General
Structural considerations involve the integrity of the natural ground through which the tunnel
passes as well as the design of structural elements to support vehicles and equipment installed to
assist in the operation of the tunnel. The design of ancillary structures is also required to complete
the array of structural issues to be considered.
6.2
Design Elements
The structural design elements to be considered include:
geotechnical integrity of the surrounding ground (refer to Section 8)
strength of support linings
design of running surface support where required (bridge or pavement design as required)
structural integrity of roof structures
consideration of tunnel induced ground movements and settlement
adjacent infrastructure, excavations and tunnels
fire resistance of structural elements
structural integrity of supports for equipment (ventilation, lighting, traffic signage,

communication facilities)
design of ancillary structures (control centre, plant rooms, and services buildings).
Details of the requirements for these elements of road tunnels are dealt with in Part 2.
Austroads 2010
22
G E OME T R IC DE S IG N C ONS IDE R A T IONS
7.1
General
The geometric concept design of the roadway passing through the tunnel must be established at
the earliest opportunity in the planning process to ensure that the tunnel is adequately sized and
that the operating characteristics of the tunnel will be appropriate for the traffic volumes expected.
Once the geometry is established and the other requirements of the tunnel incorporated, it is then
difficult to make changes to that geometry later in the process.
Clearances to walls and other obstructions are critical as these affect the behaviour of drivers and
will influence the safety of operation. Because of the cost of constructing a tunnel and the benefits
of the controlled environment, clearances smaller than those adopted for open road situations will
be appropriate.
The restricted environment of a tunnel has an effect on the standard of elements adopted. For
example, the cross-section is necessarily restricted in width, which means that the alignment
elements should be more generous to compensate for this. However, the restriction in width
should not be achieved at the expense of appropriate lane widths, which are defined in the
Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (Austroads 2009b).
Particular attention to the effects of horizontal and vertical curvature is required, where the walls,
barriers and roof may restrict the available sight distance. The most effective way of overcoming
this problem is to adopt sufficiently large radii for the curves so that the line of sight is not interfered
with by these obstructions. In tunnels where the curvature cannot be improved, the posted speed
limit in the tunnel will have to be reduced to accommodate this and provide an adequate level of
safety.
Details of these requirements are discussed in Part 2.
7.2
Grades
In general, the requirements of Austroads (2009b) are to be applied for tunnel design. However,
for tunnels, the penalties of steep gradients are more severe than on open roads and will include
higher ventilation costs because of increased vehicle emissions. In addition, the steeper the
grades, the more difficult, and hence larger the ventilation systems must be to overcome the
natural buoyancy tendencies for both normal ventilation conditions and in the case of fire.
Further, traffic speeds may be reduced to unacceptable levels because of the effect of the grade
on truck speeds. On the other hand, it is necessary for the tunnel to enter the ground as quickly as
possible to avoid unduly long access requirements, adding considerably to the cost and overall
impact of the tunnel project. A suitable balance between these conflicting requirements needs to
be found for the specific requirements of the tunnel being implemented.
The recommended range of acceptable grades in tunnels is provided in Part 2.
7.3
Cross-section
7.3.1
General
Cross-section elements are to be designed in accordance with Austroads (2009b). Because of the
tunnel environment, additional factors have to be considered and specific details of these
considerations are provided in Part 2. Figure 7.1 illustrates typical features of the cross-section of
road tunnels. Reference may also be made to PIARC (2001).
Austroads 2010
23
7.3.2
Lane Widths
Standard lane widths should generally be adopted for tunnels in accordance with Austroads
(2009b).
7.3.3
Shoulder Widths
The functions of shoulders are discussed in Austroads (2009b). The specific requirements for
tunnels are detailed in Part 2.
Example box section (usually cut-and-cover)
Example arch section

Notes:
A = Walkway headroom
B = Width of verge with full headroom
C = Width of verge.
Source: Highways Agency (1999).
Figure 7.1: Typical tunnel cross-section
Austroads 2010
24
7.3.4
Working Width
In addition to the clearances to walls for shoulder widths, the effect of the crossfall on the lateral
movement of the top of high vehicles on impact with a rigid barrier has to be considered this is
known as the working width. Refer to Part 2 for more details.
7.3.5
Auxiliary Lanes
Auxiliary lanes are additional lanes incorporated to allow for acceleration, deceleration and the
effect of grades on truck speeds. Providing these lanes will involve additional cost and careful
consideration of the need for such lanes is required (refer to Part 2 for further guidance).
7.3.6
Tunnel Envelope and Vehicle Clearance
The total clearance for the design vehicle needs to be determined based on the adopted standards
for the corridor and permissible vehicle types on the route. Existing clearances on the connecting
network and any proposals to increase or decrease these and the likely time frame need to be
considered. Enforcement/legislative response to over-height vehicles should also be considered.
Refer to Part 2 for details.
7.3.7
Ramp Connections/Diverges and Merges
Tunnel-specific requirements for these features are described in detail in Part 2.

7.3.8
Portal Traffic Diversion
Some types of vehicles may be precluded from using the tunnel (e.g. vehicles carrying dangerous
goods) or it may be necessary to divert traffic away from the tunnel during an incident. Such
diversion of traffic requires advance signing to allow that traffic to leave the facility and divert to an
alternative route before it reaches the tunnel portal.
If some traffic fails to divert for any reason (e.g. vehicles already past the diversion point when the
decision to divert is made), then adequate facilities are required in advance of the tunnel portals to
accommodate vehicles that are banned from entering. Additional standing area clear of the traffic
lanes or U-turn arrangements may be considered to allow these vehicles to exit the facility. Details
will depend on the specific circumstances of the tunnel in question, the available space at the
portal and the configuration of the adjacent road system.
Refer to Part 2 for further details.
Austroads 2010
25
G E OT E C HNIC A L C ONS IDE R A T IONS
8.1
Overview
A rigorous and thorough investigation of the geology, geotechnical characteristics and the
hydrogeological factors at the site is essential to ensure the structural integrity and safety of the
proposed tunnel. The basic purpose of the geotechnical investigation is similar to that for any road
and structure project (refer to the Guide to Road Design Part 7: Geotechnical Investigation and
Design, Austroads 2008c). However, the special nature of tunnels means that a specific
investigation design will be required for each tunnel project.
Site investigation should be planned and designed to:
Identify as far as reasonably practicable, commensurate with the scale and the level of the
project (planning, concept, feasibility, and detailed design), artificial and natural hazards
(including seismic events) and hence consequent risks to be assessed.
Provide sufficient information on site conditions, ground and groundwater conditions, and
previous history of the project site including any constraints of engineering significance
relevant to the works to be carried out. This is required in order to enable realistic and
reliable assessments of different tunnelling methodologies.
Enable the financial and technical viability of the project to be evaluated from preliminary
studies.
Enable alignment options to be compared and the feasibility of the options in terms of cost,
program and constructability to be evaluated.
Be of an extent that is appropriate to the scale of the project.
Produce sufficient information to develop the geotechnical baseline report as the base from
which the costs of the project and variations from that are measured.
The geotechnical investigation and the proper interpretation of data from that investigation are
fundamental to the successful development of a tunnel project.
8.2
Specific Requirements for Tunnels
8.2.1
Introduction
Modern road construction places special demands on geological investigations in connection with
tunnel construction. The investigations for tunnel projects should provide an account of
alternatives and total costs together with a survey of conditions relating to safety, the community,
and the environment.
An important requirement, among others, is geological investigations that comprise detailed
geological mapping and engineering geology. This is often supplemented by geotechnical,
hydrogeological and geophysical investigations.
A rational and qualitative procedure requires that the investigation is carried out systematically in
stages and that the results are carefully evaluated before proceeding to the next stage. The extent
of the investigations will depend upon the level of the specific plan.
The procedure and reports associated with the investigations should be carried out such that the
data from one planning phase may be satisfactorily transferred to the next. The nature and extent
of the investigations must be considered in relation to the actual projects in hand.
Austroads 2010
26
8.2.2
The Planning Stage
The investigations at this stage should provide the basis for an evaluation of whether the
geological conditions are such that a tunnel appears to be a feasible solution.
The findings of the studies should be summarised in a report which includes:
a summary of the local geology and a description of structural, geological and

hydrogeological conditions that are significant with respect to the feasibility of the project
a summary of areas which require special measures in connection with the project
suggestions for further investigations.
8.2.3
The Concept Stage
An investigation at this level should provide the geological basis for the selection of the tunnel
route and is an essential element of the planning stage for the tunnel.
This investigation should be based on the investigations from the previous planning phase and
may include:
soils cover type and thickness
rock cover
water depth for submarine tunnels or tunnels under a water body or channel for tunnels
under water, rock types on both sides of the water body should be established and reported
rock type, strength and boundaries
geological structures bedding, foliation, faults, shears, joints, etc.
structure orientation and frequency
weakness zones
hydrological and hydrogeological factors
measuring program for groundwater level and pore pressure where necessary,
including registration of water reservoirs and marsh areas together with seasonal
variation for these
sensitivity with regard to flora and fauna
registration of areas liable to subsidence
requirements for control of leakage into the various sections of the tunnel
quality of rock material with a view to possible use in road construction (e.g. pavement, fill or
other purposes)
investigation for spoil sites
tunnel entrance site alternatives, cuttings, danger of rockslides
need for core drilling
need for seismological investigations.
The investigations undertaken should ensure that the technical solutions proposed may be
implemented and that the investigations are able to provide the basis for quantitative estimates.
Austroads 2010
27
8.2.4
The Design Stage
The need for supplementary investigations made in connection with the concept design should be
considered based on the results of the earlier investigations and the development of design
options. It may be the case that the detailed design will be delayed for some time after the initial
planning but it will be more economical to expand the investigation while the equipment and
personnel are on the site to ensure that the information likely to be required for design decisions
will be available when required.
The purpose of the evaluations at this stage is:
to establish the geological, geotechnical and hydrogeological basis for cost estimates
report the degree of uncertainty in the investigation results and the consequences of this for
cost estimates.
The impact of the tunnel on the nearby property should be examined and evaluated in detail. The
examination should include:
a scrutiny of the results of previous investigations
planning and execution of supplementary investigations together with a verification of

previous conclusions
assessment of potential construction vibrations that should include:
determination of the limits for permitted vibrations within the area of influence and
preparation of a measurement program for follow-up
a plan for building inspection, registration of settlements and damage and the time
when this is to be carried out should be determined
groundwater, pore pressure and settlement. Using investigations undertaken as part of the
preliminary design, an evaluation of possible damage arising and necessary protective
measures may be required. Reports are required for the following:
areas of influence
investigation of the thickness and potential for settlement of sediments
registration of conditions for the basis of the construction methods and foundations
required
evaluation of necessary measures to meet demands for leakage control and its
consequences.
Special conditions relating to underwater tunnels include the need to document that the rock mass
conditions are favourable and must be subject to a comprehensive risk assessment, with approval
obtained from the constructing authority.
8.2.5
Supplementary Geological Investigations
It may be appropriate to prepare supplementary investigations in order to confirm quantities

estimated, or to assess other circumstances which emerge during the course of the investigation.
For example, details around the tunnel portals/cuttings which are essential for openings may need
additional information to confirm the extent of the design of the portal structure and approaching
batters of excavation. Further, it may be necessary to adjust the extent of drainage and seepage
control planned in the vicinity as a result of the measurements obtained.
Austroads 2010
28
8.2.6
Geological and Geotechnical Reports used by Constructors
All reports prepared during the investigations should be provided to tenderers for their own
evaluations and interpretations of the geological conditions because the geology is fundamental to
determining the tunnel alignment, the support design and the tunnelling methodology.
Reports should therefore include:
A description of geological, hydrogeological and geotechnical conditions along the tunnel

route.
Maps and longitudinal profiles which show the occurrences of rock type, weakness zones
and the rock cover. It should be stated whether these are based on investigations,
observations or interpretations.
Analysis of structures (e.g. their condition, frequency, length, direction, etc.).
Observed water levels.
Chemical analysis of groundwater.
Summary of calibrations from the detailed analyses (reference to other reports where further
data is given).
Particular local circumstances to which special attention is drawn (e.g. water wells).
The availability of bore hole cores for inspection.
Reference list.
Austroads 2010
29
DR A INA G E , WA T E R A ND F L OOD P R OT E C T ION
9.1
General
The management of water in the tunnel environment falls into three categories:
drainage of the road surface in the tunnel
protection of the structure from flooding, tidal and storm surge events
management of groundwater in the vicinity of the tunnel.
Each of these categories needs to be considered separately and the drainage system for the
tunnel should be designed to accommodate them collectively if required.
It is necessary during the planning stage to establish the required drainage system and the space
required to ensure that the tunnel structure is sized appropriately to accommodate it. It is essential
that the design is not compromised by inadequate space being available when the detailed design
is undertaken.
Appropriate allowance should be made for climate change and its effect on rainfall intensity and
flood levels (refer to Section 9.5).
9.2
Drainage of the Road Surface
Drainage design is to be generally in accordance with the Austroads Guide to Road Design
Part 5: Drainage Design (Austroads 2008b). Specific requirements for tunnels are discussed in
this section.
Water and other liquids may enter a tunnel from various sources such as:
groundwater seepage and infiltration
rainfall run-off from portal areas
rainwater carried in by vehicles
floodwater that overtops the tunnel portal crest level
groundwater infiltration
wastewater effluent from wash-down activities
accidental spillage of fuel from damaged vehicles and the wash-down of such products
operation of fire suppression systems
accidental rupture of pumped drainage, fire main or hydrant.
Drainage systems may be single purpose or combined with one that collects wash-down water,
water from spills and/or rainwater. Irrespective of the source, water should be directed as required
to appropriate systems for treatment and disposal.
Details of the design requirements are included in Part 2.
Austroads 2010
30
9.2.1
Surface Drainage
Stormwater drainage in the vicinity of portals plus that carried into the tunnels by vehicles should
be collected in specially designed grated inlet pits which incorporate flame traps and are explosion
resistant. Litter should be prevented from fouling the low point sump and pump system by using
either litter baskets inside the pits, closely spaced grate bars on the pits, or litter baskets inside the
receiving sump upstream of the pump intake and trash baskets.
9.2.2
Spillage Management
Spillage, deluge and maintenance wash-down water must also be captured by the tunnel
stormwater drainage system but could be diverted and treated separately from the clean
stormwater. However, environmental protection authorities often require that all intercepted water
be treated before discharge back into the environment regardless of its source. In general, sag
points in tunnels will be well below the levels able to be incorporated into existing stormwater
drainage systems and will require automated pump-out arrangements.
Drainage water from elevated and transition structures must meet the requirements of the relevant
authorities in the jurisdiction where the tunnel is being constructed.
9.3
Flooding
9.3.1
General
Flooding issues have the potential to significantly affect tunnel safety and adjacent properties.
These issues may occur at the on/off ramp locations where there is:
potential for inflow of floodwater into the tunnels arising from run-off from nearby
watercourses or large catchments
potential to create increased flooding of nearby properties arising from flow-path obstructions
associated with tunnel works.
9.3.2
Flood Immunity at the Tunnel Portals
Tunnels are significant assets and if inundated by floodwater significant damage to systems may
occur and put that segment of the road network out of service while repairs are undertaken. The
associated closure time frame may be well in excess of that for the remainder of the road network
following a flood event.
The risk of flood inundation into the tunnel could also create a safety hazard due to the possibility
of people being trapped in the tunnel as floodwaters rise outside. The potential flood inflow volume
arising from major watercourses could be many times greater than the tunnels volume, thereby
increasing the risk of the tunnel being completely filled during an extreme flood event.
The level of flood immunity will vary depending on the significance of the tunnel in the network, its
location and the cost involved. The critical nature of tunnel operation is such that the risk of
flooding from large external sources should be minimal. A risk assessment should be undertaken
to identify the appropriate level of risk which will be acceptable to the community. A range of flood
immunities for the tunnel portals should be investigated, up to and including the probable maximum
flood event. The results of the risk assessment should then be used to determine appropriate flood
immunity for the tunnel portals.
Austroads 2010
31
Each tunnel should be assessed on a case by case basis using a risk management approach. The
minimum level of flood protection provided by physical means at the tunnel portals should be 1 in
100 year average recurrence interval (ARI). An additional freeboard allowance should be provided
for climate change (300 mm minimum).
9.3.3
Flood Protection
Flood protection at traffic entry points and tunnel ventilation services openings should extend to at
least the categories of stormwater and floodwater coming:
over the sides of portal wall trough structures
off surface-level overland drainage from connecting roads
in through the ventilation structural openings.
Floodwater emanating from tidal and/or storm surge events or from nearby river, creek or surface
drainage systems may constitute the source of these problems.
Where the potential for ingress of stormwater and floodwater into transition/tunnel structures exists,
the preferred solution is in the form of a physical levee in and surrounding the carriageways. The
use of mechanical devices, such as floodgates, booms or raiseable barriers involves the risk of
malfunction due to debris clogging and jamming mechanisms and is generally not an approach to
be adopted.
In certain circumstances a lower level of flood protection may be considered to be appropriate,
provided that due allowance is made to accommodate the expected volume of stormwater which
could enter the tunnel. In such instances the tunnel road surface and drainage system should be
designed to safely convey the expected stormwater inflows to the tunnel low point and the low
point sump and pump arrangement should be designed to ensure that the pumping system
remains operational during an extreme storm event. This will require an assessment of the
expected depth of ponding which could occur during an extreme event and all mechanical and
electrical equipment associated with the pumping system must be located at least 300 mm above
that ponded level.
9.3.4
External Hydraulic Impacts
Tunnel entry and exit ramps to surface streets often need to project beyond the existing natural
surface levels and therefore have the potential to affect peak water levels for the surrounding areas
during flood events. Local authorities generally regulate developments to a level above a flood
regulation level of a 100 year ARI event and require developers to demonstrate that their works
will not create adverse impacts upon peak flood levels or discharges upon external properties.
Consideration should be given to the impact of a probable maximum flood event.
9.4
Management of Groundwater
Groundwater ingress or seepage may occur to some degree in all tunnels, even those that are fully
tanked. Such seepage is generally collected via spoon drains on the top of the kerbside
barriers/behind wall treatments and at the low point of the tunnel cross-section, beneath the
pavement. Once collected it should be directed to a dedicated treatment area in the tunnel sumps.
The nature and extent of treatment that will be required depends on the water quality and quantity.
Austroads 2010
32
Groundwater seepage affects maintenance, drainage and groundwater levels. Draining

groundwater may affect settlement, flora and fauna and contaminated water. The environmental
protection authority in the relevant jurisdiction may have specific requirements and the
management of the groundwater will need to be undertaken in accordance with those requirements
as well as the physical effects discussed in this section.
It will be necessary to determine the acceptable amount of groundwater ingress to the tunnel both
for the design of suitable drainage structures in the tunnel and to ensure that the surrounding
environment is not damaged. The tunnel may provide a drainage path that removes water from
the surrounding environment to the detriment of flora and fauna in that area and the amount of
water ingress allowed into the tunnel may have to be restricted to achieve a suitable outcome. The
limits on such ingress should be determined in the concept stage of the tunnel development
9.5
Climate Change
The possible impacts of climate change on drainage should be considered during the planning and
design process.
With respect to recommended allowances for increases or possible changes to rainfall intensities,
Austroads takes guidance from Australian Rainfall and Run-off (Engineers Australia 2001),
published by the Institution of Engineers Australia. Australian Rainfall and Run-off is continually
monitored and any changes in procedures that become apparent should be adopted.
Designs in coastal regions should make an allowance for an increase in sea level of 300 mm for
the effects of climate change. This allowance has considered the consensus of opinion concerning
sea level rise and could be regarded as a conservative approach. Selection of an approach for
design ocean levels allows for a number of conditions such as the tides, storm surge and the risk
of coincidental occurrence of floods and high ocean levels. Generally the combination of these
conditions in design procedures leads to a conservative ocean level for design.
Any update of rainfall intensities/estimation procedures will rely on the statistical analysis of
recorded rainfall data and historical records. Until such analysis shows that changes are required,
the recommendations of Australian Rainfall and Run-off should be adopted.
Austroads 2010
33
10
F UNC T IONA L S A F E T Y A ND OP E R A T IONS
10.1
General
Functional safety and operations includes:
traffic safety infrastructure including road geometry as well as traffic management and
incident detection
fire and life safety requirements (including fire/emergency services intervention)
ventilation requirements
communications within the tunnel
operational procedures for maintenance and incident detection and management.
Each element in this array of issues may be dealt with separately but it is important to understand
the interaction of these elements and the effect different combinations have on the overall level of
safety in the tunnel. In this way, an overall package of measures can be adopted to produce an
acceptable level of safety in the tunnel. The elements can be packaged in different combinations
to produce similar levels of safety. The optimal combination will reflect the cost-effectiveness of
the individual elements, using features of one to compensate for another when unreasonable costs
arise from its adoption.
It is essential that these issues are addressed at the planning stage to ensure that the tunnel is
sized appropriately, that the appropriate equipment can be housed, that signs and traffic controls
can be suitably located, that adequate evacuation facilities can be provided and that all facilities
required for the safety of users and maintenance personnel can also be provided.
10.2
Traffic Safety Infrastructure
10.2.1
Intelligent Transport Systems
Intelligent transport systems (ITS) are an essential part of the operation of many roads and the
particular requirements for tunnels must be considered in planning the project. ITS will play an
important part in the effective and efficient operation of major tunnels and the concept design of the
ITS should be undertaken in the planning phase to ensure that the appropriate infrastructure and
adequate facilities are provided both for the initial requirements and for the future development of
the systems required. The infrastructure in the tunnel itself and the associated structures (e.g.
Control Room) as well as integration with ITS on the surrounding road network must be
considered.
In addition, ITS in the tunnel will have to be coordinated with the communications systems, the fire
suppression systems and the ventilation systems to automatically implement the necessary traffic
management when required.
In keeping with functional safety design principles, the design should incorporate passive safety
design solutions wherever practicable, in preference to an increased reliance on electrical systems
and/or ITS.
Details of the requirements for ITS design are included in the Part 2.
Austroads 2010
34
10.2.2
Signs and Signals
Traffic control will require an array of signs and devices to ensure proper operation of the tunnel
and approach infrastructure. Appropriate regulatory signs (e.g. speed control), warning signs,
direction signs and variable message signs can be used to meet these requirements. The size and
location of signs must be designed for ease of observation and compliance by drivers and the
tunnel envelope will have to accommodate them.
It is desirable to discourage unnecessary lane changing in tunnels and appropriate signs and lane
marking should be considered.
Variable message signs located outside of the tunnel will be required to manage incidents in the
tunnel. Lane control signs and variable speed limit signs (single or combined VSL or VSL/LCS)
are required to manage lane usage and speed over a range of operational and emergency
scenarios. Traffic signals may be required to prevent entry into the tunnel when an incident
occurs. These may be associated with some form of physical obstruction such as boom gates or
other developing technologies (e.g. virtual stop directive) to ensure adequate compliance with the
directive to stop.
Desirably, major direction signing should be accomplished outside the confines of the tunnel, but
on longer tunnels and those associated with interchanges, this may not be possible. Direction
signs are relatively large and adequate space will have to be designed into the tunnel to
accommodate them, the signs designed to fit the tunnel envelope or a combination of these
approaches. The provision of traveller information should be considered for decision points which
may be located at significant distance from the actual tunnel.
10.3
Fire and Life Safety
10.3.1
Overview
Fire and life safety systems and practices are based on developments in international and national
practice, national fire regulations and codes, and guidelines cognisant of emerging international
trends in the area of fire and smoke control in tunnels including construction, operations and
maintenance (PIARC 1999; Norwegian Public Roads Administration 1997, PIARC 2004, Lacroix
and Haack 2004; European Union 2004; TRL 2006 & WorkCover NSW 2006). The practice
described in the forthcoming Australian Standard AS 4825 forms the basis of the requirements of
the Austroads Guide to Tunnels.
There may be variations and refinements to suit the features of each particular tunnel section
depending on the actual requirements and characteristics of the project.
The fundamental approach is (PIARC 1995b; PIARC 2004; Lacroix and Haack 2004 and National
Fire Protection Association 2008):
firstly, to prevent incidents occurring through appropriate design
secondly, in the event of an incident to save lives by making self evacuation possible
thirdly, to make rescue possible
finally to limit any damage to the facility.
Austroads 2010
35
These objectives should be developed in conjunction with the requirements of coordinated fire
brigade/emergency services intervention. As fire and life safety issues depend upon developed
options and the final adopted design including environmental impact statement (EIS) processes
and approvals, fire and life safety issues are developed iteratively over the project lifecycle through
to detailed design. This process of refinement should be continued through implementation and
operation as part of continually improving the system through experience and learning.
Note that the characteristics of busway tunnels listed in Section 2.2 may require a different fire and
life safety system from that for a general traffic tunnel with similar geometry.
10.3.2
Fire Safety Objectives
For each tunnel project, it is necessary to establish the fire and life safety objectives to be
achieved. The detail of these objectives will depend on the type and scale of the tunnel. Different
requirements will evolve for short tunnels as opposed to long tunnels and the combination of
ventilation, fixed fire-fighting equipment, emergency services intervention and communication
systems will have an effect on the details required.
Different stakeholders will raise different fire safety objectives that need to be considered when
developing the fire safety concept design.
Examples of fire safety objectives which could be considered include:
safeguard people from illness and injury due to a fire within a tunnel
facilitate the activities of operators
facilitate effective emergency services and/or fire brigade intervention
facilitate the activities of other emergency services agencies
control and limit fire growth
control and limit fire spread between vehicles
minimise the risk of structural damage resulting from fire
minimise the risk of flooding subsequent to a fire event
minimise the risk of damage to adjoining buildings and structures as a result of fire within a
tunnel
minimise the interruption to the operation of a tunnel resulting from a fire
develop a clear, reliable incident response plan to manage fire emergencies
safeguard people from the accumulation of harmful substances in a tunnel.
The development of the required fire and life safety facilities to address these objectives is
discussed further in Part 2.
10.4
Ventilation of Tunnels
10.4.1
General
Ventilation systems should be designed to supply sufficient fresh air to all parts of the tunnel,
maintain air quality within prescribed limits and maintain discharge tunnel air quality within
prescribed limits.
Austroads 2010
36
Forced tunnel ventilation is also normally required to control smoke and heat in the event of a fire
in a tunnel and direct it away from tunnel users, whilst they escape, and provide cool, external air
for emergency services personnel. For some tunnels, natural ventilation will be sufficient to
maintain the required air quality but forced ventilation will be needed if fire smoke control is
required or in abnormal traffic conditions.
The form of ventilation applied to a specific tunnel will depend on many factors including the:
location of the tunnel with particular regard to the potential impact on the local environment
design year in respect of forecast traffic levels and its composition
tunnel geometry, altitude and local topography
prevailing wind conditions (particularly short tunnels with wind exposed portals)
design fire load
presence and characteristics of a fixed fire fighting system
fire safety considerations.
There are a number of key operational requirements for tunnel ventilation systems, including:
providing sufficient air for dilution so that ambient air quality (in tunnel and as discharged) is
within air quality goals
controlling portal and ventilation station airflows to the extent necessary to achieve air quality
goals and avoid significant impacts at residential or other sensitive locations
controlling air speed within the tunnel
providing appropriate fire and life safety facilities for users and response from fire brigade
and emergency services personnel in the event of an incident.
Details of the different types of ventilation systems and their design and application are provided in
Part 2.
10.4.2
Ventilation Effects of Tunnel Location and Form
At the planning stage, it should be borne in mind that ventilation requirements are affected by the
location and characteristics of the tunnel site. The orientation, absolute and relative datum levels
of the tunnel will affect exhaust emission flow and levels of pollution but are often dictated by land
availability and geological issues with limited scope for significant optimisation to improve
ventilation outcomes.
Issues to be considered include:
managing the spread of smoke/hot combustion gases (upstream and downstream) in the
event of fire in the tunnel
potential recirculation of polluted air or smoke back through the tunnel because of incorrect
geometry of portals and ventilation inlets and outlets
the power consumption, noise control and urban amenity impacts of locating portals and
other facilities too close to residences and hence limiting opportunities for some buffer zone
to address these issues close to the portals
durability issues generally and including intake of salt spray (particularly during adverse
weather conditions in coastal/estuarine tunnels) and the generally aggressive tunnel
environment due to polluted air, groundwater drips, etc.
Austroads 2010
37
10.4.3
Key Design Considerations
Tunnel air quality is influenced by a number of factors including:
traffic speed and density
traffic mix vehicle type and age (particularly the trend towards low emissions vehicles)
traffic flow level of service considering the effects of grade, number of lanes, free-flow
speed and number of heavy vehicles
vehicle emissions
road gradient vehicle emissions increase with increase in uphill gradient.
PIARC (2008a) notes, The long term focus must remain on vehicle emissions. The best long
term strategy is the reduction of the emission from the vehicles themselves providing
environmental benefits across the entire road network not merely the very small proportion of the
road network served by tunnel.
Other factors that influence the design of a ventilation system include:
quality of air entering the tunnel through the portals and other intake points
external atmospheric conditions at the portals
on and off ramps that provide additional connections to the surface
portal locations related to that of sensitive receptors
operational power consumption and consequent greenhouse gas generation.
PIARC (2008a) notes that, The energy consumption of ventilation systems is often grossly
underestimated (or not considered at all) when considering various ventilation strategies. Failure
to consider the environmental consequences of tunnel energy consumption can distort the
apparent environmental benefits of proposed ventilation strategies.
10.4.4
Ventilation Performance Criteria
Standardised performance criteria for the design of tunnel ventilation systems is an issue in
Australia with consensus and benchmarking approaches being used in recent projects. Key
criteria relate to:
pollutant types
air quality
visibility
fire and life safety
noise.
PIARC (2008a) notes that, an achievable air quality criterion is the best basis for determining
the most appropriate ventilation strategy. The environmental consequences of the energy used to
achieve the environmental objectives of a ventilation strategy must not be overlooked when
assessing this management option.
As a minimum, when determining the performance criteria for a tunnel project, it is recommended
that relevant documents from the following organisations be used as key references:
Austroads 2010
38
Permanent International Association of Road Congress (PIARC) publications, for example

PIARC (1995a)
Australasian Fire Authorities Council, particularly Fire Safety Guidelines for Road Tunnels,
(2001)
National Fire Protection Association (USA)
Documents and legislation relating to the environment protection authority of the relevant
jurisdiction.
10.4.5
Other Ventilation Aspects
Other aspects of tunnel ventilation that require consideration are:
portal discharge
traffic monitoring
occupational health and safety (OHS) requirements.
Portal discharge
Calculations for the dispersal of tunnel exhaust gases at portals (and any ventilation outlets) are to
be based on the PIARC requirements set out in the PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels.
PIARC (2008a) states Based on experience in most situations the dispersion via the tunnel
portal does not necessarily result in exceeding the maximum concentration levels in areas with
sensitive receptors local to the tunnel portal. Therefore, by far, the most common method for the
dispersion of tunnel emissions is dispersing via the tunnel portals.
PIARC (2008a) also states of the many thousands of tunnels in the world only a small
proportion (estimated at <1%) have vertical air dispersion (Stacks) with the balance emitting all
tunnel discharge air via the portals without any form of air treatment.
The direction and effect of prevailing winds at the portal, together with plume buoyancy, must be
considered. Recycling of diluted exhaust gases into fresh air intakes or adjacent portals can have
undesirable effects and must be considered in the design and location of the system.
The assumptions as to any portal discharges should be stated, such as:
full portal discharge for short tunnels/controlled portal discharge where circumstances
permit/no net portal discharge where precluded after rational analysis of environmental
constraints
measurement/averaging times where no portal discharge specified (NB some short-term

portal discharges will always occur such as in the wakes of large vehicles)
exceptions for smoke/pollutant discharge in emergencies.
Traffic monitoring
Traffic and air quality sensors may be required to regulate the ventilation system.
Sensors also assist in controlling traffic outside the tunnel, to allow traffic to be managed in and
around the tunnel when unacceptable congestion, for whatever reason, occurs in the tunnel.
Austroads 2010
39
Workplace/occupational health and safety (WOHS) requirements

For maintenance purposes, the design of any walkways and access to equipment should meet
relevant WOHS requirements. Air quality during maintenance should meet the requirements
defined by the PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels and any codes of practice required by
individual jurisdictions.
Tunnels with buses (dedicated bus tunnels or otherwise) require consideration of longer-term
driver exposure.
10.4.6
Fans
The tunnel envelope may have to accommodate the fans necessary for ventilation requirements.
Details of fans required for the ventilation system decided for the tunnel in question are discussed
in Part 2.
10.5
Lighting
The lighting system for road tunnels will include lighting of the portal areas, the main running tunnel
roadway, signage, tunnel approaches and exits, emergency access passages and plant and
equipment rooms.
Details of the requirements for lighting design are included in Part 2.
10.6
Electrical Supply
10.6.1
General Requirements
The electrical supply includes all high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) electrical systems
required to operate the tunnel systems. Essential elements of the electrical supply system include
the HV and LV distribution systems, system protection and monitoring, and an uninterruptible
power system (UPS). It is often the case that a dual mains supply is required to provide sufficient
guarantee of supply to the tunnel.
Details of the requirements for electrical supply are included in Part 2.
10.6.2
Dual Power Supply
It is essential that electrical power to tunnels be continuously available for ventilation, emergency
egress and other safety reasons.
Two sources of supply from a power company are preferred, each rated to supply the full load of
the tunnel electrical system with an automatic transfer system to enable selection of the available
supply. During operation, both could be running at 50% capacity, and on the failure of one, the
other would automatically be boosted to 100% power output.
10.6.3
Uninterruptible Power Systems
In the event that both sources of power supply are not available, uninterrupted power systems
(UPS) should provide power for essential loads for appropriate times to ensure safety of users.
UPS are generally powered by battery banks and/or standby generators and will depend upon load
characteristics such as: size; length of supply during mains fail; and how long supply can be
disrupted. Essential loads are:
communications and monitoring equipment
computer and safety facilities
Austroads 2010
40
certain signage
emergency power outlets
essential lighting evenly distributed along the tunnel.
UPS for certain ventilation and pumping equipment may be necessary depending on the
circumstances and upon the design adopted. This is explained further in Part 2.
10.7
Communications and Monitoring Devices
Communications systems in tunnels are installed for communication between tunnel users and
tunnel controllers and for emergency services personnel in the event of an incident and in tunnel
operations and maintenance. The Communication Systems should also provide operators,
maintenance staff and the public with the capability to communicate verbally and visually in a
manner that enhances safety and efficiency of tunnel operations. Major tunnels should include the
following elements:
a Control Centre (dedicated to the tunnel or provided remotely)
incident detection system
CCTV
radio rebroadcast system
public address (PA) system with radio interruption
help telephones (motorist help telephone system or motorist emergency telephone system
[METS] refer also to the Guide to Road Design Part 6B Roadside Environment,
Austroads 2009d)
mobile phone coverage
monitoring and control (including operation and maintenance telephone system, fire control
co-ordination telephone system, variable message systems, tunnel information signs and
other signage).
These systems are primarily to support incident detection and response (including evacuation).
The communication systems and any communications links extending outside the project property
must be approved by the relevant authorities.
It is essential that communications be functional at all times in a tunnel, not only in a fire or
emergency situation, but also for monitoring and maintenance operations.
The system should be designed to provide automatic incident detection as an integral part of the
control systems. The elements of the system are included in the individual components described
in this section and the sections on fire and life safety, electrical supply, ventilation and lighting.
These must be designed as an integrated system to provide the level of incident detection and
communications links and interfaces between the communication system elements, as required.
To facilitate effective and efficient operations, detectors and monitoring systems may be supported
by a range of additional and separate communication systems such as an operation and
maintenance telephone system for tunnel control staff, fire control co-ordination telephone system
for use by emergency services and manual override of variable message systems and other
signage.
Austroads 2010
41
10.8
Operations
A traffic network needs ongoing monitoring and management to deliver safe, effective and reliable
operation. This is especially important in underground travel because of the complexities involved
and limited options once a vehicle has entered the facility.
Therefore, planning for the operational management of a network involving tunnels must consider:
monitoring and control of all systems associated with traffic management as well as tunnel
plant and equipment
incident and emergency response facilities
ready access to tunnels
maintenance facilities
network interfaces and impacts.
Some or most of these functional requirements can be met with the provision of a tunnel control
centre.
Details of the monitoring and control features required in tunnels are provided Part 2. The use and
management of these facilities is discussed in Part 3.
10.9
Maintenance
Maintenance requirements for the tunnel need to be considered at the planning and design stage
to ensure that the necessary facilities are provided and that the systems required to create a safe
working environment are incorporated.
Matters to be considered include:
carriageway widths to allow safe lane closures
closure procedures, including temporary two-way use of the other tunnel where duplicate
tunnels are used
ITS requirements for tunnel closures
washing requirements for walls
accessibility of equipment (fans, lighting, signs, traffic signals)
accessibility of electrical cables
location of drainage pipes and their accessibility.
As far as possible, the tunnel and its equipment should be planned and designed to allow
maintenance activities to be undertaken without the need for tunnel closure and to avoid exposure
of the maintenance workers to hazardous conditions.
The design must consider the impacts of maintenance, decommissioning and re-commissioning
activities on functional safety of electrical systems and ITS throughout the life of the tunnel. These
issues are further discussed in Part 2.
Details of maintenance activities and management are included in Part 3.
Austroads 2010
42
10.10 Public Utility Plant

10.10.1 Tunnel Requirements
Access will be required to several of the public utility plant facilities in order to construct, operate
and maintain the tunnel. The additional load on the existing systems will have to be determined,
and access and possible enhancements to the various systems will have to be negotiated and
designed.
The tunnel will usually require:
electricity supply
communications system
stormwater drainage system
water supply.
Early involvement of the relevant authorities is essential.
Austroads 2010
43
11
E NV IR ONME NT A L C ONS IDE R A T IONS
11.1
General
Appropriate actions/decisions in the early part of the concept phase of projects have the greatest
potential to minimise any potential adverse environmental impacts during construction and
operation of a tunnel.
During the early part of the concept phase, constraints mapping or environmental risk assessments
should be undertaken to establish the presence or absence of significant environmental
constraints. All regulatory requirements relating to environmental impacts must be observed in the
planning and design of a tunnel.
An environmental specialist should establish the environmental issues relevant to the project so
that all environmental constraints are identified and considered.
It is the clients responsibility to carry out an evaluation of risks to the environment and to ensure
that the project proceeds with full regard to relevant laws and regulations.
Environmental considerations for tunnels involve both in-tunnel matters and issues external to the
tunnel itself. The significant issues include water quality, air quality, visibility, noise, settlement,
vibration (refer to Section 12.4 ) and spoil disposal (refer to Section 12.5).
Details of drainage and ventilation infrastructure requirements are discussed in Section 9 and
Section 10.4. This section examines details of the environmental effects of these issues as well as
the other matters stated.
11.2
Water Quality
11.2.1
During Construction
Construction activities will require the use of water for various purposes, including the washing of
vehicles and construction plant. Control of rainfall run-off will also be required to protect adjacent
property and natural features. Groundwater encountered during construction will need to be
collected and removed. These sources of potentially contaminated water should be managed in
accordance with the requirements of Austroads (2008b).
11.2.2
During Operation
Water quality issues may arise when discharge from the tunnel has become contaminated by the
effect of road surface run-off. Refer to Section 9 for further information. In addition, the usual
treatment methods should be adopted before any surface water is discharged into the natural
environment. Refer to Austroads (2008b) for details of treatment systems.
11.3
Air Quality
11.3.1
During Construction
Air quality issues during construction relate to:
dust caused by construction activity
in-tunnel air quality suitable for workers to operate
dispersion of vitiated air from the tunnel.
Austroads 2010
44
There are codes of practice in operation (for example in New South Wales and Queensland) that
define acceptable air quality criteria for the protection of workers in the tunnel.
11.3.2
During Operation
As an overview, external air quality can be managed through any combination of measures
including (PIARC 2008a):
strategic planning
proximity to urban areas
proximity to air quality sensitive activities
relationship of the tunnel and adjacent road to meteorological conditions
tunnel air dispersion techniques
location of the dispersion points (tunnel portal, gaps, ventilation outlets, etc.)
ventilation design
ventilation operation (dilution)
operational aspects of the tunnel
cleaning the tunnel
controlling ventilation system.
At the planning stage, the specific requirements for the tunnel project should be determined having
regard to its location and the surrounding existing conditions and appropriate measures adopted to
achieve the air quality objectives.
The pollutants generally used as performance measures are:
carbon monoxide (CO)
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
particulate emissions (visibility) which are primarily influenced by engine emissions for diesel
fuelled vehicles but can also include non-engine emissions from all vehicles such as from
tyre wear and dust.
Refer to Part 2 for further design details.
11.4
Noise
11.4.1
During Construction
Noise from the operation of construction plant may be an issue in the vicinity of the portals and
along access roads to the site. The ventilation requirements will also be a source of noise that will
need to be managed. Construction activities will have to abide by all local regulatory requirements.
Austroads 2010
45
11.4.2
During Operation
Internal noise levels

While the tunnel environment (hard surfaces, fan noise, etc.) makes it difficult to attenuate noise,
emergency telephone systems and other communication media need to be intelligible over this
background noise. A target of 85 dBA 1.5 m above the tunnel road level may be the acceptable
noise level. Where possible, communication devices should be placed in attenuating devices to
further shield users from this background noise (telephone cabinets, refuges, etc.).
Ventilation equipment can be a major source of noise in tunnels and therefore limitation of noise
emission is an important factor in the choice of fans. Acoustic treatment by means of inlet and
outlet silencers and/or casings with sound absorbent lining may be required in order to reduce the
amount of fan noise transmitted to the outside environment. The external noise levels of the
ventilation plant should not exceed acceptable standards for nearby noise sensitive development.
A similar analysis of the noise generated by other equipment is necessary.
External noise levels
The control of noise to the outside environment will depend on individual circumstances (e.g.
ground conditions, proximity of noise sensitive receptors and mechanical and electrical
configuration) and the area background noise levels during tunnel operation. It is possible that
particular local environmental conditions can create external noise issues. For example, the
existence of cool air in a valley or other atmospheric conditions (e.g. an inversion) can regularly
create an unusual acoustic environment. This may result in noise being transmitted over a long
distance, for example, to a receptor sitting on the side of a hill some distance away or alternatively
make noise a non-issue because the local atmospheric conditions are not conducive to the
transmission of sound energy.
In the case of an external ventilation building, it will be appropriate to specify the maximum
installed noise and vibration levels at the nearest sensitive receptor.
11.5
Settlement
Settlement is the movement of the surface ground caused by the tunnelling operation as well as
consolidation due to groundwater removal. The potential for settlement of the surface because of
the tunnelling operation must be assessed from the geotechnical investigations undertaken and
appropriate measures should be taken to minimise and control it. Where such settlement will
result in damage to buildings or property, then that property may have to be acquired or an
appropriate compensation and/or damage repair program implemented as part of the tunnel
planning process.
Some soil formations may be susceptible to vibration caused by the tunnel construction and such
effects may be at some distance from the actual site. The geotechnical investigation should
establish the presence or otherwise of such soil profiles and action should be taken to adopt
construction methods that limit vibrations to a suitable level. Where buildings or property may be
harmed by such vibration, suitable mitigation and/or repair strategies will be required.
Austroads 2010
46
12
C ONS T R UC T ION ME T HODS
12.1
Overview
In the planning process for tunnels, the potential construction methods to be used must be
considered to ensure that the design proposed will be able to be constructed economically and
safely. In most cases, the need to obtain specialised equipment to make the proposal achievable
must also be considered.
Construction methods will be determined by the tunnel types adopted and the particular site
requirements and will be a balance between planning requirements and existing constraints.
12.2
Constructability
At the planning stage, constructability is a risk management issue and should be treated
accordingly (AS/NZS ISO 31000: 2009). Planners should identify the risks associated with the
potential construction methods and identify appropriate mitigation strategies, responsibility and
performance metrics.
The planning team should ensure that sufficient construction expertise is available to them to
undertake reviews of the planning proposals to confirm their appropriateness in terms of
constructability, including health and safety considerations and impacts on third parties.
Issues that must be considered in the planning stage include:
Site investigations must be planned to obtain ground and groundwater information and
geotechnical properties appropriate for the potential construction methods.
The impact of staged sequential excavations needs to be investigated.
Identifying potential excavation/support sequences and appropriate monitoring methods

during the works for the range of ground and groundwater conditions expected is required
and should include provision for contingency measures. Monitoring methods and equipment
may require specific infrastructure and space for that will have to be provided in the tunnel
plans.
Where the works will pass closely under existing infrastructure, the potential impact on that
infrastructure will have to be assessed and appropriate measures adopted to ensure that the
risks to that infrastructure are appropriately managed. Appropriate monitoring methods may
have to be implemented to accommodate these works.
All of these issues will have to be considered in detail in the design process but it is essential that
the planning process ensure that the possible contingencies are provided for and that sufficient
flexibility is retained in the proposals to allow the detailed design to accommodate them.
12.3
Workplace/Occupational Health and Safety
The tunnel will have to be constructed in accordance with the various requirements of the
legislation applying to the jurisdiction in which the tunnel is located. For example, tunnelling codes
of practice have been developed in Queensland and New South Wales (WorkCover NSW 2006;
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland 2007).
Planners and designers must ensure that they are familiar with the requirements of the appropriate
legislation and ensure that these requirements are implemented in the planning and design of the
tunnel.
Austroads 2010
47
12.4
Vibration
Limitations have to be determined for vibrations resulting from various construction techniques.
The limits are determined such that possible damage may be avoided.
The possible danger of disturbance/settlement resulting from activities leading to vibrations needs
to be evaluated. This also applies to possible damage to sensitive equipment on nearby property
(e.g. computer installations, printing presses), and also the possible inconvenience to neighbours.
The limits apply to the maximum permissible peak particle velocity (given as mm/sec) which is
determined on the basis of the:
ground conditions where the construction is located
type of construction and the quality of building materials used
distance from the source
type of vibration (e.g. blasting, demolition, piling, tunnel boring machine or other tunnelling
operation).
Further details of vibration requirements are discussed in Part 3.
12.5
Spoil Disposal
Tunnel projects produce significant spoil that either needs to be disposed of or re-used in the
project.
Depending on the spoil type and method of excavation, spoil could be used as backfilling under the
roadway (if the space is not to be used for another purpose such as for services).
Road headers, and drill and blast methods used for excavation, usually produce spoil that is
uncontaminated by the excavation mode. Tunnel boring machines, however, may introduce a
range of chemicals that may preclude the reuse of spoil on the project. Irrespective of the mode of
excavation, the soil type may in itself be unsuitable for reuse and must be removed from the site.
Environmental assessment must also consider the location of the spoil disposal and any impacts
on transporting the spoil to its final location. Road, rail, and conveyor belt are possible methods
used for spoil transport and each has its own potential impacts which must be assessed.
Austroads 2010
48
R E F E R E NC E S
American Society of Civil Engineers 1997, Geotechnical baseline reports for underground construction:
guidelines and practices, ASCE, Reston, VA, USA.
Association of British Insurers/British Tunnelling Society 2003, A joint code of practice for the procurement,
design and construction of tunnels and associated underground structures in the United Kingdom,
British Tunnelling Society, London, UK. (Viewed April 2010 at
http://www.britishtunnelling.org.uk/downloads/jcop.pdf)
Australasian Fire Authorities Council 2001, Fire safety guidelines for road tunnels, Tunnel Fire Safety Issues
Committee, AFAC, East Melbourne, Vic
Australian Transport Council 2009, National road safety action plan 2009 and 2010, ATC, Canberra, ACT.
Austroads 2007, Guide to traffic management part 6: Intersections, interchanges and crossings, AGTM06/07,
Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008a, Guide to traffic management part 5: road management, AGTM05/08, Austroads,
Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008b, Guide to road design part 5: Drainage design, by A Armistead, A Woollard, D Bennett & J
Barff, AGRD05/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008c , Guide to road design part 7: Geotechnical investigation and design, by R Paul & R Grove,
AGRD07/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009a, Guide to traffic management part 3: Traffic studies and analysis, AGTM03/09, Austroads,
Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009b, Guide to road design part 3: Geometric design, AGRD03/09, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009c, Guide to road design part 4C: Interchanges, AGRD04C/09, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2009d, Guide to road design part 6B: roadside environment, AGRD06B/09, Austroads, Sydney,
NSW.
Commonwealth Consolidated Acts (1999), Environment protection and biodiversity conservation act.
Engineers Australia 2001, Australian rainfall and run-off, Engineers Australia, Barton ACT.
European Union 2004, Directive 2004/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004
on minimum requirements for tunnels in the trans-European road network, EN (Official Journal of the
European Union), 30 April 2004.
Highways Agency 1999, Design manual for roads and bridges, vol. 2: highway structures design: section 2:
special structures: part 9: design of road tunnels, BD 78/99, Highways Agency, UK.
Lacroix, D and Haack, A 2004, PIARC design criteria for resistance to fire for road tunnel structures, Routes
Roads, October, no. 324, pp. 64-71.
Ministry of Transport New Zealand 2010, Safer Journeys, New Zealands Road Safety Strategy 2010-2020.
Austroads 2010
49
National Fire Protection Association 2008, Standard for road tunnels, bridges, and other limited access
highways, NFPA 502, NFPA, Quincy, MA, USA.
Norwegian Public Roads Administration 1997, Studies on Norwegian road tunnels: an analysis on traffic
accidents and car fires in road tunnels, Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Oslo, Norway.
OEDC and PIARC 2001. Transport of Dangerous Goods through Road Tunnels: Quantitative Risk
Assessment Method (QRAM), software, version 3.60, September 19, 2001, World Road Association
(PIARC) and OECD, Paris, France.
PIARC 1995a, Vehicle emissions, air demand, environment, longitudinal ventilation, committee on road
tunnels report 05.02B, World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 1995b, Road safety in tunnels, committee on road tunnels report 05.04B, World Road Association
(PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 1999, Fire and smoke control in road tunnels, committee on road tunnels report 05.05B, World Road
Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 2001, Cross-section geometry in unidirectional road tunnels, technical committee on road tunnels
operation, report 05.11B, World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 2004, Systems and equipment for fire and smoke control in road tunnels, technical committee on
road tunnels operation report 05.16B, World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 2008a, Road tunnels: a guide to optimising the air quality impact upon the environment - doc. no.
2008R04, World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 2008b, Human factors and road tunnel safety regarding users, technical report, PIARC reference:
2008R17, World Road Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
PIARC 2008c, Risk analysis for road tunnels, technical report, PIARC reference: 2008R02, World Road
Association (PIARC), Paris, France.
Rechnitzer, G, Fitzgerald, E, Taylor, S & Thomas, I 1999, A review of policies and practices regarding the
transport of dangerous goods through tunnels, Monash University Accident Research Centre
(MUARC), Clayton, Vic.
TRB 2000, Highway capacity manual: HCM 2000, Transportation Research Board (TRB), Washington, DC.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory 1987, Planning and design considerations for road tunnels: the
influence of operation and maintenance, report CR41, TRL, Crowthorne, UK.
TRL 2006, Post-incident recovery in highway tunnels: achieving best practice, report PPR130, Bird, S,
Potter, JE & Gillard, J, Highways Agency UK & TRL Ltd, Crowthorne, Berks., UK.
WorkCover NSW 2006. Tunnels under construction: code of practice, Work Cover New South Wales,
Gosford, NSW.
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland 2007, Tunnelling code of practice, Workplace Health and Safety
Queensland & Queensland Department of Justice and Attorney General, Brisbane, Qld.
Austroads 2010
50
Australian Standards
AS 4825 (forthcoming): Tunnel fire safety
AS/NZS 1158.5:2007, Lighting for roads and public spaces: Tunnels and underpasses
AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009, Risk management: principles and guidelines.
Austroads 2010
51
C OMME NT A R Y 1
C 1.1
Types of Tunnel Construction
C 1.2
Cut-and-cover Tunnel
This type of tunnel is constructed in a trench excavated from the surface and is appropriate for
shallow depths in suitable soils. Special cases of this type of construction include:
use of contiguous pile or diaphragm walls, tunnels (or variants)
top down construction.
Factors to be considered for cut-and-cover tunnels include the:
ease with which the soil can be excavated
depth of water table below the natural surface
availability of the surface material being removed for backfilling during the construction
period and the consequences for the subsequent land use
need to dewater/pump the excavation
stability and earth pressure on the sidewalls and loads and surcharges on the tunnel roof
temporary construction loads
uplift forces
access restrictions.
Figure C1 1 illustrates some common cut-and-cover types and tunnel sections.
Austroads 2010
52
Source: The Highways Agency (1999).
Figure C1 1:
C 1.3
Typical cut-and-cover tunnel
Pile Wall Tunnels
In these tunnels, each side of the tunnel is formed from bored or cast-in-place piles (contiguous,
soldier pile with shotcrete infill), with or without liners depending on the soil conditions, driven to
below the tunnel floor. Drainage behind the pile wall (e.g. using filter drains) is essential, as the
piles are essentially earth retaining walls.
The space between the walls is excavated to provide the tunnel space, thus exposing the surface
of the piles (temporary or permanent propping may be required may be achieved through the
roof construction).
The sequence for placing of the roof and floor will depend on the structural requirements of the
piled walls and the propping required. One method is that after excavation between pile walls,
capping beams are cast over the pile walls, roof slabs placed and the floor constructed. In other
cases, roof slabs need to be placed before rather than after excavation as the roof can be a critical
structural prop for retaining pile integrity. Floor construction staging is also often critical for
structural integrity.
Cladding is placed on the face of the pile walls to present a pleasing internal appearance to the
tunnel and to achieve the required reflectivity of the tunnel walls.
Austroads 2010
53
C 1.4
Top Down
Top down construction is used where traffic interruptions have to be kept to a minimum or where
soil types permit this method. In this form of construction, the roof of the tunnel is constructed on
the ground before the material below is excavated. This allows the surface to be reinstated while
the excavation is in progress, thereby reducing the period of surface unavailability.
In an urban environment, additional considerations include:
severance effect of the removal of surface material, cutting off access for both vehicles and
pedestrians
cutting off and/or relocating public utilities
noise from the construction site
vibration effects on properties
air pollution
settlement of buildings adjacent to the excavation due to changes in the water table or
excavation techniques.
C 1.5
Cast in situ Tunnel in a Waterway
Cast in situ tunnels in waterways will require caissons to be used to provide the working space and
may require the waterway to be closed temporarily. The construction sequence will depend on the
particular circumstances and will require the agreement of all stakeholders involved.
One case is where it is permitted to temporarily block a waterway. If practical, the tunnel may be
constructed in two halves or by using a number of travelling caissons. The first half of the tunnel is
constructed within a temporary caisson. On completion of the first half, the waterway above the
constructed section is then opened and the second half of the tunnel constructed in a procedure
similar to the first.
C 1.6
Immersed Tube Tunnels
For underwater crossings the immersed tube tunnel may be appropriate where conditions are
suitable (Figure C1 2). This may occur where it is not appropriate to use bored tunnels under the
water (depth required, material properties). Precast reinforced concrete sections of the tunnel are
manufactured in a dry dock, floated and towed to their location above a dredged channel, sunk into
position and joined to previous sections. Additional cells are often used to create extra buoyancy
during placement and these cells may then be used for other functions such as placement of
tunnel services and evacuation. Note that a tunnel of this type with no cell would rarely be
acceptable and then only for short tunnels.
Austroads 2010
54
Figure C1 2:
C 1.7
Immersed tube tunnel construction
Driven Tunnels
Driven tunnels (mined or bored) are constructed where there is sufficient ground cover
(Figure C1 3).
Typical mined tunnelling approaches use road headers, excavators or drill and blast excavation
techniques.
For mined tunnels a primary support is often required before the secondary lining is placed. The
lining may comprise cast-in-place concrete, precast segments or shotcrete (with or without rock
bolts depending on the material excavated). The cost of liners can vary widely depending on the
soil types, presence of swelling clays, soft rock and/or water.
Typical bored tunnels use single shield, double shield, earth pressure balance, slurry shield and
compressed air tunnel boring machines (TBMs).
In tunnels excavated using a tunnel boring machine (TBM), a liner (often pre-cast segmented
concrete) is placed continuously behind the TBM as it advances creating a circular cross-section.
For bored tunnels, the timing of the placement of the liner behind the TBM will depend on the
integrity of the material being excavated. The TBM may grip the sides of the tunnel (gripper) or
thrust off the liner (using hydraulic rams) as it advances. There are many different types of TBM
for various situations.
Where soft ground conditions are common, earth pressure balance machines, slurry shield tunnel
boring machines and mixed shield TBMs have been used.
In these shielded machines, the cutting head is enclosed within an air/watertight bulkhead which
stabilises the excavation face. Behind the sealed bulkhead the rest of the tunnelling operations
remain under normal atmospheric pressure.
Austroads 2010
55
Tunnelling materials (earth, rock, clay, water, bentonite, lubricants and other chemicals) are
directed through the TBM cutting head and out the rear end. In addition to the TBM itself, there is
a considerable amount of material transportation equipment that removes these products, recycles
the bentonite, and delivers power and hydraulics, water, chemicals and pre-cast segments or other
materials for the lining.
Both air, water, lubricants and chemical can be lost through the tunnel face, side and tail requiring
continuous monitoring of face pressure, rate of advance, quantity of excavated material and
chemical usage to maintain face integrity, skin and tail seal.
Figure C1 3:
Typical bored tunnels
Austroads 2010
56

Agrt01 10

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agrt01 10

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Austroads

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS

Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels

Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1:

Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1: Introduction to Road Tunnels

Published by Austroads Ltd

Guide to Road Tunnels Part 1:

facilitating collaboration between road agencies

promoting harmonisation, consistency and uniformity in road and related operations

undertaking strategic research on behalf of road agencies and communicating outcomes

promoting improved and consistent practice by road agencies.

Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

Structure of the Guide to Road Tunnels ...................................................................................1

ROAD TUNNEL IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS....................................................................7

GENERAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................11

National Legislation ................................................................................................................19

General Considerations ..........................................................................................................20

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.......................................................................22

GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................................23

GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................26

DRAINAGE, WATER AND FLOOD PROTECTION ..............................................................30

FUNCTIONAL SAFETY AND OPERATIONS........................................................................34

10.1 General ...................................................................................................................................34

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

10.4.3 Key Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 38

11.1 General ...................................................................................................................................44

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

A conceptual overview of the Safe System framework...............................................4

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

INT R ODUC T ION

Structure of the Guide to Road Tunnels

The Guide to Road Tunnels is written in three Parts:

Purpose of this Guide

Scope of Part 1 of the Guide to Road Tunnels

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

Providing a Safe System

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

The Safe System framework requires that:

pedestrian struck by vehicle

motorcyclist struck by vehicle (or falling off)

side impact vehicle striking a pole or tree

side impact vehicle to vehicle crash

head-on vehicle to vehicle (equal mass) crash

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

Figure 1.1: A conceptual overview of the Safe System framework

Objectives of Road Tunnels

impact on surface features

land acquisition costs

any combination of these.

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

geometric options (horizontal and vertical alignment, cross-section, clearances)

traffic management (including speed zoning)

traffic volumes and characteristics

tunnel system options

requirements for access to portal during construction

environmental effects including climate change considerations. Note that environmental

Provision of an adequately safe roadway.

Provision of an adequately safe tunnel.

Provision of a tunnel construction methodology that takes into account ground

GUIDE TO ROAD TUNNELS PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD TUNNELS

Provision of an operational methodology that takes into account the functional