Gas Exchange Processes

Gas exchange processes are important in engine operation as they

influence the power output. Charge is taken into the engine cylinder via the intake system and then put out as exhaust gas through
the exhaust system. In petrol engines, the charge counts as fuel and
air, while in diesel engines it counts only as air, due to direct injection. Because of this, diesel are unthrottled meaning their intake
systems do not include throttle bodies or carburettors. In fact, more
air is encouraged in diesel engines, which is why turbochargers are
frequently used on them.
Blowdown and displacement are terms used to describe the two
phases that occur during the exhaust process.
The decrease in pressure seen in intake systems depends on the
engine speed, the flow resistance of parts of the intake system, the
cross-sectional area through which the charge moves and the charge
density. This as well as the exhaust performance is defined using the
volumetric effieciency, v , which is the ratio of how well the engine is
taking in charge to how is should perform theoretically. It is defined
as:
v =

2m a
a Vd N

It is usually affected by the following variables:

1. Air/Fuel Ratio
2. Fuel Type
3. Fuel Composition
4. Temperature of Air/Fuel Mixture
5. Compression Ratio

6. Ratio of exhaust to inlet manifold pressures

7. Intake and exhaust port and manifold design
8. Intake and exhaust valve geometry, size, life and timings
Fuel composition, fuel phase and the air-fuel ratio affects the
volumetric efficiency in the sense that gaseous fuel decreases the
partial pressure of the air.
Turbulent flow causes cycle-to-cycle variation of charge motion to
vary a lot. The velocity at the certain position at a certain crank angle
would be different at that same position and crank angle at the next
cycle. This flow structure is what is experienced in practice inside the
cylinder. Turbulence is favourable in an engine cylinder as it helps
the fuel droplets and air to mix. This is further done by inducing
certain types of charge motion.

Charge Motion Types

The first type of charge motion is known as swirl motion. It has
rotational motion that is parallel to the piston surface. It is generated
by the geometry of the inlet manifold or the inlet valve. It should be
noted that generating swirl motion through the inlet valve geometry
could result in the decrease of the volumetric efficiency due to the
cross-sectional area at maximum valve life decreasing.
The next type of charge motion is known as squish motion. This
involves the flow near the cylinder wall being pushed towards the
middle of the cylinder due to the geometry of the piston. Flow
separation at the piston results in improved mixing of fuel and air
due to increases in turbulence. Squish motion is known as a radial
flow motion.
The final type of charge motion is known as tumble motion, this has
a flow motion that is parallel to the piston motion.
Tumble motion is seen more in petrol engines while swirl and squish
motion is seen more in diesel engines.
When the piston reaches BDC, the charge flow undergoes kinetic
energy cascade, where the kinetic energy break down into smaller
vortices which reflects the increase of turbulence in the flow.

gas exchange processes

Valve Timing
The inlet valve needs to be bigger in diameter that the exhaust due
to the fact that the engine needs to be able to breath very well, i.e.
take in as much charge as possible. Having a big exhaust valve is not
necessary because the exhaust is at a high pressure anyway and will
vacate the cylinder once the exhaust valve is open. The valve open
times are extended beyond the intake and exhaust strokes. This is to
make sure the engine takes in as much air and gets rid of as much
exhaust as possible.
Ideally, both valves should be closed during the compression stroke.
However, due to the delay between the initial opening and the valve
reaching maximum lift, the inlet valve must be opened a little earlier
than they are supposed to. Similarly, the exhaust valve is opened a
little early before the exhaust stroke in order for the piston not to be
doing work against high-pressure exhaust gas. This holds true also
for closing; for the inlet valve, it is closed late in order to get as much
charge in as possible. The overlapping of the inlet and exhaust valve
allow the piston to move up easier during the exhaust stroke. Valve
overlap is an advantage at high engine speeds, due to the increase
valve open times improving the volumetric efficiency. During valve
overlap, exhaust gas flows back into the cylinder and charge in the
cylinder flows back into the intake system when the exhaust pressure
is larger than the intake pressure.
Books
Page content
Blank half title page
Frontispiece1
Full title page
Copyright page
Contents
Dedication
Epigraph
Introduction

VDQI

EI

VE

BE

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

(7)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(7)

(9)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(7)
(8)
(9)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
7

The design of the front matter in Tuftes books varies slightly from
the traditional design of front matter. First, the pages in front matter
are traditionally numbered with lowercase roman numerals (e.g., i,
ii, iii, iv, . . . ). Second, the front matter page numbering sequence is
usually separate from the main matter page numbering. That is, the
page numbers restart at 1 when the main matter begins. In contrast,

The contents of this page vary from

book to book. In VDQI this page is
blank; in EI and VE this page holds
a frontispiece; and in BE this page
contains three epigraphs.

Tufte has enumerated his pages with arabic numerals that share the
same page counting sequence as the main matter.
There are also some variations in design across Tuftes four books.
The page opposite the full title page (labeled frontispiece in the
above table) has different content in each of the books. In The Visual
Display of Quantitative Information, this page is blank; in Envisioning
Information and Visual Explanations, this page holds a frontispiece; and
in Beautiful Evidence, this page contains three epigraphs.
The dedication appears on page 6 in VDQI (opposite the introduction), and is placed on its own spread in the other books. In VE, an
epigraph shares the spread with the opening page of the introduction.
None of the page numbers (folios) of the front matter are expressed except in BE, where the folios start to appear on the dedication page.
The full title page of each of the books varies slightly in design.
In all the books, the authors name appears at the top of the page,
the title it set just above the center line, and the publisher is printed
along the bottom margin. Some of the differences are outlined in the
following table.

Feature

VDQI

EI

VE

BE

Author
Typeface
Style
Size

serif
italics
24 pt

serif
italics
20 pt

serif
italics
20 pt

sans serif
upright, caps
20 pt

Title
Typeface
Style
Size

serif
upright
36 pt

serif
italics
48 pt

serif
upright
48 pt

sans serif
upright, caps
36 pt

serif
upright
20 pt

Subtitle
Typeface
Style
Size

Edition
Typeface
Style
Size

sans serif
upright, caps
14 pt

Publisher
Typeface
Style
Size

serif
italics
14 pt

serif
italics
14 pt

serif
italics
14 pt

sans serif
upright, caps
14 pt

The tables of contents in Tuftes books give us our first glimpse

of the structure of the main matter. The Visual Display of Quantitative
Information is split into two parts, each containing some number of

gas exchange processes

Edward R. Tude

Edward R. Tude

The Visual Display

Envisioning Information

of Quantitative Information
SECOND EDITION

Graphics Press Cheshire, Connecticut

Graphics Press Cheshire, Connecticut

Edward R. Tude

EDWARD R. TUFTE

Visual Explanations

BEAUTIFUL EVIDENCE

Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative

Graphics Press Cheshire, Connecticut

GRAPHICS PRESS LLC

chapters. His other three books only contain chapterstheyre not

broken into parts.

Typefaces
Tuftes books primarily use two typefaces: Bembo and Gill Sans.
Bembo is used for the headings and body text, while Gill Sans is
used for the title page and opening epigraphs in Beautiful Evidence.
Since neither Bembo nor Gill Sans are available in default LATEX installations, the Tufte-LATEX document classes default to using Palatino
and Helvetica, respectively. In addition, the Bera Mono typeface is
used for monospaced type.
The following font sizes are defined by the Tufte-LATEX classes:
LATEX size
\tiny
\scriptsize
\footnotesize
\small
\normalsize
\large
\Large
\LARGE
\huge
\Huge

Font size

Leading

5
7
8
9
10
11
12
14
20
24

6
8
10
12
14
15
16
18
30
36

Used for
sidenote numbers

sidenotes, captions
quote, quotation, and verse environments
body text
b-heads
a-heads, toc entries, author, date
handout title
chapter heads
part titles

Table 1: A list of LATEX font sizes as

defined by the Tufte-LATEX document
classes.

Headings
Tuftes books include the following heading levels: parts, chapters,2
sections, subsections, and paragraphs. Not defined by default are:
sub-subsections and subparagraphs.
Heading
Part
Chapter
Section
Subsection
Paragraph

Style
roman
italic
italic
italic
italic

Size
24/3640 pc
20/3040 pc
12/1626 pc
11/1526 pc
10/14

Paragraph Paragraph headings (as shown here) are introduced by

italicized text and separated from the main paragraph by a bit of
space.

Environments
The following characteristics define the various environments:

Parts and chapters are defined for the

tufte-book class only.

Table 2: Heading styles used in Beautiful

Evidence.

gas exchange processes

Contents

Escaping Flatland

12

Micro/Macro Readings

Contents

37

Layering and Separation

PART I

Graphical Excellence

Graphical Integrity

Sources of Graphical Integrity and Sophistication

PART II

53

GRAPHICAL PRACTICE

13
Small Multiples

53

THEORY OF DATA GRAPHICS

Data-Ink and Graphical Redesign

Chartjunk: Vibrations, Grids, and Ducks

Data-Ink Maximization and Graphical Design

Multifunctioning Graphical Elements

Data Density and Small Multiples

Aesthetics and Technique in Data Graphical Design

67

79
Color and Information

81

91
107
123

Narratives of Space and Time

97

139
161

Epilogue: Designs for the Display of Information

Epilogue

177

121

191

Contents
Contents

Mapped Pictures: Images as Evidence and Explanation

Images and Quantities

12

13

Sparklines: Intense, Simple, Word-Sized Graphics

Visual and Statistical Thinking: Displays of Evidence for Making Decisions

Links and Causal Arrows: Ambiguity in Action

Explaining Magic: Pictorial Instructions and Disinformation Design

The Smallest Ecective Dicerence

Multiples of Space and Time

64

55

Words, Numbers, Images Together

73

Parallelism: Repetition and Change, Comparison and Surprise

46

27

79

82

The Fundamental Principles of Analytical Design

122

105

Corruption in Evidence Presentations: Ecects Without Causes, Cherry Picking, OverreachVisual Confections: Juxtapositions from the Ocean of the Streams of Story

121

ing, Chartjunk, and the Rage to Conclude

140

The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint: Pitching Out Corrupts Within

Sculptural Pedestals: Meaning, Practice, Depedestalization

Landscape Sculptures

196

186

156

Environment

Font size

Body text
Block quote
Sidenotes
Captions

10/1426 pc
9/1224 pc
8/1012 pc
8/1012 pc

Notes
Block indent (left and right) by 1 pc
Sidenote number is set inline, followed by word space

Table 3: Environment styles used in

Beautiful Evidence.