Acid-base reaction

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An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. Several
concepts exist which provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved

and their application in solving related problems. Despite several similarities in definitions,
their importance becomes apparent as different methods of analysis when applied to acidbase reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat
less apparent.

Contents
[hide]

1 Common acid-base theories

o 1.1 Lavoisier definition
o 1.2 Liebig definition
o 1.3 Arrhenius definition
o 1.4 Brnsted-Lowry definition
o 1.5 Lewis definition
o 1.6 Solvent-system definition

2 Other acid-base theories

o 2.1 Usanovich definition
o 2.2 Lux-Flood definition
o 2.3 Pearson definition

3 See also

4 Notes

5 References

6 External links

7 Credits

Common acid-base theories

Lavoisier definition

Historically, the first of the scientific concepts of acids and bases was provided by the French
chemist Antoine Lavoisier, circa 1776.[1] Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly
restricted to oxyacids, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded
by oxygen, such as HNO3 and H2SO4, and he was not aware of the true composition of the
hydrohalic acids, HCl, HBr, and HI. From his limited knowledge, he defined acids in terms of
their content of oxygen, and he named oxygen from Greek words meaning "acid-former"
(from the Greek (oxys) meaning "acid" or "sharp" and (geinomai) or
"engender").
The Lavoisier definition was held as absolute truth for over 30 years, until the 1810 article
and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy, in which Davy proved the lack of oxygen in
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen telluride (H2Te), and the hydrohalic acids.

Liebig definition
Around 1838,[2] Justus von Liebig proposed a new definition of acids, based on his extensive
works on the chemical composition of organic acids. This finished the doctrinal shift from
oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids, started by Davy. According to Liebig, an acid is
a hydrogen-containing substance in which the hydrogen could be replaced by a metal.[3]
Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the
adoption of the Arrhenius definition.[4]

Arrhenius definition

Devised after the metal-replacement theory of Justus von Liebig and despite some
modifications by later theories, the Arrhenius (pictured) concept remains a simple scientific
definition of acid-base reaction character.[5]
The Arrhenius definition of acid-base reactions is a more simplified acid-base concept
devised by Svante Arrhenius, which was used to provide a modern definition of bases that
followed from his work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions
in aqueous solution in 1884, and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in
1903 for "recognition of the extraordinary services rendered to the advancement of
chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation".[5]
As defined at the time of discovery, acid-base reactions are characterized by Arrhenius acids,
which dissociate in aqueous solution form hydrogen or the later-termed oxonium (H3O+) ions,

[5]

and Arrhenius bases which form hydroxide (OH-) ions. More recent IUPAC
recommendations now suggest the newer term "hydronium"[6] be used in favor of the older
accepted term "oxonium"[7] to illustrate reaction mechanisms such as those defined in the
Brnsted-Lowry and solvent system definitions more clearly, with the Arrhenius definition
serving as a simple general outline of acid-base character[5] More succinctly, the Arrhenius
definition can be surmised as, "Arrhenius acids form hydrogen ions in aqueous solution with
Arrhenius bases forming hydroxide ions."
The universal aqueous acid-base definition of the Arrhenius concept is described as the
formation of water from hydrogen and hydroxide ions, or hydronium ions and hydroxide ions
produced from the dissociation of an acid and base in aqueous solution (2 H2O OH- +
H3O+ )[8], which leads to the definition that in Arrhenius acid-base reactions, a salt and water
is formed from the reaction between an acid and a base[5] in more simple scientific
definitions, this form of reaction is called a Neutralization reaction.
acid+ + base- salt + water
The positive ion from a base can form a salt with the negative ion from an acid. For example,
two moles of the base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can combine with one mole of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) to form two moles of water and one mole of sodium sulfate.
2NaOH + H2SO4 2 H2O + Na2SO4

Brnsted-Lowry definition
The Brnsted-Lowry definition, formulated independently by its two proponents Johannes
Nicolaus Brnsted and Martin Lowry in 1923 is based upon the idea of protonation of bases
through the de-protonation of acidsmore commonly referred to as the ability of acids to
"donate" hydrogen ions (H+) or protons to bases, which "accept" them.[9] In contrast to the
Arrhenius definition, the Brnsted-Lowry definition refers to the products of an acid-base
reaction as conjugate acids and bases to refer to the relation of one proton, and to indicate that
there has been a reaction between the two quantities, rather than a "formation" of salt and
water, as explained in the Arrhenius definition.[5][9]
It defines that in reactions, there is the donation and reception of a proton, which essentially
refers to the removal of a hydrogen ion bonded within a compound and its reaction with
another compound,[10] and not the removal of a proton from the nucleus of an atom, which
would require inordinate amounts of energy not attainable through the simple dissociation of
acids. In differentiation from the Arrhenius definition, the Brnsted-Lowry definition
postulates that for each acid, there is a conjugate acid and base or "conjugate acid-base pair"
that is formed through a complete reaction, which also includes water, which is amphoteric:
[10][5][9]

AH + B BH+ + AGeneral formula for representing Brnsted-Lowry reactions.

HCl (aq) + H2O H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Hydrochloric acid completely reacts with water to form the hydronium and chloride
ions

CH3COOH + NH3 NH4+ + CH3COOAcetic acid reacts incompletely with ammonia, no hydronium ions being produced

Lewis definition
Further information: Lewis acid and Lewis base
The Lewis definition of acid-base reactions, devised by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1923[11] is an
encompassing theory to the Brnsted-Lowry and solvent-system definitions[12] with regards to
the premise of a donation mechanism,[12] which conversely attributes the donation of electron
pairs from bases and the acceptance by acids, rather than protons or other bonded
substances[12] and spans both aqueous and non-aqueous reactions.[12]
Ag+ + 2 :NH3 [H3N:Ag:NH3]+
A silver cation reacts as an acid with ammonia which acts as an electron-pair donor,
forming an ammonia-silver adduct
In reactions between Lewis acids and bases, there is the formation of an adduct[12] when the
highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of a molecule, such as NH3 with available lone
electron pair(s) donates lone pairs of electrons to the electron-deficient molecule's lowest
unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) through a co-ordinate covalent bond; in such a
reaction, the HOMO-interacting molecule acts as a base, and the LUMO-interacting molecule

acts as an acid.[12] In highly-polar molecules, such as boron trifluoride (BF3),[12] the most
electronegative element pulls electrons towards its own orbitals, providing a more positive
charge on the less-electronegative element and a difference in its electronic structure due to
the axial or equatorial orbiting positions of its electrons, causing repulsive effects from lone
pair-bonding pair (Lp-Bp) interactions between bonded atoms in excess of those already
provided by bonding pair-bonding pair (Bp-Bp) interactions.[12] Adducts involving metal ions
are referred to as co-ordination compounds.[12]

Solvent-system definition
This definition is based on a generalization of the earlier Arrhenius definition to all
autodissociating solvents. In all such solvents there is a certain concentration of a positive
species, solvonium cations and negative species, solvate anions, in equilibrium with the
neutral solvent molecules. For example:
2H2O H3O+ (hydronium) + OH- (hydroxide)
2NH3 NH4+ (ammonium) + NH2 (amide)
or even some aprotic systems
N2O4 NO+ (nitrosonium) + NO3 (nitrate)
2SbCl3 SbCl2+ (dichloroantimonium) + SbCl4- (tetrachloroantimonate)
A solute causing an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the
solvate ions is an acid and one causing the reverse is a base. Thus, in liquid ammonia, KNH2
(supplying NH2-) is a strong base, and NH4NO3 (supplying NH4+) is a strong acid. In liquid
sulfur dioxide (SO2), thionyl compounds (supplying SO2+) behave as acids, and sulfites
(supplying SO32) behave as bases.
Here are some nonaqueous acid-base reactions in liquid ammonia
2NaNH2 (base) + Zn(NH2)2 (amphiphilic amide) Na2[Zn(NH2)4]
2NH4I (acid) + Zn(NH2)2 (amphiphilic amide) [Zn(NH3)4)]I2
Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:
HNO3 (base) + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + H3O+ + 2HSO4And things become even stranger in the aprotic world, for example in liquid N2O4:
AgNO3 (base) + NOCl (acid) N2O4 + AgCl
Since solvent-system definition depends on the solvent as well as on the compound itself, the
same compound can change its role depending on the choice of the solvent. Thus, HClO4 is a
strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid.

Other acid-base theories

Usanovich definition

The most general definition is that of the Russian chemist Mikhail Usanovich, and can
basically be summarized as defining an acid as "anything that accepts negative species or
donates positive ones," and a base as the reverse. This tends to overlap the concept of redox
(oxidation-reduction), and so is not highly favored by chemists. This is because redox
reactions focus more on physical electron transfer processes, rather than bond making/bond
breaking processes, although the distinction between these two processes is somewhat
ambiguous.

Lux-Flood definition
This definition, proposed by German chemist Hermann Lux[13][14] in 1939, further improved
by Hkon Flood circa 1947[15] and now commonly used in modern geochemistry and
electrochemistry of molten salts, describes an acid as an oxide ion acceptor and a base as an
oxide ion donor. For example:
MgO (base) + CO2 (acid) MgCO3
CaO (base) + SiO2 (acid) CaSiO3
NO3- (base) + S2O72- (acid) NO2+ + 2SO42-[16]

Pearson definition
In 1963,[17] Ralph Pearson proposed an advanced qualitative concept known as Hard Soft
Acid Base principle, later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. 'Hard' applies
to species which are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies
to species which are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and
bases interact and the most stable interactions are hard-hard and soft-soft. This theory has
found use in both organic and inorganic chemistry.

See also

Acid

Base (chemistry)

Chemical reaction

Electron configuration

Lewis structure

Redox reaction

Resonance structure

Notes
1. L.M. Miessler and D.A. Tarr (1991) 166 - Table of discoveries attributes Antoine
Lavoisier as the first to posit a scientific theory in relation to oxyacids.

2. Miessler and Tarr (1991), 166 - Table of discoveries attributes Justus von Liebig's
publication as 1838.
3. Richard L. Meyers. The Basics of Chemistry. Basics of the Hard Sciences.
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 156
4. H.L. Finston and A.C. Rychtman. 1982. A New View of Current Acid-Base Theories.
(New York: John Wiley & Sons), 140-146.
5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Miessler and Tarr (1991), 165
6. K.K. Murray, et al. 2006. Standard definition of terms relating to mass spectrometry
recommendations. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. (Note that in
this document, there is no reference to deprecation of "oxonium," which is still
accepted as it remains in the IUPAC Gold book, but rather reveals preference for the
term "hydronium".)
7. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2006. Oxonium ylides. IUPAC
Gold Book. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
8. The use of H+ is as shorthand for H3O; 2 H2O H3O+ + OH- = H2O H+ + OH9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 Miessler and Tarr (1991), 167-169According to this page, the original
definition was that "acids have a tendency to lose a proton"
10. 10.0 10.1 J. Clayden, et al. Organic Chemistry. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000), 182-184
11. Miessler and Tarr (1991), 166 - Table of discoveries attributes the date of
publication/release for the Lewis theory as 1923.
12. 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Miessler and Tarr (1991), 170-172
13. H. Franz, 1966. Solubility of Water Vapor in Alkali Borate Melts. J. Am. Ceram.
Soc. 49 (9): 473477.
14. Hermann Lux. 1939. "Suren" und "Basen" im Schmelzfluss: die Bestimmung. der
Sauerstoffionen-Konzentration. Ztschr. Elektrochem 45 (4): 303309. Translated as:
Hermann Lux. 1939. Acids and bases in a fused salt bath: the determination of
oxygen-ion. Journal of Electrochemistry 45 (4): 303309.
15. H. Flood and T. Forland. 1947. The Acidic and Basic Properties of Oxides. Acta
Chem. Scand. 1: 592. (doi=10.3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0592.)
16. Russel S. Drago, and Kenneth W. Whitten. 1966. The Synthesis of Oxyhalides
Utilizing Fused-Salt Media. Inorg. Chem. 5 (4): 677682.
(doi=10.1021/ic50038a038.)
17. Ralph G. Pearson, 1963. Hard and Soft Acids and Bases. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85 (22):
35333539. (doi=10.1021/ja00905a001.)

References

Brown, Jr., Theodore L., H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce Edward Bursten, and Julia R.
Burdge. 2002. Chemistry: The Central Science, 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130669970.

Chang, Raymond. 2006. Chemistry, 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Science/Engineering/Math. ISBN 0073221031.

Clayden, Jonathan, et al. 2000. Organic Chemistry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0198503474.

Cotton, F. Albert, and Geoffrey Wilkinson. 1980. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 4th
ed. New York, NY: Wiley. ISBN 0471027758.

Drago, Russel S., and Kenneth W. Whitten. 1966. The Synthesis of Oxyhalides
Utilizing Fused-Salt Media. Inorg. Chem. 5 (4): 677682.
(doi=10.1021/ic50038a038.)

Flood, H. and T. Forland. 1947. The Acidic and Basic Properties of Oxides. Acta
Chem. Scand. 1: 592. (doi=10.3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0592.)

Franz, H. 1966. Solubility of Water Vapor in Alkali Borate Melts. J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
49 (9): 473477.

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. 1991. Inorganic Chemistry. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0134656598.

Myers, Richard L. 2003. The Basics of Chemistry. Basics of the Hard Sciences.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313316643.

Pearson, Ralph G. 1963. Hard and Soft Acids and Bases. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85 (22):
35333539. (doi=10.1021/ja00905a001.)

External links
All links retrieved August 18, 2012.

Acid-Base Tutorial.

Acid-base Physiology.

Acids and Bases. (John W. Kimball's online Biology book section.)

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