Psychology HL Notes

Higher Level
Psychology Notes

Psychology HL Notes

Table of Contents
Biological Level of Analysis................................................7
General Learning Outcomes........................................................................7
Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis..................7
Explain how principles that define the BLOA may be demonstrated in
research.................................................................................................. 8
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLOA
................................................................................................................ 8
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the BLOA..9
Physiology and Behaviour.........................................................................10
Explain one study related to localisation of function of the brain..........10
Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on
human behaviour.................................................................................. 12
Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in
human behaviour................................................................................... 14
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.....15
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of
behaviour.............................................................................................. 19
Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the
relationship between biological factors and behaviour..........................20
Genetics and Behaviour............................................................................22
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic
inheritance influence behaviour?..........................................................22
Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.............................25
Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on
behaviour............................................................................................... 29
BLOA Studies............................................................................................. 31

Cognitive Level of Analysis..............................................41

General Learning Outcomes......................................................................41
Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.................41
Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be
demonstrated in research.....................................................................41
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the
cognitive level of analysis......................................................................42
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the
cognitive level of analysis......................................................................43
Cognitive Processes................................................................................... 44
Evaluate schema theory with reference to relevant research studies...44
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference
to research studies................................................................................ 46
Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process..........51
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process......52
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one
cognitive process reliable......................................................................54
Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes......55

Psychology HL Notes
Cognition and Emotion.............................................................................. 56
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion.56
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process61
CLOA Studies............................................................................................. 63

Sociocultural Level of Analysis.........................................74

General Learning Outcomes......................................................................74
Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis...........74
Explain how principles that define the SCLOA may be demonstrated in
research................................................................................................ 74
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the
SCLOA.................................................................................................... 75
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the SCLOA
.............................................................................................................. 75
Sociocultural Cognition.............................................................................. 76
Describe the role in situational and dispositional factors in explaining
behaviour.............................................................................................. 76
Discuss two errors in attribution............................................................77
Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies. .80
Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour......83
Social Norms............................................................................................. 86
Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies
.............................................................................................................. 86
Discuss the use of compliance techniques............................................88
Evaluate research into conformity to group norms...............................90
Discuss factors influencing conformity..................................................93
Cultural Norms.......................................................................................... 97
Define the terms culture and cultural norms.....................................97
Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour...................99
Using one or more examples, explain emic and etic concepts........101
SCLOA Studies......................................................................................... 103

Abnormal Psychology....................................................117
General Framework.................................................................................117
To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors
influence abnormal behaviour?...........................................................117
Evaluate psychological research relevant to the study of abnormal
behaviour............................................................................................ 117
Concepts and Diagnosis..........................................................................118
Examine the concepts of normality and abnormality..........................118
Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis.........................................125
Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis.....................129
Psychological Disorders...........................................................................133
Describe the prevalence and symptoms of one anxiety disorder........133
Describe the prevalence and symptoms of one affective disorder......134
Analyse aetiologies of one anxiety disorder........................................140
Analyse aetiologies of one mood disorder...........................................141

Psychology HL Notes
Discuss culture and gender variations in prevalence of disorders.......146
Implementing Treatment.........................................................................152
Examine biomedical, individual and group approaches to treatment..152
Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual and group approaches to the
treatment of one disorder....................................................................160
Discuss the use of eclectic approaches to treatment..........................166
Discuss the relationship between aetiology and therapeutic approach in
relation to one disorder.......................................................................168
Abnormal Studies.................................................................................... 169

Psychology of Human Relationships................................178

General Framework.................................................................................178
To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors
influence human relationships?...........................................................178
Evaluate psychological research relevant to the study of human
relationships........................................................................................ 178
Social Responsibility................................................................................179
Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behaviour.......................179
Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans..........................180
Using one or more research studies, explain cross-cultural differences in
pro-social behaviour............................................................................ 184
Examine factors influencing bystanderism..........................................185
Interpersonal Relationships.....................................................................189
Examine biological, psychological and sociocultural origins of attraction
............................................................................................................ 189
Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships.........194
Examine the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of
relationships........................................................................................ 196
Analyse why relationships may change or end....................................199
Violence................................................................................................... 207
Evaluate sociocultural explanations of the origins of violence............207
Discuss the relative effectiveness of two strategies for reducing violence
............................................................................................................ 211
Discuss the effects of short-term and long-term exposure to violence***
............................................................................................................ 214
Human Relationships Studies..................................................................218

Qualitative Research Methodology.................................232

Theory and Practice in Qualitative Research...........................................232
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.......................232
Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research
............................................................................................................ 232
To what extent can findings be generalised from qualitative studies? 234
Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research........................235
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research.......236
Interviews................................................................................................ 242
Evaluate semi-constructed, focus group and narrative interviews......242

Psychology HL Notes
Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview
............................................................................................................ 243
Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic
analysis) on interview transcripts........................................................243
Observations........................................................................................... 244
Evaluate participant, non-participant and naturalistic, covert and overt
observations........................................................................................ 244
Case Studies............................................................................................ 251
Evaluate the use of case studies in research.......................................251
Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an
organisation or group..........................................................................251
Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalised from a single
case study........................................................................................... 251

Command Terms............................................................253
Level one command terms..................................................................253
Level two command terms..................................................................253
Level three command terms................................................................253

Psychology HL Notes

S H O RT A N S W E R Q U E S T I O N S
AMF Bowling
A im
M ethod
F indings

E X T E N D E D R E S P O N S E Q U E ST I O N S
Sam Race
S tudy
A im
M ethod
R esults
C onclusion
E valuation

A Knowledge and comprehension

Two marks per study
B Critical Thinking

Answering command term

Evaluation
Combining ideas in conclusion In synthesizing these
points.

C Organisation

Plan must have intro and conclusions

Topic sentences to tell how it answers the question. Include
terms from question
Final/linking sentence trying to convince reader that you
have a point linking back to command te1rm. There is an
obvious link between serotonin and depression, however, it is
important to consider the sociocultural factors.
Continually addressing question in response.

Psychology HL Notes

Biological Level of Analysis

General Learning Outcomes
Outline principles that define the biological level of
analysis
There are biological correlates of behaviour.
o There are physiological origins of behaviour
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Specialized brain areas
Genes
o Very Reductionist

Animal research may inform our understanding of human

behaviour

Researches use animals to study physiological processes

because it is assumed that most biological processes are
the same.
There is a lot of research that cant be done on humans
because of ethical reason.
Assumed most biological processes in non-human
animals are the same as in humans

Human behaviour is, to some extent, genetically based

Behaviour can be explained through genetic inheritance

to some extent
Genetic pre-disposition can be effected by
environmental factors
Research often uses twins can compare for variables
e.g.; depression, intelligence etc.
Identical twins are 100% genetically identical act as a
control for each other
Fraternal twins = share 50% of genes with siblings
Twin research never shows a 100% concordance rate
believed genes are a predisposing factor in behaviour
rather than a causing factor

Psychology HL Notes

Important to consider environmental influences on

behaviour

Psychology HL Notes

Explain how principles that define the biological level

of analysis may be demonstrated in research
-

There are biological correlates of behaviour.

o Newcomer et. Al. (1999)

Animal research may inform our understanding of human

behaviour

o Martinez and Kesner (1991)

o Rosenweig and Bennet (1972)

Human behaviour is, to some extent, genetically based

o Bouchard et al. (1990)

Discuss how and why particular research methods are

used at the biological level of analysis
Correlational study

Does not usually necessitate manipulation of an

independent variable that might damage participant
Takes into account two variables and determines
relationship between them
Often used in twin studies to study genetics and
behavior
Uses many types of brain imaging technology (fMRI,
MRI, PET etc) to correlate behavior, cognition and
emotion
Does not indicate cause and effect

Can be used when direct experiment is not possible

Shows link between two variables

o Bouchard et al. (1990)

o Caspi et al. (2001)

Case studies

Taking advantage of naturally occurring irregularities

alternative to lab experiments
Mostly descriptive studies
Little harm to participant
Ethical risk depth of info obtained may threaten the
privacy of the subject identity must be protected

o HM
o Clive Wearing

Psychology HL Notes

10

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss ethical considerations related to research

studies at the biological level of analysis.
Cultural issues/ stress to participants, misuse of information,
eugenics

o Caspi et.al. (2003)

o Bouchard et. al. (1990)
Harm to participants Informed consent

Especially with animals

Case studies - Threat to privacy sensitive information

must not be disclosed under persons real name
Cannot use humans for some of the more drastic
research which involves harm eg: brain lesions
Therefore use animals more ethically sound to use
animals eg: rats

o Rosenweig and Bennet (1972)

o Martinez and Kesner (1991)

11

Psychology HL Notes

Physiology and Behaviour

Explain one study related to localisation of function
of the brain
Introduction

The brains parts communicate with each other

Localization = reductionist brain better understood
when considered as a whole

The Case Study of HM

Provides evidence for different memory systems in brain
rely on different structures
HM cannot make long term memories Hippocampus
involved in the consolidation of short term memories to
long term memory
o Milner 1957 first to describe condition of HM after
surgery which removed his hippocampus and damaged
surrounding structures
HM fell off his bike when he was 7, and hit his head
Began to experience epileptic seizures at the age of 10
By 27, the seizures were so severe they impaired his
ability to lead a normal life
1953 HM had surgery to relieve severe symptoms of
epilepsy
Surgery conducted by Scoville experimental
procedure to alleviate seizures
Hippocampus region removed attributed to his
amnesia
Damage to hippocampus and surrounding structures
attributed to similar cases of amnesia
Other nearby structures also removed impacted
memory
Tissue from the medial temporal lobe, including the
hippocampus removed from both sides of his brain
This area of the brain now referred to as the medial
temporal lobe memory system
This caused him to suffer from amnesia could not
create new long term semantic and episodic memories,
but was able to form some new procedural memories
Personality = relatively unchanged, and there was no
severe intellectual impairment

12

Psychology HL Notes
o Corkin et al. (1997) did MRI scan of HMs brain this
images allowed researchers to see the parts of the brain that
had been damaged
Parts of the temporal lobe missing including amygdala
and hippocampus This structure plays a role in the
conversion of STM to LTM
Areas are involved in specific neurotransmitter pathways
in memory
Damage also not as extensive as previously believed

What can be learned about localization of function in the brain in

relation to memory from the case study of HM
The hippocampus and surrounding areas play a vital role
in the conversion of memory from STM to LTM

HM could retain memories from before surgery

indicates that the hippocampus is a temporary rather
than a permanent memory store
HM could create some new procedural memories
therefore, the hippocampus is not required from this
process
He had deficits in some parts of memory but not in
others demonstrates that the brain has multiple
memory systems supported by distinct brain regions
Memory processes much more complex than originally
believed.
Hippocampus is important in the storage of new
memories, but is not the only structure involved in
the process

Evaluation of the HM Case Study

Operation based on assumption that HMs seizures
would be cured, but the problems it caused were not
anticipated
HM participated in research for more than 50 years
participated in make kinds of tests
Case study is an enormous contributor to the knowledge
of how memory processes are related to specific brain
areas
The medial temporal lobes are important for the
formation, organization, consolidation, and
retrieval of memories
Cortical areas are important for long-term memory
facts and events (semantic and episodic
memories) and the use of info in everyday life

13

Psychology HL Notes
Procedural memories not processed by the
hippocampus
Ethical considerations HM did not have the ability to
remember his participation in research - can be
considered unethical the findings are extremely
important, so therefore the research is justified
The findings from studies on people like HM have
produced very similar results therefore, it may be
possible to generalize the findings of this case study to
some extent.

14

Psychology HL Notes

Using one or more examples, explain effects of

neurotransmission on human behaviour
How Nerve Cells Communicate

Brain made up of an extremely large number of neurons

Neurons receive info through their dendrites, and
transmit it along the cell body and axon to the terminal
at the other end
Synapse gap between two neurons where
communication between two neurons occurs
Communication between 2 neurons = chemical process
neuron sends out a neurotransmitter, which are
picked up by another which may or may not transmit
the message
Neurons specific in which neurotransmitter they release

Process of Neurotransmission
1. Synthesis Takes place in terminal button. Most NTs
stored in vesicles
2. Release NTs released fro presynaptic cell into postsynaptic cleft
3. Binding At receptor sites causes post synaptic
potentials
4. Inactivation NTs can be inactivates or drift away from
the synapse
5. Reuptake Neurons recycle materials to conduct the
process again.
Impact of Neurotransmission on Human Behaviour

When a nerve impulse reaches the end of the neuron,

the neuron fires and neurotransmitters are released into
the synaptic gap
If the neurotransmitter is not absorbed it can be reuptaken, diffused or destroyed.
Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptor on the other
side
If neurotransmitter blocked or replaced, message
changes
Affects the physiological system, cognition, mood or
behavior.
Different Neurotransmitters have different effects on
behavior

15

Psychology HL Notes

Acetylcholine
Role in the body

Released by nervous connected to voluntary muscles

causes them to contract
Released by neurons controlling heartbeat
Critical for normal attention, memory and sleep
Influence on human behaviour
Important for learning and memory
Important for memory processing and formation and
higher cognitive functioning
Important role in learning and STM via cholinergic
system (nerve cells using acetylcholine to transmit
nerve signals)

o Martinez and Kesner (1991)

Serotonin
Role in the body:

Present in brain and other tissues

Involved in sleep, mood, depression and anxiety

Influence on human behaviour

Low serotonin levels in regions of the brain responsible

for mood regulation depression
Controls switches between emotional states

Evidence

SSRI drugs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)

anti-depressant
Block re-uptake process for serotonin increased
amount in synaptic gap
Evidence serotonin may be linked to stress and
depression
SSRIs can regulate serotonin and reduce depressive
symptoms produce effect does not mean reduced
serotonin levels cause depression

o Kasamatsu and Hirai (1991)

16

Psychology HL Notes
Conclude

Neurotransmission is an effective way to communicate

messages through the brain.
Thus neurotransmitters such as Serotonin &
Acetylcholine affect specific human behaviours such as
mood and memory.
Overall, it can be seen that neurotransmitters do affect
human behaviour in a variety of ways.

17

Psychology HL Notes

Using one or more examples, explain functions of two

hormones in human behaviour.
Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by glands endocrine

system
Spread throughout body
Effect physiology and psychology
Instigate specific changes in the body
Can effect behaviour

Endocrine System

Glands eg: Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal etc

secrete hormones

Interacts with PNS

Manages energy, reproduction and metabolism

Cortisol and Memory

Secreted from adrenal gland

Released in response to injury or stress anti-inflammatory
Effect includes impairment of learning and memory if too
much released
Too much can damage immune system or cause atrophy of
hippocampus (Sapolsky 1996)

o Newcomer et, al. (1999)

Oxytocin and trust

Secreted by hypothalamus
Released into blood stream by pituitary gland
Goes to brain and spinal cord where it binds to oxytocin
receptors
Effects on behaviour trust and attachment
Released in mothers during labor

o Baumgartner et.al. (2008)

18

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss two effects of the environment on

physiological processes
The effects of environmental deprivation on neuroplasticity
What is neuroplasticity?

Ability of the brain to change with learning

Although localization of function occurs, the specific location
of a function is not fixed can be re-distributed according to
demands of environment
Sensory deprivation: a deliberate reduction or removal of
stimuli from one or more of the senses
Synaptic Pruning Deletion of weaker synaptic connections
stronger connections maintained and strengthened
experience determined which connections are necessary
unused/weak neurons die in apoptosis brain adapts
Brain shaped by biological factors eg; genetics, and also the
environment and experience
Supports argument against mind-body dualism The mind
and body are connected to one another

Main facts about neuroplasticity

1) Neuroplasticity includes several different processes that take
place throughout a lifetime

Neuroplasticity does not consist of a single morphological

change involves several processes which occur over the
duration of a lifetime
Many parts of the brain involved eg: neurons, glia and
vascular cells
2) Neuroplasticity occurs in the brain under two primary conditions
During normal brain development when the immature brain first
begins to process sensory information throughout adulthood
An adaptive method to compensate for the loss of function or to
maximize remaining brain functions in the event of injury
3) The environment plays a key role in influencing plasticity
Brain is shaped by characteristics of ones environment and their
own actions

Synaptogenesis

Formation of new synapses during development

Axon sprouting creates new terminals induce synaptic
formation

19

Psychology HL Notes

Dendritic branching - When learning new information,

neurons connect to create new trace in brain number of
dendrites and their connections increases
Dendritic and synaptic connections rewire themselves
through challenges in environment, experience or even
thoughts.

When does neuroplasticity occur?

During normal brain development and childhood

Adaptive mechanism to compensate for lost function
Occurs throughout life different types of plasticity during
different periods of life
Infancy period of rapid development born with approx.
2,500 synapses after 2-3 years approx. 15,000 synapses per
neuron (Gopnick et al, 1999) twice amount needed for adult
brain
Adolescence Period or rewiring and pruning (use it or lose it)
Old age older connections disappear through pruning

Neuroplasticity, learning and memory

Neuroplasticity - Ability of the brain to change with learning

Learning Ability to acquire new knowledge or skills through
instruction or experience
Memory process by which knowledge is retained over time
2 types of modification which occur in the brain during
learning
1. A change in the internal structure of the neurons, esp of
the synapses
2. An increase in the number of synapses between neurons
Short term memory depends on electrical and chemical
events in the brain as opposed to structural changes eg: the
formation of new synapses like neuroplasticity
After a period of time, information may be moved to a more
permanent method of memory storage result of anatomical
or biochemical changes occurring in the brain

Measuring Neuroplasticity

Use fMRI measures changes in blood flow in brain

associated with specific neural activity
Demonstrates which structures are activated during certain
activities.

20

Psychology HL Notes

o Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond

(1972)
o Maguire et al (2000)
o Tierney et al (2001)
Conclusion

The environment, and past experience have the ability to

influence neuroplasticity
According to evidence, the brain has the potential to change
at all times of life, not only in response to deprivation, but
also in response to experience and new learning

The effect of psychological stressors on physiological health

Sources of Stress

Workplace environment, role ambiguity, work

overload etc
School bullying, work overload, exams, etc
Trauma accidents, involvement in crime/abuse etc

Stressors

Any event that threatens to disrupt the bodys normal

balance and starts a stress response such as secretion
of stress hormone and activation of the amygdala
Can be acute (eg: being assaulted, having an accident)
or chronic (anticipation of violence/worry)
Fight or flight response = pattern of physiological
responses that prepares the body to deal with an
emergency
Prolonged flow of cortisol in the hippocampus =
impacts size of Hipp and memory

Stress

Two definitions of stress

o A state of physiological tension and physiological
arousal produced by a stressor
o The lack of fit between the perceived demands
of a situation and a persons ability to cope
transactional model
Caused by a reason for high prevalence of anxiety and
depression
Can weaken immune system

21

Psychology HL Notes

Evolutionary perspective need stress to survive but it

can be damaging

How does the body respond to stress?

2 messenger systems:
o Nervous system travels through neurons
o Endocrine System hormones that travel
through the blood
Two main responses in adrenal glands release
hormones into blood stream
o Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Cortex
pathway (HPAC): triggers release of cortisol
(stress hormone) into blood stream
o Hypothalamic-ANS-Adrenal Medulla
Pathway: Stimulates fight or flight response
(sympathetic Nerve system) and calms body
after danger (parasympathetic nervous system)
o Both activated during stress

Fight or Flight Response

Reaction of nervous system in response to stressful

situation produces energy to prepare body for
extended/demanding amounts of effort short term
Evolutionary adaptation to deal with physical threats
Much stress experienced today does not involve fight
or flight mainly psychological activating these
systems if they will not be used is damaging to body

Stress related illness:

During stress immune system geared to escape

(fight/flight) not as focused on protecting body
Prolonged stress immune system and other systems
impaired/shut down
Cardiovascular disorders related to stress eg: stroke,
raised blood pressure, heart disease
Stress can interact with pre-existing (eg; diet and
lifestyle) factors to worsen problems
Chronic stress can damage the body

Trauma and PTSD

Traumatic episodes produce intense fear causes

PTSD in 5% of population
PTSD can be brief or prolonged
22

Psychology HL Notes

Evidence suggests can cause forgetfulness and

difficulty learning
Stress-related psychological changes in the brain esp
in hippocampus

o Bremner et.al. (2003)

o Johansson et. al. (1978)

Evaluation of relationship between stress and immune

function

Weak link between chronic stress and reduced immune

function often small but significant correlations
Other important factors: personality and ability to
cope, social support and lifestyle
Suppression of immune system can lead to illness, but
you must be exposed to an infectious agent
Determinism Being stressed does not necessarily
lead to contracting a disease can depend on
situation, person, experience of immune system etc
Reductionism there are many factors involved in
becoming ill eg; environment, diet etc, which must be
taken into account

Examine one interaction between cognition and

physiology in terms of behaviour
Amnesia

Lack of memory

Anterograde: Trouble remembering past.

Retrograde: Trouble converting sensory info to new
long term memories
Associated with injury to hippocampus
Types of Memory

Declarative Factual Information

Semantic General Knowledge

Episodic Recollections of personal experiences

Non-declarative skills, actions, reflexes

Clive Wearing:
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Contracted herpes simplex encephalitis attacked
hippocampus
Cannot store new memories, control emotions or
associate memories well
Cognitive factor Can learn new practices and few facts
new procedural memories through repetition
23

Psychology HL Notes
HM
2/3 of hippocampus and surrounding areas incl amygdala
removed in surgery to treat epilepsy
Believed Hippocampal region important or long-term
memory
Research also suggests amygdala = critical for the
formation of memories for learnt fears and consolidation
of emotional memories
Still had working and procedural memory
Moderate retrograde amnesia LTM damaged
Underlying Assumptions and Interrelations:

Assumes that brain damage to hippocampus causes

impaired memory does not take into account other
factors such as the role of trauma and stress
Not all amnesia is caused by brain damage can be
psychogenic

Evaluation of Interaction between brain damage to hippocampus and memory

Strengths
Strong supporting evidence
Weaknesses
Can be psychogenic not just related to structure
Amnesia = complex medical condition can be due to
physiological or psychogenic causes
Amnesia is a subjective concept can be partial,
retrograde, anterograde, etc hard to generalize
unique for all patients

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in

investigating the relationship between biological
factors and behaviour.

Brain imaging technologies are methods used in

psychology to examine the human brain.
They are particularly useful in neuropsychology
provides an opportunity to study the active brain
Allows researchers to see where specific brain processes
take place
Enables researchers to study localisation of function
(specific areas of the brain are responsible for different
functions) in a living human brain
It also provides correlations between brain activity and
behaviour though it does not necessarily detail a
cause-effect relationship

PET: Positron Emission

Topography

fMRI: Functional Magnetic

Resonance Imaging

24

Psychology HL Notes
Descriptio

PET scans require patients to

be injected with a radioactive
glucose tracer that shows the
areas where glucose is
absorbed in the active brain.

More glucose metabolism

means more brain activity.

PET scans show a coloured

visual display of brain
activity; where radioactive
tracer is absorbed

Studies

o Raine et al (1990)
o Tierney et al. (2001)

When neurons in a particular

region are active, more blood is
sent to that region
Detects changes in blood flow to
particular areas of the brain
Maps metabolic changes and
creates image of the parts of the
brain active when certain tasks are
performed, certain emotions are
experienced, etc.
Gives both anatomical and
functional view of the brain

o Baumgartner et.al.
(2008)
o Harris and Fiske (2006)

Advantag Ability to do receptor mapping Provides both anatomical and

functional view of the brain
es
Metabolic studies can track
Allows for a wide range of behaviors,
ongoing activity in the brain
thoughts and emotions to be
Very sensitive good resolution
studied for their effects on the brain.
More precise than PET scans
More flexible than regular MRI
Disadvant
ages

Very expensive
Expensive
Invasive injection
Cannot be used in pensions with
metallic devices eg: pacemakers,
Takes longer to image than MRI
screws, etc
Limit to number of injections
Cannot be used on uncooperative
unable to do longitudinal
patients patient must lie still
studies
Cannot be used on claustrophobic
patients involves small spaces
Not always 100% precise things in
brain = tightly packed could be
confused etc

Conclusion:
Brain imaging technologies are very useful in determining
the relationship between biological factors and behaviour.
Useful in different situations.
All these methods have their own advantages and
disadvantages, primarily involving invasiveness and levels
of radioactivity.

25

Psychology HL Notes
However, all of these methods contribute to investigating
the relationship between biological factors and behaviour.

26

Psychology HL Notes

Genetics and Behaviour

With reference to relevant research studies, to what
extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?
Behavioral Genetics
The field of research concerned with understanding how both genetic
inheritance and the environment contribute to individual variations
in human behaviour
Genetic Influences on behaviour

Debate over the extent to which human behaviour is inherited.

Sexual reproduction = genetic information in offspring =
combination of that of parents
Genetic information contained in the chromosomes, which
form the DNA in all body cells
Genes believed to be responsible for development of physical
and behavioral characteristics
Genotype: Individuals genetic make up
o Do not exclusively dictate organisms characteristics
o Environmental influences eg: diet an habitat also play
role
Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an individual.
o Result of interaction between genotype and environment
Thus genetics are likely to influence human behaviour, but
other factors such as the environment also play a significant
role.

Genetic Research
Intelligence

Main research methods used: Twin studies, adoption

studies
The closer the kinship, the higher the correlation for IQ
(Bouchard and McGue (1981))
Research using twin studies on identical twins brought up
separately from birth 100% genetic relationship but different
environments
Concordance rate of intelligence of identical twins reared
together = 86% concordance rate of same person tested
twice = 87%. (Minnesota Twin Family study). Identical twins
reared apart = 76
o Suggests intelligence = result of interaction between
genetic and environmental factors.

27

Psychology HL Notes

Environments eg: enriched and deprived can significantly

impact intelligence
In adoption studies, intelligence of the child is correlated with
intelligence of adoptive parent
The belief that intelligence is a product of genetics has been
questioned by the findings of Scarr and Weinberg (1977) and
Horn et al (1979)

o Scarr & Weinberg (1977)

Family/Twin Study

Measure the degree of similarity (concordance) of

characteristics between genetically related people (eg:
siblings, parent and child etc) and unrelated individuals
Assumes the closer the genetic relationship, the greater the
similarity of traits
Twin studies: Study concordance in monozygotic and
dizygotic twins.
o Twins are same age, and live in similar environment
o Extent to which they have same/similar genes varies
o Used to assess hereditary influence of certain traits.
Strengths
Limitations
Useful for comparing MZ
Difficult to determine
and DZ twins
relative effects of genetics
similarities and
and environment
differences can be
Not 100% similarity
inferred due to genetics
between MZ twins
MZ twins more similar in
genetics not the only
intelligence and
influence
personality traits

o Bouchard et. al. (1990)

o Shields (1962)
Depression
Gene Mapping

Process of determining the location and chemical sequence of

specific genes on a specific chromosome.
Research effect of particular gene on behaviour, psychological
disorders or physiological conditions

Strengths
Can help pinpoint links

Limitations
Do not reveal which genes
28

Psychology HL Notes

between specific genes,

traits and disorders
Advice can assist diagnosis
and treatment

control certain traits.

o Caspi et al. (2003)

Problems in Genetic research

Cannot determine the extent to which genetics influences

behaviour:
o Genes interact with environmental factors in a complex
way difficult to measure relative influence of genes
and environmental factors
o Knowledge about genes = limited
o Genetic research cannot demonstrate cause and effect
o In twin studies, the impact of the equal treatment of both
MZ and DZ twins limits the ability of researchers to
separate genetics and environment in these situation
the equal environment assumption

As a whole:

Genetics and environment both influence behaviour. The

extent to which these operate individually is unclear
There is evidence to suggest the influence of genetics on
behaviour, but this evidence is purely correlational, and does
not take into account other factors
Thus, the extent to which genetics influences behaviour is
unclear, but that it has an effect is undisputable. Studies have
shows that this link exists, but it must be acknowledged that
genetics is only one of a number of factors which collectively
influence behaviour.
To say that genetics is a sole influence is a reductionist
approach behaviour is a complex phenomena which must be
considered more broadly.

29

Psychology HL Notes

Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour

Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin theory organisms experience

environmental challenges can adapt to meet environment,
and have greater chance of passing on genes to next
generation
Organisms with specific genetic traits = naturally selected
more likely to breed and pass on traits
Adaption - Over several generations, the result of natural
selection is that a species develops characteristics that make
it more competitive in its environment
Several key assumptions of theory:
o Within a species there is heritable variability
o Some variations result in more offspring who will
themselves posses these beneficial differences
The Descent of Man (1871) Humans have a number of
behaviors similar to those of animals eg: mate selection, love
of mother for offspring and self-preservation. Also share some
similar feelings and facial expressions

Sexual selection

Selective pressures on individuals characteristics from the

social environment
o Intersexual competition choice and preference of
mates of opposite sex
o Intrasexual competition mate competition between
members of the same sex
Result of different levels of parental investment
Choose and compete over members of opposite sex for
highest investors in reproduction and parenting

Parental Investment

Females biologically invest more than males:

o Antisogamy fem produce few, large and long-lasting
gametes. Men = short-lived and renewable
o Gestation and lactation fem provide more resources by
developing and feeding child
o Parental certainty Child definitely females. Men not
certain
o Commitment to resources Protect child because of
above reasons and to protect it from harm would
otherwise be waste of time and effort
30

Psychology HL Notes

Male investment more uncertain lack of paternal guarantee.

Also:
o Number and availability of other females low female
to male ratio more likely to invest in child than
attempt to find another mate
o Likelihood of infant survival Increased male care in
harsher climates

Sexual selections on human mating strategies/systems

Parental investment impacts number and duration of sexual

relationships
Females prefer quality and commitment
Males prefer quantity, quality and exclusive access without
commitment
Environment and preferences lead to various mating
strategies:
o Polygyny: One male mates exclusively with many
females
Good for men with resources and lack of mate
competition.
Good for women if male can support all equally
o Monogamy: exclusive sexual relationship between one
male and one female
Good for men without resources for polygyny
Good for women if male is good quality and can
care for offspring
o Promiscuity: Males and females have multiple short
term relations
Occurs when plentiful environmental conditions
for single maternal care
Competition between males cannot guarantee
o Polyandry: Females mate with more than one male
Occurs in very harsh conditions
Resources of more than one male may be needed
for offspring care

Female preferences

Invest more biologically than males cannot afford to waste

investment
Optimal evolutionary strategy for females prefer males with
signs of quality, resources and commitment ensure survival
of offspring

Preferred features in males

31

Psychology HL Notes

Ability to provide resources or useful traits for resources

Status and dominance: Older males = more time and
experience in gaining resources
Possess promising qualities: Drive, ambition, intelligence,
skill or strength. Also desirable for inheritance in sons
Physical/genetic health: Musculature, clear skin, glossy
hair, high energy levels, symmetrical face and body etc
Commitment of resources: Pre-mating signs kindness,
generosity and resource sharing

Female reproductive behaviour

Choosy could cause infidelity with males of higher quality

More attracted to psychological characteristics
Empathize/exaggerate physical attributes
More jealous of emotional infidelity in male partners
indicates risk of abandonment and loss of resources
Approve of marriage for male resource commitment

Male preferences

Prefer quantity, quality and exclusive access with minimal

commitment of resources

Preferred features in females

Look younger: attractive and fertile. Signs of fertility =

childlike facial features eg: big eyes, small noses and full lips
Hourglass figure: Wide hips easier to deliver children.
Larger breasts and buttocks sign of nutritional health
Physical and genetic health: Clear skin, glossy hair, high
energy levels and symmetrical facial and bodily features
Chastity and sexual faithfulness: Increase likelihood of
paternity

Male Reproductive behaviour:

Less choosy could cause greater infidelity with females of

varying quality
More attracted to physical characteristics
Exaggerate resources & fake commitment
More jealous of sexual infidelity in female partners
Approve of marriage means of sexual exclusivity

o Buss (1989)
32

Psychology HL Notes

o Anderson et al (1992)
o Langlois (2000)
o
o

Meta-analysis looked at attractiveness

across cultures
Most cultures agree with the same
attractive features

o Wedekind et al (1995)
o Dunbar (1995)
Underlying Assumptions of evolutionary theory

Evolutionary theory can explain behaviour. Also that we can

learn from animals and apply inferences to human behaviours
Deterministic does not take into account other factors
Applying research methods to study evolutionary psychology
we assume this is possible

Limitations of the evolutionary argument

Nurture as opposed to nature

Difficult to test empirically some evolution based theories,
researchers may be susceptible to confirmation bias
Little known about the behaviour of early homo-sapiens
hypothetical statements about humans used to be
Evolutionary arguments often underestimate the role of
cultural influences in shaping behaviour
Difficult to determine cause and effect simply drawing
inferences forming hypothesis and
Use theory to explain data confirmation bias
Deductive confirmation bias (using only evidence that
confirms theory, and disregarding evidence that disproves
theory)
Impossible to prove methodologically using both qualitative
and quantitative methods
Adaption takes millions of years we cannot go back in time
to compare todays behaviour

33

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss ethical considerations in research into

genetic influences on behaviour.
Overall areas of ethical concern in the area of behavioral
genetics
Genetic Research Methods
-

Twin studies, adoption studies, family studies, gene mapping,

correlational research
Raise many ethical concerns in relation to the way in which
they are conducted, and the subsequent impact on individuals
involved

Twin Studies
-

Assess heredity and shared influence between twins

Separation: Part of Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al
1990) compared MZ twins who had either been raised together
or separately from birth
o Deprived of common life experiences which create bonds
between twins
o Reunions can impact sense of self by the discovery
that they have a twin
o This can lead to emotional trauma feel as if have been
purposefully deprived of truth pertaining to significant
factor in life
This can be seen to be justified in the sense that separation
provides detailed information for the investigation of the
suggested correlation between behaviour, genetics and the
environment.

o Bouchard et al. (1990)

Informed Consent

Participants have right to make informed decision about taking

part in studies
Must be aware of what will experience, and how data will be
used
Data in genetic tests could lead to unwanted revelations
cause distress must understand procedures and right to
withdraw
Eg: Heston (1966) This investigated schizophrenia in
children who had been fostered, but parents had schizophrenia

34

Psychology HL Notes

Participants must be made aware that information in such

studies is purely correlational does not mean that person will
definitely suffer from condition etc
Important that participants offered counseling for any
psychological or emotional harm caused.

o Heston (1966)
Interpretation and implications of data

Genetic data = correlation not causation not deterministic

Genetic research can thus suggest relationship between two
factors, but not correct causal link
Caspi correlational data relating to role of gene in
depression
o Does not mean that people carrying the gene will
definitely suffer from depression and those who do not
carry it will not
Misinterpretation could lead to undue trauma or distress
Researcher must take responsibility make sure that
participants give informed consent and are debriefed at the
end of the procedure

o Caspi et al (2003)
Misuse of data

Possibility for misuse of genetic information in the future

Media can misrepresent information
Eg: findings of Santtila et al (2008) (investigated homosexual
tendencies in twins) could be presented in more deterministic
light claim stronger linkage
Information can also be used to judge people in relation to
characteristics eg: intelligence, genetic predisposition to a
certain condition, or ability to do a job
Can lead to disadvantage and stigma those deemed
undesirable on basis of genes could be treated differently
This is deterministic behaviour = relationship between
genes and environment complex

Conclusions

Genetic research holds promise for the study of behaviour

Important that ethical standards maintained during research
and analysis

35

Psychology HL Notes

Protect individuals and their families from trauma,

discrimination and misinformation.

36

Psychology HL Notes

BLOA Studies
Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond (1972)
On the role of environmental stimulation on brain plasticity
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate whether environmental factors such as a rich or an impoverished

environment would affect the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex
Rats placed in enriched environment (EC) or an impoverished condition (IC).
Enriched condition - 10 - 12 rats in a cage containing different stimulus objects
to explore and play with. This group also received maze training.
Impoverished condition - each rat in individual cages. The individual cages
lacked the toys and the maze.
The rats spent 30 to 60 days in their respective environments before they were
killed in order for the researchers to study changes in the brain's anatomy.
Methodology: post-mortem study
The anatomy of the brain was different in the EC and the IC.
Cerebral cortex (responds to experience and responsible for movement,
memory, learning and sensory input) of enriched rats significantly healthier and
thicker
Greater activity in nervous system; acetylcholine raise found in brain tissue of
enriched rats
Cortical thickness increases even further if rate are placed with older rats
Since brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattern in both animals and
humans the implications of the study are that the human brain should also be
affected by environmental factors such as intellectual and social stimulation.
No significant differenced between groups in number of brain cells but enriched
rats produce larger neurons
Higher level of chemicals for cell growth in enriched rats
Synapses in enriched 50% larger
The research challenged the belief that brain weight cannot change. This
was an important finding.
The experiment was a rigorously controlled laboratory experiment so it
was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship.
The experiment used animal models, so it may be difficult to generalize
to humans unless research with humans provides the same results.
Other studies confirming such findings could increase validity of study to
humans
Similar study, Perry (1987) that looked at the brains of 2 years old from
impoverished and non-impoverished environments.
General findings confirmed by other studies
The research results have been replicated many times, so it is now a
well-established fact that an enriched environment provides a much
better background for brain development than a poor environment.
There are ethical issues in the use of animals in research. However, rats
in IC perhaps suffered from boredom but they were not harmed. Rats
were killed after the test period to study changes in the brain. Since the
results contributed to a much better understanding of the role of
environmental factors in brain plasticity it could be argued that the
research was justified in spite of the ethical issues.

37

Psychology HL Notes

Martinez and Kesner (1991)

Increased levels of ACh improve memory
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

To determine the role of ACH on memory

Experimental study with rats trained to run a maze. 3 groups:
Injected with scopolamine (blocks ACh receptor sites reduces ACH levels)
Injected with Physostigmine (blocks cholinesterase enzyme which clears Ach
from synapse increases ACh levels)
Control
1. Had problems finding way through maze more mistakes.
2. Ran quickly through maze and made few mistakes. Also quicker than control
Strengths: Experimental Method establishes cause and effect, easy to
replicate
Limitations: Levels of Ach = only one factor in memory neurobiology
more complex (reductionist). Can findings on rats be generalized to
humans?
Provides support for: BLOA Principles (animal studies), effect of
neurotransmitters on human behaviour
Ethical considerations: Using rats for experimentation

Bouchard et al. (1990)

Behavior displayed in animals can be related to that of humans
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the role of genetic inheritance in intelligence.

Sample: Self-selected sample of MZ twins, who had either been reared together
(MZT) or reared apart (MZA). White, middle class twins, living in an
industrialized nation
Method: Studied concordance rates of IQ and other variables between twins.
Participants reared together had an IQ concordance rate of 86%
Reared apart = 76% concordance
Suggests link between intelligence and genetic inheritance
Does not rule out the role of the environment
Conclusions: Environmental factors do play a role in the development of intelligence
70% of the observed variation in the sample could be attributed to genetic variation.
Findings do not indicate that IQ cannot be increased (environmental factor)
Strengths: Demonstrates correlation between genetics and IQ levels,
Limitations: Cannot establish cause and effect, limited sample (low cross-cultural
validity, low generalizability), ethical concerns (MZAs), potential to influence a
persons sense of self, concordance rates not 100% difficult to determine t\the
relative influence of genes, calculation of concordance rates not always reliable, no
control for impact of environmental variables affects accuracy of estimation of role of
genetics, self-selected sample, difficult to generalize the findings, confidentiality

Newcomer et al. (1999)

Research Evidence for the Effects of Cortisol
Aim
Method

To investigate the role of the stress hormone cortisol on verbal declarative memory

Randomized, controlled double-blind experiment lasting four days

Three conditions:

38

Psychology HL Notes

Findings

Conclusio
n

Group 1 = High dose of cortisol, (160 mg), which was equivalent to a major
stressful event
Group 2 = Low dose of Cortisol, (40 mg), which was equivalent to a minor
stressful event
Group 3 = Control. placebo
Group one had the worst memory, compared with group 2 and 3.
High-level group performed worse on declarative verbal memory test, worse
than low level and control groups, while low-level group showed no declarative
memory decrease.
Showed cause and effect relationship between levels of cortisol and
verbal declarative memory.

While informed consent assured no ethical issues. Effects of high

cortisol are reversible, so no permanent damage.

Caspi et al. (1999)

Research Evidence for the Effects of Cortisol
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

To determine the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful
events.
Longitudinal study. Compared participants with normal 5-HTT gene (influences
levels of serot
People with the gene had a high chance of being depressed, but a large portion
of the population also carry this gene.
People who didnt have this gene also got depression. Shows a relationship, but
not cause and effect.
Strengths: Demonstrates correlation between presence of the allele and depression
Limitations: Large proportion of population carry mutation difficult to conclude
whether gene is maj

39

Psychology HL Notes

Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)

Neurotransmitter - Serotonin
Aim

To investigate the affects of sensory deprivation on the brain and to investigate how
serotonin affects behaviour.

Method

Studied a group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72-hour pilgrimage to a holy

mountain in Japan.

Monks did not consume water or food; did not speak and were also exposed to
cold weather.

Researchers took a blood sample before monks ascended into the mountain and
immediately after they reported having hallucinations

After about 48 hours, monks began to have hallucinations, seeing ancient

ancestors or feeling their presence by their sides.

They found that serotonin levels had increased in the monks brains, thus the
higher levels of serotonin activated the hypothalamus and frontal cortex
resulting in the hallucinations.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Researchers concluded that sensory deprivation triggered the release of serotonin,

which altered the way that the monks experienced the world, a behaviour expressed
by humans.
This study shows that the neurotransmitter serotonin affects the human behaviour of
increased arousal causing hallucinations (as demonstrated by monks after a spike in
serotonin), therefore affecting human behaviour in terms of arousal and emotion.

Maguire et al (2000)
Supports role of plasticity in the healthy adult brain in response to environmental
influences
To investigate whether the human brain car undergo plastic structural changes in
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

response to extensive navigational experiences

Participants: 16 healthy right-handed male London taxi drivers aged between

32-62 years with 1.5-4.5 years experience and 50 right handed, male, non-taxi
drivers
Method: MRI scans conducted analyzed size of various brain structures and
density of grey matter.
Greater volume of grey matter in the right and left posterior hippocampi of taxi
drivers than control subjects.
Non-Taxi drivers had a greater volume of grey matter in the anterior hippocampi
than taxi drivers.
Shows correlation between time spent as taxi driver, and volume of hippocampi.
Strengths: Supports link between hippocampus and navigation, supports
role of plasticity in healthy adult brain in response to environmental
influences provides hope for brain injury patients
Limitations: Low cross-cultural validity, low EV, MRIs cannot be used to

40

Psychology HL Notes
determine cause and effect correlational data, potential for patients to
become frightened/claustrophobic inside MRI machine, low gender
validity

Baumgartner et al (2008)
To investigate the role of oxytocin after breaches of trust in a trust game
To investigate the role of oxytocin after breaches of trust in a trust game
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants played trust game investor (player 1) receives money and either
keeps it or shares with trustee (player 2) (in which case sum is tripled).
Player 2 either shares it (trust) or kept (violation of trust).
fMRI scans on 49 participants. Nasal sprays of either oxytocin or placebo.
In 50% of games trust broken
Participants in placebo group less likely to show trust after a betrayal, oxytocin
group continued to invest at similar rates after betrayal.
fMRI scans decreases in responses in amygdala; involved in emotional
processing and has many oxytocin receptors
Strengths: Experimental conditions cause and effect, replicability
Limitations: Low ecological validity; giving oxytocin like this may not
reflect physiological processes
Provides supporting evidence for: function of hormones on behaviour
Ethical considerations: Deception

Bremner et al. (2003)

PTSD as a result of trauma can reduce hippocampal volume and memory
To measure the volume of the hippocampus based on the theory that prolonged stress
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

may reduce the volume of the hippocampus due to increased cortisol levels.

Correlational study.
War veterans and females who had experiences sexual abuse in early childhood
Not all had PTSD Completed word memory tests during MRI scans
Hippocampus smaller in PTSD patients more memory problems smaller
hippocampus.
Correlation between years of abuse, memory problems and hippocampal
volume.
PTSD sufferers often had other psychological disorders could have impacted
results
Strengths: Correlation between hippocampal volume, PTSD and Memory
Limitations: Small sample, questionable generalizability (PTSD different
for everyone), relationship between, no controls over variables (level of
violence, PTSD), may impact other factors
Provides support for: Role of environmental stressors on memory,
Ethical Considerations: Privacy of subjects

41

Psychology HL Notes

Johansson et al. (1978)

Increased stress in the workplace contributes to illness and absenteeism
To investigate whether work stressors such as repetitiveness, machine regulated pace
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

of work and high levels of responsibility increases stress-related physiological arousal

and stress-related illness.

High-risk group - 14 finishers in Swedish Sawmill repetitive, solitary and

demanding work.
Low-risk group 10 cleaners varied and self-paced work with more
opportunity to socialize.
Levels of stress related hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline) in urine were
measured on work days and on rest days and records kept of stress-related
illness and absenteeism
High-risk group secreted more stress hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline)
on work days
higher total levels than control
also higher levels of stress-related illness and absenteeism.
Strengths: Findings supported by other studies
Limitations: Only tested on one job (generalizability?), lack of controls
eg: individual difference and stress levels of different jobs
Provides support for: Link between stress and immune system

Raine et al. (1997)

PET scans to investigate the result of brain damage on behaviour
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

The aim of the experiment was to discover (using PET scans) if murderers who pleaded
not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) show evidence of brain abnormalities.

41 participants (39 male, 2 female) NGRIs (average age of 34.3)

Control group: 41 participants, selected based on sex, age and matched to a
NGRI participant .
Each participant was injected with a glucose tracer (for PET scans)
Glucose tracers tracks brain activity as the brain absorbs glucose (as energy)
Radioactive glucose tracer emits positively charged particles called positrons,
which are picked up by the scan
PET scans show colourful maps of brain activity; red = most active, blue = least
active.
They had to perform tasks requiring them to detect target signals for 32
minutes
NGRIs had less activity in the pre-frontal cortex - Linked to self-control and
emotion.
NGRIs had lower activity in the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour.
Fearlessness - Inappropriate emotional expression.
Failure to learn consequences for violence.
Raine utilised PET scan technology to investigate relationships between
biological factor in criminals (NGRIs) and their behaviour.
Through Raines study, which involved PET scans, psychologists were able to
determine a link between the amygdala (biological factor) and crime
(behaviour).
Biological factor: damage to specific brain areas
Behaviour attributed/linked to: Criminal/unlawful acts
Lack of inhibition of violent behaviour
Fearlessness inappropriate emotional expression

42

Psychology HL Notes

Failure to learn consequences for violence and aggressive behaviour

Tierney et al. (2001)

Demonstrates plasticity of the brain, esp in early childhood
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To determine whether MAs exposure to sign language as a child allowed him to gain
normal speech function despite his brain damage.

Participants: MA (Case study).

37 y-o man with normal speech function and lesion in left frontal lobe.
No long-term significant consequences.
Both parents were deaf had used sign language to communicate.
Method: PET scans used to compare MA to 12 control participants also fluent in
sign language.
During scan participants produced narrative speech or signs.
Motor control tasks also completed separately, to contrast movements for
speech and non-speech
MAs right hemisphere more active than control subjects
More anxious, agitated and angry than other participants
Otherwise assessed as normal by others and a number of neuropsychological
tests
Suggests language function developed in the right hemisphere as opposed to
the left adaption from brain damage
Regions of left hemisphere used by controls in sign language not active in MA
used right
Visio-spatial abilities below normal suggests language abilities may have
developed at expense of visio-spatial abilities.
Strengths: Demonstrates plasticity of the brain (esp: in early childhood)
Limitations: Small sample sizes, difficult to replicate, lack of
generalizability (unique case study)

Harris and Fiske (2006)

fMRI and Outgroups
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

Used fMRI scans to study student's brain processes as a response to being presented
with pictures of extreme outgroups. Looked for biological correlates of stereotypes and
prejudice
Scanned students while they watched different humans or objects.
Predicted that the medial prefrontal cortex would be active only when humans
looked at humans, but not when they looked at objects.
When participants look at pictures of people from extreme outgroups (homeless
people, drug addicts);
Brain regions related to disgust were activated, and there was no activity in
prefrontal cortex
This indicated a dehumanization of outgroups; they were viewed as "disgusting
objects," not as humans.

43

Psychology HL Notes

Scarr and Weinberg (1977)

Suggests link between environment and intelligence levels
Aim
Method

To determine the influence of both genetics and the environment on adopted children.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Tested IQ of children from poor, lower-class backgrounds who had been

adopted by wealthy, white, middle class parents, with high IQs.
These results were then compared with the IQ levels of the natural and adoptive
parents of the children.
No significant difference correlation between the IQ of parents and their
adoptive children thus suggests role of the environment in influencing IQ
Strengths: Supports correlation between environment and intelligence,
Limitations: Assumption IQ tests = indication of intelligence, not
controlled environment, what constitutes intelligence? Correlation not
causation, potential influence of confirmation bias.

Sheilds (1962)
MZ twins
Aim

To investigate the genetic influence on intelligence.

Method

Obtained 44 pairs of MZTs reared apart via the media (television advertising)

Findings

They had a similar 0.77 correlation in IQ.

This was very similar to that of MZTs reared together (0.76)
This means that the environment had very little influence on the twins?
intelligence.
DZTs reared together had a significantly lower similarity in IQ (0.51)

Conclusio
n

This study supports that genetic factors have a larger influence on

behaviour than environmental factors as the MZTs reared apart had a
higher similarity in IQ compared to the DZTs reared together.
Strengths: Similar findings have also been found by other, bettercontrolled studies such as Pederson et al. (1992).
Limitations: the sample may have been biased towards twins who were
particularly similar, due to the self-selecting nature of the participants.
Another weakness is that the environments of the twins were often
highly similar.

44

Psychology HL Notes

Buss (1989)
Demonstrates differences in the desirability of certain traits between genders and
cultures
To
determine
desirable
characteristics
in a mate from a number of different
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

backgrounds.

Asked to record age, gender, marital status, at what age they wanted to marry,
how big an age gap between selves and partner, how many children they want,
importance of characteristics eg: job, looks, chastity, etc, and most desirable
characteristics in partner eg: looks, wealth etc.
Gained 37 samples from 33 countries, using similar sampling techniques.
Good looks men prefer important in Bulgaria and Nigeria
Age all preferred male to be older
Financial prospects 36/37 women rated higher than men Netherlands and
Britain lower high in Indonesia and Nigeria
Ambition 34 female samples rated higher than men
Chastity Scandinavia = irrelevant important in China and Indonesia
Strengths: cross-cultural data, high ecological validity
Limitations: Relatively small sample per country difficult to generalize
Provides evidence for: Difference in attractive features between genders
and cultures

Anderson et al (1992)
Shows the effect of culture on mate selection, contradicting evolutionary theory (in
evolutionary theory all results would be the same)
To
study
female body size preferences in 54 cultures
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

Questionnaire on female body size preferences (men responded) in 54 cultures.

Correlational data obtained. Cultures devises into groups according to reliability
of food sources.
Food Supply
Preferen
Very unreliable Moderately
Moderately
Very reliable
ce
unreliable
reliable
Heavy
71%
50%
39%
40%
Body
Moderat
29%
33%
39%
20%
e body
Slim
0%
17%
22%
40%
Body
Strengths: Provides contradicting evidence to evolutionary explanation
of mate selection, large sample scope generalizable, high ecological
validity
Limitations: Does not take into account other factors eg: face, other
body parts etc
Provides evidence for: inaccuracies in evolutionary theory influence of
culture on perception of attractiveness

Wedekind (1995)
The sweaty t-shirt experiment
45

Psychology HL Notes
Aim
Method

Findings

To investigate mate preference based on genetic makeup in relation to immune system

function.

Participants: 94 students 50% male and female

Focus on MHC genes in immune system to protect against pathogens.
Men asked to sleep in same t-shirt for 2 nights and then keep in plastic bag.
Not allowed to wear perfume or eat spicy food.
Women asked to rate how agreeable they found the smell of the shirts
smelled 7 shirts: 1 control, 3 from men with similar immune system, 3 from
dissimilar.
All women at mid point in menstrual cycle.
Women preferred odors of men with dissimilar immune system

Conclusio
n

Supports the evolutionary explanation of mate selection: search for

genetic make up which complements your own to increase health of
potential children
Strengths: supports theory, large sample size, generalizability, controlled
what they ate to reduce impacts on their smell
Limitations: Reductionist does not take into account other factors in
attraction no physical contact

Dunbar (1995)
Males seek attractiveness in females, whereas females seek resources in males
To determine what features males and females find attractive in the opposite sex.
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Analysed responses from Lonely Hearts personal advertisements in US, Britain,

Holland and India.
Men seek attractiveness and offer resources, whereas
women offer attractiveness and seek resources.
Strengths: From different cultural backgrounds can be generalized
Weaknesses: Advertisements could be biased designed to make
person more attractive, low ecological validity
Provides evidence for: Sexual selection and evolutionary theory
Ethical Considerations: Privacy of those who advertised themselves,
informed consent

46

Psychology HL Notes

Cognitive Level of Analysis

General Learning Outcomes
Outline principles that define the cognitive level of
analysis
Human beings are information processors and mental
processes guide behaviour
-

Humans = active processors of info perceive and interpret

surrounding based on prior knowledge
Interrelations between mental representations and the way it
is perceived

Mental processes can be scientifically investigated

Cognitive researchers use scientific method to study the mind

Shows cause and effect.
Lab experiments = most used
Need to state the controls and show them
Can be replicated

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level

of analysis may be demonstrated in research
Mental representations guide behaviour

o Bartlett (1932)
o Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Mental processes can be scientifically investigated

o Loftus and Palmer (1974)

o Allport and Postman (1972)

47

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss how and why particular research methods are

used at the cognitive level of analysis
Laboratory Experiments

Used to test explanatory theories

Strict control of variables
Attempt to establish cause-effect relationship
Allow inferences to be drawn
Artificial - Generally lacks ecological validity
Bias due to demand characteristics and
experimenter effects
Laboratory experiments high internal validity,
but questionable ecological validity

o Loftus and Palmer (1974)

o Bransford and Johnson (1972)
Case Study

In depth investigation of a human experience

Can be on single person or family/group
Can be intrinsic (represents nothing but
themselves)
Or instrumental (represent more general
phenomena)
Can be descriptive (detailed descriptive of
phenomenon)
Or explanatory (described and find possible
explanations)
Advantages of case studies
May be only way of studying the
phenomenon
Permits insight into social processes of
group
Stimulates new research
Can be used to evaluate current theories
Helps to develop new theories
Limitations of case studies
High chance of research bias/ loss of objectivity
Ethical issues such as anonymity

o HM
o Clive Wearing

48

Psychology HL Notes

49

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss ethical considerations related to research

studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
Deception
o It is sometimes not possible for participant to know what
is being tested
o This affects informed consent
o E.g. Loftus Lost in the Mall
Implanting false memories
Cultural sensitivity
o Good example
i.e. Cole and Scribner (1974)

50

Psychology HL Notes

Cognitive Processes
Evaluate schema theory with reference to relevant
research studies
Schema Theory

Developed by Piaget
New encounters in the world are rarely completely new the
way we view most situations = influenced by previous
knowledge
Schemas: networks of knowledge formed through our
understanding of the world framework for organizing
understanding of the world two ways of understanding:
o Assimilation: incorporating new knowledge into existing
schema
o Accommodation: Schema must be changed in order to
incorporate new information.

Types of Schemas:

Scripts: schemas which provide info about events that occur in

a relatively concrete order eg: going to school
Self-Schemas: information about ourselves eg: strengths,
emotions, etc
Social Schemas: info about groups of ppl eg: stereotypes
Frames: knowledge about the properties of the knowledge and
locations

Role of Schemas:

Organize info in memory

Increase efficiency when processing info
Create expectation about objects, events and ppl
Regulate behaviour
Stable and resistant to change continuity
Create expectations of events
Schemas can lead to mistakes when in unfamiliar situations or
settings, or when wrong schema is activated

Bartlett (1932)
Allport and Postman (1947)
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Bransford and Johnson (1972)
o Brewer and Treyens (1981)
o
o
o
o

51

Psychology HL Notes

Critical Thinking
Does it fully explain how memory works?

It doesnt fully explain memory, as it does not explain

the mental processes involved in memory, but instead
provides a framework for what we remember.
Concerns the storage of knowledge, but does not give
biological details about the way the brain stores this
knowledge

What does it explain?

How we remember things and how memory is

influenced by external factors
How what we expect to happen impacts on our
perception of an event
How we adapt our knowledge
How our knowledge is influenced by outside factors
How we view the world

What are the strengths to both the theory and the

evidence?

Useful in explaining many cognitive processes (eg:

perception, memory and reasoning)
Used to explain the reconstructive nature of memory
eyewitness testimony, stereotyping, cultural
differences etc

What are the limitations to both the theory and the

evidence?

Has not been tested through scientific method

Cohen (1993) theory to vague to be useful does
not demonstrate how we acquire schemas in the first
place
Focuses a great deal on the inaccuracy of memory
most of the time people remembers very accurately
There have been a number of criticisms of the ways
the evidence has been collected particularly
Bartletts study:

52

Psychology HL Notes
o Didnt give specific instructions his participants
some results may have been conscious
guesses
o Did not control experimental environment
o Lack of objectivity in Bartletts research
conditions not consistent with a solid scientific
experiment

53

Psychology HL Notes

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive

process with reference to research studies
The Multi-Store Model of Memory - Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968)

Based on assumption that memory consists of a number of

stores
Assumes memory processes = sequential
Stores in model = structural components include control
processes attention, coding and rehearsal etc
Rehearsal info transferred from STM to LTM
3 stores linear: sensory short term long term
Flow of info between stores monitored by control processes
undergoes changes as it passes between all stores
All stores differ in duration, capacity and coding

Three components
o Sensory Store
External stimuli sensory buffer by means of
attention.

Sensory info registered and stored for 1-4 seconds

-> rapid decay
Info = modality specific (related to different
senses)
Visual info iconic memory stored in
visual form
Auditory info echoic memory stored in
acoustic, sound based codes
Unlimited capacity
Attention = control process responsible for
transfer of info from sensory store to STS

o Short-term memory (STM) [working memory]

STM LTM by rehearsal/encoding.
Memory lost by displacement
Limited capacity and duration 6-12 second and 7
items supported by Miller (1956)

o Long-term memory (LTM)

Memory lost by process of decay

54

Psychology HL Notes

Believed to be indefinite duration and unlimited

capacity
Stored based on semantic code based on
meaning

Evidence -> Studies of individuals with amnesia due to brain

damage

Amnesia caused by damage to the hippocampus and related

networks involved in the process of storing new memories
HM had sever hippocampal damage could have impacted
the critical storage area of the LTM
o He could store new procedural memories but not
semantic or episodic memory shows the memory
contains different systems
Model has some support, but usually used as a springboard
for other theories.
Evaluation
Limitations:

Cannot explain reconstructive memory, where as

biologically based models can. And cannot explain
multi-tasking.
Simplistic and cannot account for interaction
between the different stores.
Research has challenged LTM as being a single
store, most likely contains several stores (e.g.
semantic, episodic, procedural)
Rehearsal is not enough to explain the transfer of
information to LTM. Doesnt explain why memory
strategies and elaborate rehearsal is efficient.

o Craik and Watkins (1973)

Strengths:

Pioneered the new approach to memory as

information processors.
The conceptualization of memory as multi-stored
is supported by research.

o Peterson and Peterson

(1959)
o Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
55

Psychology HL Notes

Supported by case studies of individuals with

amnesia due to brain damage. HM, Was able to
store procedural memory but not new semantic or
episodic memories memory system contains
different systems.

Working Memory Model - Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Overview

Alternative to STM challenged the view that the STM =

unified and that information processing = passive
Working Memory = active store to hold and manipulate info
Model enhanced by further research (added episodic buffer)

Central Executive
Controlling system
Monitors and coordinates operation of slave systems
Modality free can process info in any sensory modality
Limited capacity
Episodic Buffer

Limited capacity
Temporary storage system/interface between slave systems
Believed to be controlled by the central exec through
conscious awareness
Handles info in various modalities
Resembles the concept of episodic memory

Phonological Loop

Handles verbal and auditory info

2 components:
o The Articulatory control system Inner voice verbal
rehearsal system with time based capacity
o The phonological store Inner ear speech-based
material active in phonological form lasts 1.5-2 secs if
not refreshed by articulatory control system

56

Psychology HL Notes
The Visuo-Spatial sketchpad

This handles visual and spatial information from either sensory

memory (visual info) or from LTM (images)

Evidence of the WMM

Dual tasks experiments assumes division of tasks between

slave systems according to modality
It is possible to multi-task and perform both tasks
simultaneously possible to perform both well if separate
systems are used. If both tasks use the same system, it will,
have an adverse impact on performance

o Quinn and McConnel (1996)

o Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Strengths of WMM

Useful in understanding which parts of the memory systems

may be linked to difficulties in reading and maths
Model focuses on integrating info rather than isolating subsystems
o Easier to understand the executive control in working
memory model
Concerns both active processing and transient storage of info
Explains partial short-term memory deficits caused by brain
damage

Limitations of the WMM

Role of the central executive unclear (this and episodic buffer

have since been addressed)
Emphasizes structure rather than processing
Harder to measure limited capacity
Models of Memory: Evaluation

Similarities:

Provide possible architecture of memory systems (multiple

store)
STM Storage (temporary), limiter capacity and duration

Differences:

MSM focuses on entire memory system WMM = primarily

STM

57

Psychology HL Notes

MSM = Simplistic model of STM not much focus on

interaction between stores
WMM = much more complex model of STM interactions
between stores, modality based functions, etc
No specific content of STM in MSM WMM = more specific

Evaluation:

WMM provides more complex explanation of storage and

processing than MSM
MSM does not focus enough on interactions between stores
better explained by WMM
WMM more widely accepted important for understanding
numerous cognitive processes
Rehearsal not enough to explain transfer of info from STM to
LTM in MSM WMM = much more complex

Judgment:
WMM = most adequate

More complex and more able to explain the way info is

processed between stores
Based on MSM adds further research
More widely accepted and used.

Multi-Story Model of Memory vs Working Memory Model

Similarit
ies

Differen
ces

MSM
WMM
Provide possible architecture of the memory system
(multiple stores)
STM = temporary storage, limited capacity and
duration
Focus on the entire
Focus primarily on STM
memory system
Much more complex idea of
Simplistic model of
STM suggesting possible
STM not much
interactions between the
focus on interaction
stores and especially
between stores
modality-based functions of
short-term memory(visuoSTM temporary
spatial sketchpad and
storage and
phonological loop). The
gateway to LTM
addition of a governing
No specifications of
system (central exec) is a
content of STM
58

Psychology HL Notes

Evaluati
on

STM and LTM are

more complex than
the model assumes
There is not enough
focus on the
interactions
between the stores
(eg: how information
from LTM is used to
deal with chunking
in STM)
Rehearsal is not
enough to explain
transfer of
information to LTM
The model cannot
explain why memory
strategies and
elaborate rehearsal
is efficient

strength although how it

works is not yet welldocumented
Provides a better
explanation of storage and
processing than the multistore model in that is can
be applied to
understanding, reading and
mental calculations
Early versions of the model
are vague on the role of the
central executive, but later
development of the model
suggests that central
executive guides attention
via two systems (automatic
and supervisory attention
system)
The model is broadly
accepted and considered
important for understanding
not only memory processes
but also cognitive processes
such as thinking and
problem solving (functional
approach)

Explain how biological factors may affect one

cognitive process
The effect of hippocampal damage on memory

Hippocampal damage has severe impact on the declarative

memory system -> factual info (eg: names, dates, events,
etc)
Procedural memory (memory of how to do things) largely
unaffected by hippocampal damage -> Suggests
hippocampus not involved in PM
Hippocampus an other structures in limbic system involved in
consideration of memory -> impaired by damage

Retrograde Amnesia: Lose memory for events that occur prior to injury
Anterograde Amnesia: Current memory function impaired cannot form
new memories -> memories only last for 30s

59

Psychology HL Notes
Case Study: HM

HM fell off bike at 7

Severe seizures started at 10 by 27 = debilitating
Radical surgery by Scoville to remove hippocampus 1953
Other nearby structures damaged impact memory
Removal of hippocampus = amnesia
o Partial retrograde can remember some things before
surgery
o Anterograde cant form new memories
Cant remember any new explicit info for more than 30s
Can form new long-term procedural memories implicit

Corkin et al (1997)

Used MRI to study HMs brain parts of temporal loge

missing incl. amygdala and hippocampus
Area involved in conversation: STM LTM
Involved in specific neurotransmitter pathways in brain

What has the case study of HM revealed about memory?

Provides info about the particular structures and networks in

the brain contribute to memory processing helps create
new theories
Memory systems in the brain = highly specialized and
complex
The hippocampus plays a vital role in converting information
from STM to LTM
Medial temporal region of the hippocampus important for
forming, organizing, consolidating and storing knowledge
H.M and others with amnesia only have deficits in some
aspects of memory suggests multiple regions of the brain
involved in memory

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one

cognitive process
Culture: The beliefs and behaviors characteristic of a particular
ethic, social or age group

Cultural and methodological considerations in cross-cultural

research on memory

Wang and Ross (2007) Culture is a system (values, schemas,

models, artifacts) and a process (rituals, daily routines and
practices)
60

Psychology HL Notes

Affects why, how, what, when, people remember, and

whether or not it is necessary to remember something
Free recall tasks generally used in cross-cultural experiments
to test recall people from western cultures generally
perform better this may because such tasks are
meaningless to people of non-western cultures

Cultural and Social demands determine memory

Misty and Rogoff (1994) culture and memory are ingrained

remembering something is influenced by the cultural and
social context knowledge can be used to help achieve a
goal

Culture and categorization

Grouping things in categories = universal basic mental

process
Characterize based on similarities attach labels to groups
with things in common
Helps comprehend complex stimuli, create rules and
guidelines to make decisions
Verbal language based on categorization and formation
words = symbols for objects
The way in which people categorize may be culturally variable
Common way to study this = sorting tasks
o Younger children tent to group by colour older
group by shape then function (Bruner, Oliver and
Greenfield 1966)
o Assumed trend due to maturation process African
adults grouped by colour contradicted the hypothesis
o Chinese children tend to categorize by contextual or
functional relationship
o Ji, Zhang and Nisbett (2004) differences in
categorization not due to language differences

Culture and memory

Ross and Milson (1970) suggested reliance on oral tradition

may make people better are remembering Ghanaian
students better at remembering story when read aloud than
American students
Cole, Gay, Glick and Sharp (1971) non-literate Africans
worse at remembering lists of words suggests that oral
tradition may only benefit meaningful memory
Serial Position effect Primacy, recency

61

Psychology HL Notes

Cole and Scribner (1974) serial position did not impact on

memory of Liberian children
Wagner (1980) believed SPE = due to rehearsal primacy
effect much stronger in those who had been to school they
are practiced at memorizing
Common elements of memory across culture eg: memory
decreases with age
Hindsight bias individuals adjust their memory for
something after they have discovered the true outcome
Choi and Nisbett (2000) Koreans have more hindsight bias
than Americans doesnt show why it happens
More recent study (Pohl, Bender and Lachmann 2002)
indicated no difference, and that hindsight bias is universal

o Cole and Scribner (1974)

o Allport and Postman (1947)
Further Research

Rogoff and Waddel (1982) Mayan children did better in a

memory task that was relevant to them on a local scale
Content and context of memory tasks important for aiding
memory cultural schemas can also help in such tasks

Summary/Evaluation

The ability to remember is universal, but specific ways of

remembering are dependent on context
Methodological difficulties most research conducted in
cultures with formal schooling systems difficult to
generalize to cultures without formal schooling system.
Difficult to distinguish between social and cultural hard to
claim it is one or the other

62

Psychology HL Notes

With reference to relevant research studies, to what

extent is one cognitive process reliable
Reliability of Memory

Memory is not a tape recorder reconstructs events can

be explained by schema memory is only reliable to some
extent
Memories are not fixed and can be lost, changed or even
created
o Can be scrambled by the retrieval process
o Can be manipulated false memories Loftus 2003
o Eyewitness testimony = flawed
We tend to remember the gist of something, but we
reconstruct the details
Sometimes memory is distorted for personal reasons, eg: to
enhance importance

Impact of Schemas on memory

Vital for encoding and memory storage and recollection

o If pre-existing schema activated before info enters brain,
info more likely to be comprehended and stored
correctly (Bransford and Johnson (1972)
o Schemas can manipulate info to increase understanding
potential distortions
Impact reliability of memory
o No prior knowledge increases risk of misinterpretation
o Used to full gaps in memory info may not be relevant

o Bransford and Johnson

(1974)
o Bartlett (1932)
Eyewitness Memory

Fragile and susceptible to external influences

Post-event information can distort memory (esp: leading
questions)
Studies have shown that many of the details distorted by postevent info are peripheral details (eg: Heath and Erickson
1998) which are not relevant to the overall gist of the situation
In terms of eyewitness memory, some of the peripheral details
may be vital for piecing together a crime suggests that the
fragility of eyewitness testimony

63

Psychology HL Notes

Yuille and Cutshall 1986 eyewitness testimony is more

reliable in real life than in a laboratory situation

o Loftus and Palmer (1974)

o Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
False Memories

Created through misinformation

Can lead to gross distortions in memory often describe
events which have never taken place
Memories can be implanted in someones mind Loftus and
Pickerell (1995)
False memories take time to be implanted in the mind old
and new info merges over time (Hyman Husbans and Billings
1995)
Demonstrates memories are vulnerable, even after they have
been stored
Suggests inaccuracies in the gist and the details of
information stored in the memory

o Loftus and Pickrell (1995) lost in

mall
o Hyman, Husband and Billings
(1995)
Discuss the use of technology in investigating
cognitive processes
Descriptio
n

Advantag
es

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Based on the discovery that when the body is exposed
to a strong magnetic field, the protons in the water
inside their body change alignment
MRI involves the detection of radio frequency signals
produced by displaced radio waves in a magnetic field
Signal from the scanner creates an image of the area
being studied
Provides anatomical view of the brain can be a 3
dimensional image
Provides anatomical view of the brain
Does not involve x-rays or radioactive material safer
Provides detailed view of the brain in different
dimensions
Safe, painless and non-invasive
No special preparation required

Disadvant Expensive
64

Psychology HL Notes
age

Cannot be used in pensions with metallic devices eg:

pacemakers, screws, etc
Cannot be used on uncooperative patients patient
must lie still
Cannot be used on claustrophobic patients involves
small spaces

o Corkin et. al. (1997)

o Draganski et al (2004)

Cognition and Emotion

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion
General Info:

Emotion involves
o A subjective conscious experience (cognitive
component)
o Bodily arousal (physiological component
o Characteristic overt expressions (behavioral component)
Emotion = highly personal, subjective experience
Psychologists generally rely on subjects verbal account when
analyzing behavior
Emotions tend to involve automatic reactions difficult to
regulate
A cognitive appraisal of an event is key to the emotions it
creates
Emotional includes an evaluative aspect Emotions
characterized as pleasant or unpleasant, a process which is
automatic and subconscious
Many researches focus primarily on negative emotions
o Fewer positive emotions
o Positive emotions less clearly differentiated
Negative emotions have stronger effects than positive
emotions

Cognition and Emotion

Rapid increase in the study of the correlation between

cognition and emotion mainly involved manipulating the
participants emotional state in a systematic way
Constant interactions between cognition and emotion in
everyday life any theory of cognition that ignores emotion is
inadequate
65

Psychology HL Notes

Cognitive Determinants of emotion

Parkinson (eg. 1994) claimed emotional experiences are

dependent of 4 factors:
1. Appraisal of external stimulus or situations
2. Reactions of the body (eg: arousal)
3. Facial Expression
4. Action tendencies
These factors are interrelated appraisal of a situation affects
bodily reactions, facial expressions and action tendencies
Believed that cognitive factors are always fundamental in
determining emotional experiences Argued by Lazarus in his
Appraisal Theory now a number of appraisal theories
All appraisal theories claim: appraisals start the emotion
process, initiating the physiological, expressive, behavioral
and other changes that compromise the resultant emotional
state

Appraisal Theory

Original = Lazarus (1982)

Cognitive appraisal subdivided into 3 forms of appraisal
1. Primary Appraisal environmental situation regarded as
positive, stressful or irrelevant to wellbeing
2. Secondary Appraisal Resources for coping with
situation taken into account
3. Re-Appraisal Stimulus situation and coping strategies
monitored primary and secondary appraisals modified
if necessary
Explanations of appraisal imply deliberate conscious
processing
2 kinds of appraisal one that is automatic and another
which is conscious and deliberate
Appraisal of a stimuli produces emotion and a reaction to the
stimuli - not the stimuli itself
o People actively interpret the world around the rather
than passively responding to physiological changes in
their body
Numerous studies show emotion is influenced by cognitive
appraisal

o Speisman et al. (1964)

Evaluation of Appraisal Theory

Appraisal processes fundamentally important to influencing

emotional experiences

66

Psychology HL Notes

o Not only determine whether we experience emotion or

not, but the precise emotion we do experience
Appraisal approach to emotion criticized
o Assumes appraisal always plays a crucial role in
determining emotional experience
o Likely that appraisal is sometimes a consequence of
emotion rather than a cause
o Difficult to study the rapid and automatic associative
processes involved in appraisal little progress in
understanding them
o The theory de-emphasizes the social context in which
emotion is experienced
o Focuses on a relatively limited number of emotions
large gaps in our understanding of all emotions

LeDoux and the concept of emotional memory

Emotions consist of conscious experiences, physiological and

neurological reactions and voluntary and involuntary
behaviors all aspects must be preset in a model of memory
Fear conditioning ideal for studying emotional memory
subject becomes aroused by threatening stimuli
Conducted studies on rats exposed them to electric shock
and simultaneous tone Rats learned to fear the tone
LeDoux damaged parts of the brain to discover the structures
involved in emotional memory
o Auditory Cortex highest level of sound processing in
brain did nothing to impact fear response
o Auditory Thalamus Provides information to cortex
damage eliminated rats susceptibility to fear
conditioning
o Amygdala Some of the information from auditory
thalamus also transmitted to amygdala region
involved in emotional behavior damage wiped out
fear conditioning all together
o Therefore the amygdala = seat of emotional memories
Extinguishing emotional response doesnt destroy factual
memory of the fear the memory cortex of rats with
damaged amygdalae still responses to the tone
Believed learning to detect and respond to danger is an
evolutionary system humans have adapted a suitable fear
response

The Amygdala and the concept of emotional memories

67

Psychology HL Notes

At the core of a complex set of neural circuits which process

emotions
Amygdala receives auditory info from auditory thalamus and
auditory cortex
Processes signals and then generates a fear response
stimulates other areas of the brain controlling things like
muscle function and heart rate
Signals from the thalamus = fast and crude
o Reach the Amygdala before signals from the cortex
o Only provide general info about incoming stimulus
Signals from the cortex = slow and refined
o Provide detailed information about the stimulus
Signals from the thalamus allow quick response
Information from the cortex allows threat to be analyzed as to
whether or not it poses imminent danger

Two-Factor Theory

Proposed Schachter 1964

People look at situational cues to differentiate between
alternate emotions
Experience of emotion depends on two factors
1. Autonomic arousal
2. Cognitive interpretation of that arousal
When visceral arousal is experienced you search the
environment for an explanation
Agreed with the James-Lange view that emotion is inferred
from arousal
Agreed with Cannon-Bard that emotions produce largely
indistinguishable patterns of autonomic activity
Believed people look to external rather than internal cues to
differentiate and label specific emotions

o Schachter and Singer (1962)

Evaluation of Two-factor Theory

Has received support

Additional studies have exposed limitations
We are usually aware of the cause of our physiological arousal
Believed that emotions are not as pliable as initially suggested
by two-factor theory
Did not link specific types of cognition to specific emotional
states

Evolutionary theories of emotion

68

Psychology HL Notes

Emotions are largely innate reactions to certain stimuli

Emotions should be immediately recognizable under most
conditions without much thought
Evolutionary theorists believe emotion evolved before thought
thought plays a relatively small role in emotion learning
and cognition may have some influence on emotions
Subcortical brain structures that evolved before the higher
brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thought
Evolution has equipped humans with a small number of innate
emotions with proven adaptive value
Believe people exhibit 8-10 primary emotions

Autonomic Arousal

Emotions generally accompanied by visceral arousal

Much of this arousal is associated with the autonomic nervous
system
o Regulates activity of glands, smooth muscle and blood
vessels
o Also responsible for the fight-or-flight response which is
modulated by the release of adrenal hormones
One significant part of emotional arousal is the Galvanic Skin
Response (GSR) increase in the electrical conductivity of the
skin when sweat glands increase their activity
o Key factor in the development of lie detectors detect
emotion on the basis of autonomic arousal
Neural Circuits

Autonomic responses that accompany emotion are controlled

by the brain
Hypothalamus, amygdala and adjacent structures in the limbic
system have been viewed as the seat of emotions
Limbic system = not clearly defined anatomical system
Variety of structures outside the limbic system play a crucial
role in the regulation of emotion

Other Brain Structures involved in emotion

Prefrontal Cortex role in planning and executive control

voluntary control of emotional reactions modulates
emotions associated with the pursuit of goals
Cingulate Cortex Role in pain-related emotional distress and
activated when people struggle with emotion-laden conflicts
Mesolimbic dopamine pathway Involved in pleasurable
emotions associated with rewarding events

69

Psychology HL Notes

Right Hemisphere Plays major role in the perception of

others emotions and mediating positive emotions
Left Hemisphere mediates negative emotions
Hippocampus, lateral hypothalamus the septum and the
brainstem also involved in emotion
Brain activity depends on the interaction of a combination of
brain centers.

70

Psychology HL Notes

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one

cognitive process
Flashbulb Memory
-

Highly detailed memories of surprising and emotional events

Information about place, surrounding events, source of
information, effects of event and emotions
Flashbulb Memories highly accurate and exceptionally vivid
memory of the moment a person first hears about a shocking
event
o Type of episodic memory
o Believed to be highly resistant to forgetting
o Linked to strong emotional arousal

Explanations of Flashbulb Memory

o Brain marks event as memorable
o The memories are discussed (repetition) and relived in
mind (rehearsal)
o This strengthens encoding of information
o Suggested by Neisser (1982)
Hypothesis of Flashbulb memory to be evaluated
- Special memory mechanism associated with flashbulb
memory
- Called print now mechanism
- 6 important features remembered:
1. Place (where)
2. Ongoing activity (what doing)
3. Informant (how heard about incident)
4. Own affect (how they felt)
5. Other affect (how others felt)
6. Aftermath (consequences)
- Acts like camera to record details in emotional situations

o Brown and Kuliks (1977)

Strengths and supporting studies
-

Support by neuroscience emotional memories are

remembered more accurately than less emotional ones
Studies

o Phelps et al (2007)

71

Psychology HL Notes

Limitations and critical studies

-

Dont always know events are important until later

Could simply be due to repetition and rehearsal (Neisser
1982)
Post-event information alters memories

o Neisser and Harsch(1992)

o Talarico and Rubin (2003)

Culture and Flashbulb Memory

Research into impact of culture on flashbulb memory

Individualist culture persons viewed as unique and
autonomous
Collectivist culture place community before themselves
motivated by achievement and responsibility
Many studies = individualist cultures

Basabe and Ross (2005)

Compared individualist and collectivist societies

collectivists =
o Lower levels of emotion
o Lower levels of mental rumination
o Less sharing of emotion
Sharing memories with others is considered to be a valuable
social practice in western culture -> not in Asian societies

72

Psychology HL Notes

C LOA S t u d i e s

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Reconstructive memory and eyewitness testimony
Aim

To determine the impact of leading questions on memory.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

5 conditions 9 ppl per condition.

Shown 7 film clips of traffic accidents.
Asked to recount what they had seen asked leading questions about speed
one car travelling leading verbs: smashed, collided, bumped, bit and
contacted.
More forceful the connotation, the faster the speed estimate. Distortions could
be created by schema attached to each leading verb, or confirmation bias.
Strengths: Supports RCM and schemas, objective data, controlled
environment
Limitations: controlled environment lack of EV, not tested on different
cultures, results could be due to confirmation bias or demand
characteristics
Provides support for: Schemas and RCM
Ethics: Potential distressing footage could re-awaken old memories

Bartlett (1932)
War of the Ghosts
Aim

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

The aim of this study was to investigate how cultural background and unfamiliarity with
a text would lead to distortion of memory with recall recalled.
Hypothesized that memory is reconstructive and that people store and retrieve
information according to expectations formed by cultural schemas.
Serial reproduction
White British participants told a Native American legend The War of the
Ghosts.
The story was filled with unknown names and concepts, and the manner in
which the story was developed was also foreign to them
o Complicated story read by one subject
o Story is then told to another subject by memory alone
o Repeated several times
The story became more consistent with the participants own cultural
expectations (Assimilation)
o Details unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture.
o Canoe changed to boat
Changed the order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more
familiar to the culture of the participants. (Sharpening)
Overall remembered main themes but changed unfamiliar elements to match
own cultural expectations so the story remained a coherent whole although
changed.
Lack of ecological validity because lab experiment, although it used naturalistic
material
Methodology not rigorously controlled.
o Participants did not receive standardized instructions,
o Distortions could be due to participants guessing or other demand
characteristics.

73

Psychology HL Notes

Influential study in the field of cognitive psychology.

Formulated the theory of reconstructive memory.

o Memories are not copies of experiences but rather reconstructions.
o Doesnt mean memory is unreliable rather memory can be altered by
existing schemas.
Used schemas to show mind is active in processing information
Shows cognitive process are influence by social and cultural factors
Important study as:
o Pointed towards the possibility of studying cognitive processes like
memory scientifically
o Support for schema theory and the theory of reconstructive memory,
which have been useful theories in understanding human memory and
social cognition.

Allport & Postman (1972)

Rumor
Aim

The aim of this laboratory experiment was to investigate message diffusion.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Showed different photos of different settings.

o Showed a photo of a white and black man on a subway
White man threatening black man with a knife
o Showed an illustration depicting a battle-scene
Ambulance truck in the background
Clearly carrying boxes marked TNT (102).
o Subject shown picture then had to describe it to another participant.
o Repeated several times
o Participants described the illustrations as they thought they ought to be
but not as they actually were
Over retellings, knife changed from the white man to the black
man
Often reported an ambulance truck as carrying medical
supplies,
Mental Representations
o Stereotypes prejudices
o Schema theory

Bransford and Johnson (1972)

Schemas impact how information is processed, stored and recollected
Aim

To investigate the role of a descriptive title in the way an abstract text is understood

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants hears long speech 3 conditions no title, title before and title
after. 18 ideas in paragraph.
2.8 remembered by no title, 5.8 by title before and 2.6 by title after. Title
believed to have activated schematic knowledge to help understand text.
Strengths: Supports schema theory, replicable
Limitations: Cannot control limitations of memory
Provides support for: Schema Theory

74

Psychology HL Notes

Lost in the Mall Loftus and Pickrell (1995)

False memories can be implanted in the human mind
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To determine whether false memories can be implanted in the human mind.

Subjects read 3 paragraphs describing experience of being lost in a mall had

been previously verified as false by relatives.
Account included sensory detail eg: crying, being helped by an elderly woman,
family reunion etc
29% of participants remembered false events and provided detail immediately
after reading account.
25% continued to recall false events in 2 follow up sessions. Participants were
more descriptive true memories.
Strengths: Clearly demonstrates false memory, controlled conditions,
quantitative data
Limitations: Demand characteristics, varying susceptibility to false
memories, confounding variables
Supports: False memories, Unreliability of memory and EWT
Ethics: Potentially distressing false memories

Cole and Scribner (1974)

Impact of culture and education on memory strategies.
Aim
Method

To investigate free recall in two different cultures in the USA and Liberia

Findings

Conclusio
n

Liberian children given list of familiar words of objects 4 distinct categories.

American children given free recall test (recall as many words in any order)
matches their culture.
Second part participants presented with the same story, but in a meaningful
format as part of a story.
Free recall test non-schooled participants hardly improved after age 9-10
10 items first trial and 15 after practices.
Liberian children performed the same as US children in the free recall test
used similar strategies.
Second part non-schooled Liberians remembered well according to the
roles the objects played in the story.
Children from US and educated Liberian children used chunking to recall the
items in categories non-schooled Liberians did not indicates differences in
cognitive processes eg categorization and memory.
Strengths: Cause and effect (experiment), high cross-cultural validity,
replicability
Limitations: Children may not trust researchers, lack of control group,
lack of variability, unclear extent to which culture effects memory,
Provides support for: Role of culture and education in memory
Ethical concerns: Using children

Brewer and Treyens (1981)

Schemas = basis of reconstructive knowledge, but can also cause distortions
To investigate the role of schemas in remembering a familiar situation (ie: office
Aim
environment).

75

Psychology HL Notes
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants placed in office individually full of normal (desks, chairs) and

abnormal objects (skull, bark).
Participants then taken out and asked to record recollections.
Most participants recalled schematic objects some also recalled schematic
items. Some also remembered very strange objects eg: skull.
Strengths: Confirms schema theory, supports Bartletts findings about
schemas an reconstructive memory
Limitations: Controlled laboratory conditions lack of EV, sample bias
students Limited generalization
Provides evidence for: Schema theory and reconstructive memory
Ethical concerns: Used deception (but participants debriefed after &
deception justified).

Craik & Watkins (1973)

Against Multi Store Model
Aim
Method

Suggested that mere repetition wasn't enough to tranfer information to LTM.

Findings
Conclusio
n

Participants hold one word in STM at a time, and varied the amount of time the
word was held in mind.
Participants were told to remember the last word they heard that started with
the letter G and were given a 21-word list.
Manipulated how long it was between words that started with G. (e.g., daughter,
oil, rifle, garden, grain, football, table, anchor, giraffe --"garden" would be held
for 1 second, "grain" for 4 seconds, etc.).
After 27 lists, Participants had to recall all the G words.
No correlation was found between amount of time in rehearsal and later recall.
Showed that rehearsal time does not 'deepen' the memory for material, as
would be predicted by the two process- model.
If the two-process theory is correct then the recall of drain should be twice as
likely as the recall of dog because it has been rehearsed that much more.
However, as predicted by the MSM rehearsal does not influence recall
probability, only deeper forms of processing can do so. The results show that
subjects are equally likely to recall any of the G-words irrespective of the length
of rehearsal time they have been given.

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

Multi Store Model
Aim
Method

Findings

To investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide empirical evidence for
the multi-store model.
A lab experiment was conducted in which 24 participants (psychology students)
had to recall trigrams
To prevent rehearsal participants were asked to count backwards in threes or
fours from a specified random number until they saw a red light appear.
Participants were asked to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18
seconds.
The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled.
Participants were able to recall 80% of trigrams after a 3 seconds delay.

76

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

After 18 seconds less than 10% of trigrams were recalled correctly.

Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. It is
thought that this information is lost from short-term memory from trace decay.
The results of the study also show the short-term memory is different from longterm memory in terms of duration. Thus supporting the multi-store model of
memory.
This experiment has low ecological validity as people do not try to recall
trigrams in real life.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

The effect of primacy and recency effects on recall
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the primacy (heard first) and recency (heard more recently) effect in free
recall.

Laboratory experiment participants heard a list of items and then had to

immediately recall them in any order (free recall).
Participants recalled best from beginning and end of list, when asked to
immediately recall.
After distracting activity, primacy effect disappeared, but recency remained.
Primacy Effect words have had more time to transfer to the LTM.
Strengths: Supports multiple memory stores, highly controlled variables
Limitations: Low EV, no random allocation, potential impact of demand
characteristics
Provides evidence for: MSM

Quinn and McConnel (1996)

Multiple stores of memory for different knowledge but cannot multi-task with
same store
To
determine
the
impact
of
multi-tasking
using the same memory store.
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

Participants asked to remember a list of words using either imagery or

rehearsal
Tasks performed separately or in presence of concurrent visual noise (changing
pattern of dots), or verbal noise (speech in a foreign language).
When same system used for both tasks (eg; visual memory and visual noise),
performance deteriorated.
Strengths: Supports different modality specific slave systems and notion
of limited processing capacity
Limitations: Lacks EV lab experiment
Supports: WMM, modality specific slave systems

77

Psychology HL Notes

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Suggests multiple memory stores responsible for different forms of knowledge
To determine the impact certain suppression tasks have on recall of simple letter
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

combinations.

Participants made to answer increasingly difficult questions about simple letternumber combinations shown simultaneously.
Then made to answer the questions while performing an articulatory
suppression task (eg: repeating the all the time, repeating numbers from 1-6
or repeating random numbers).
Difference in reaction time of those repeating the, and those repeating 1-6.
Random numbers = worst performance believed central executive =
overloaded.
Strengths: Supports WMM, easy to replicate, generalizability
Limitations: lab experiment lacks EV
Provides evidence for: WMM

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Eyewitnesses to a real crime
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the accuracy in recall of eyewitnesses to a real crime, in response to

leading questions and over time. In this study, the crime was a real gun shooting.
Initially, there were 21 eyewitnesses interviewed by the police. Twenty of those
eyewitnesses were contacted by the researchers four-to-five months after the
event, asking them to take part in a scientific study.
Of course, one of the aims was to look into the effects of leading questions, and
so following Loftus procedures, two leading questions were used. Half the group
were asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half if they saw the
broken headlight. There was no broken headlight in the thiefs car.
Eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. There were several factors that made
this true, including correctly recalling large numbers of accurate details; almost
always arguing the misleading questions and a healthy comparison between the
police and researcher interviews.
This was the first case study of eyewitness testimony which was a field study
and a study therefore of a real case that had not been manipulated by the
researchers.
Yuille and Cutshall concluded that eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate,
contrary to the findings of the vast majority of previous research into
eyewitness testimony, which had all been from laboratory experiments.
Strengths
This is a field study that looks at a real incident with real eyewitnesses. It

78

Psychology HL Notes
therefore has strong validity, which laboratory experiments which had been
previously used to look at testimony lacked.
Great care was taken when counting the details from the real incident to make
sure that the witnesses testimonies did not alter that which really happened,
and this scoring procedure allowed for reliable findings.
The scoring procedure also produced quantitative data from qualitative data,
which requires no subjective interpretation and is easier to base conclusions
upon.
Weaknesses
The study is said to lack generalisability as this was a one-off incident and a
field study, and the researchers themselves have suggested that this may be a
case of flashbulb memory which suggests that certain events are remembered
in more detail and more permanently, explaining how those who were more
involved in the even remembered more details correctly and were found to be
more reliable
There were some weak points in the scoring procedure which was set up, such
as with a question based on age: the thief was actually 35 years of age, and
when asked to estimate the age, most eyewitnesses said he looked as though
he was in his early 20s which was marked as an inaccurate memory, even
though he really did look that age

Hyman, Husband and Billings (1995)

Suggestion can create false memories
Aim
Method

To determine the impact of suggestion in the creation of false memories.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Students asked to recall childhood experiences recounted by parents most

memories were true and one was false.
Told they were engaged in research about how people remember shared
experiences differently.
Students fully or partially recalled 84% of the events in the first interview and
88% in the second.
None recalled the false event in 1st interview 20% remembered at least some
in second.
Strengths: Demonstrates false memories and that memory =
reconstructive,
Limitations: Low EV, does not show duration of new memories
Supports: False memories, unreliability of memory
Ethics: Potentially distressing memories.

Speisman et al. (1964)

Aim

To determine the impact of cognitive appraisal on emotion.

79

Psychology HL Notes
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

Participants shown a number of anxiety evoking films

Stone age ritual where adolescent boys had their penises deeply cut
Various workshop accidents
Cognitive appraisal manipulated by accompanying soundtrack
Trauma focus on pain of the child
Denial condition (eg: incision was not painful and workers were actors)
Intellectualization condition (eg: looking at incision film for an
anthropological perspective and workshop accidents considered
objectively)
Control no sound track
Psycho-Physiological measures of stress or arousal taken throughout the
experiment (eg; heart rate, skin response etc).
Denial and intellectualization produced substantial reductions in stress
compared to control condition.
Controlled laboratory experiment educes ecological validity.
Does not take into account cultural or gender differences this could
have an impact on the way the footage is appraised.
Demonstrates cause and effect indicates link between emotional
response and the way something is appraised.
Cannot control how something is appraised results may not be
reliable.

Schachter and Singer (1962)

Aim
Method

Findings

To test whether the experimental manipulation of physiological arousal impacts the

explanation the participant will give for the arousal.
Participants told they were participating in experiment to test the effects of
vitamin injections on visual skills
Actually injected with adrenaline, or a placebo
Subjects put in one of 4 experimental conditions
Ignorant given an injection and not told the effects of the drug.
Informed Given injection and warned of the side effects prepared for
its effects.
Misinformed given injection and told to expect false side effects
unprepared for its effects
Placebo Subjects given an injection that had no effect and given no
instruction of expected side effects
2 situations in each group anger (placed in a room with a stooge and made to
answer an increasingly offensive questionnaire) and euphoria (left with a stooge
who began to fool around and have fun)
Watched participants through a one-way mirror
Subjects all psychology students health records checked to ensure the
adrenaline would not have an adverse effect
Measured on a scale of happiness minus anger
Informed higher rating in the anger condition
Ignorant higher rating in the euphoria condition
Misinformed Euphoria = higher rating
Placebo Higher rating in the anger condition

80

Psychology HL Notes
Conclusio
n

Differences between the groups very small only became significant

after a number of the subjects discarded
Some of the subjects in the misinformed and ignorant groups attributed
arousal to injection impacted results supposed to be arousal without
an obvious cause
Results = measure of relative emotion unsuccessful in attempt to
induce anger
No measure of mood before experiment
Misinformed condition not reported in anger situation
Experiment supports two-factor theory

Brown & Kulik (1977)

Provides evidence for the theory of flashbulb memory
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when

triggered by a surprising or shocking event, will store an exceptionally vivid and
permanent memory.

80 American adults (40 black, 40 white) asked questions about 10 events

including; assassinations of John F. Kennedy (1963), Robert F. Kennedy (1968),
and Martin Luther King (1968) as well as self selected event of personal
relevance and involving unexpected shock and asked to recall circumstances
under which they found out.
People had clear memories, immune to forgetting The assassination of JFK
led to the highest number of FBMs with 90% of the participants recalling its
reception context in vivid detail.
African Americans reported more FBMs for MLK than Caucasian Americans.
Most participants recalled a personal FBM, which tended to be related to
learning about the death of a parent.
Strengths: High ecological validity, high cross cultural validity
Limitations: is it due to special memory mechanism or because of
rehearsal, self report data; demand characteristics, subjective data,
variations in emotional ties participants had to events
Provides supporting evidence for: FBM
Ethical considerations: Dealing with highly sensitive and personal
memories

Phelps et al (2007)
The closer in proximity you are to an event causing an FM the more vivid and

81

Psychology HL Notes
emotional the memory
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To explore the neural activation caused by flashbulb memories of 9/11 using fMRI
scans.

Participants were asked to retrieve memories from 9/11, as well as memories

from other events which occurred in 2001.
Some participants were in Downton Manhattan (close to the World Trade Centre)
and others were in Midtown (further away).
While participants were in recalling these memories, they were placed in an
fMRI scanner, and their brain activity was analysed.
The downton participants exhibited selective activation of the amygdala when
recalling events from 9/11, but not while recalling control events.
Downton participants also reported emotionally enhanced recollected
experiences when recalling 9/11.
Neither of these occurred in Midtown participants.
This study demonstrates that emotional, flashbulb memories contribute
to selective activation of the amygdala. Furthermore, this study indicates
the vivid nature of flashbulb memories.
Strengths: This study demonstrates the ability of fMRI to detect
activation in the brain as a result of certain activities or emotions.
Limitations: This study does not indicate why activation occurs in the
amygdala. Furthermore the results are correlational and do not indicate
cause and effect.

Neisser & Harsch (1982)

Casts doubt on principles of FM theory -> FM unreliable and accuracy can be
impacted by reconstructive process and lack of personal relevance
To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memories over time.
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Challenger Disaster US Space Shuttle explosion.

Participants filled out a questionnaire the day after, then 2 to 3 years later,
high proportion reported Flashbulb Memory.
There was little agreement with the two memories despite the confidence of
the participants: 21% reported first hearing about on T.V. the day after but 45%
reported first hearing about on T.V. 2 years later.
Strengths: High ecological validity
Limitations: No control group, demand characteristics, participants
emotional ties,
Provides supporting evidence for: FBM
Ethical considerations: Dealing with highly sensitive and personal
memories.

Talarico & Rubin (2003)

FM not more accurate than normal memories, and sometimes even less accurate
To investigate how people feel about flashbulb memories and if they are exceptionally
Aim
Method

vivid and accurate

54 students at Duke University (14 male, 40 female) recorded memory of first

hearing about September 11 and of an everyday event.
Then retested either 1, 6 or 32 weeks later.

82

Psychology HL Notes
Findings

Conclusio
n

Consistency for both memories was the same, both declining over time but
ratings of vividness, recollections and belief in accuracy of memory only
declined for everyday memories.
Emotional intensity often associated with greater memory confidence but not
with accuracy.
Strengths: Laboratory experiment able to est. cause and effect, high
controls,
Limitations: Self report data confounding variables; not objective data,
dependent on mood and other thoughts of participant, demand
characteristics, small representation of males affects generalizability,
low cross cultural validity
Ethical considerations: Dealing with high personal emotional memories

83

Psychology HL Notes

Sociocultural Level of Analysis

General Learning Outcomes
Outline principles that define the sociocultural level
of analysis
The social and cultural environment influences individual
behaviour
- Social Learning Theory (Theorist: Albert Bandura)

Learning by observing and imitating role models

A.R.R.M.

Attention Paying attention to the model.

Retention Retain the behaviour of the model that

was observed.

Reproduction Replicate the behaviour of the

learning model.

Motivation Learners must want to display what

they have learnt from the learning model.

We want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging to

others
- Conformity

The yield to group pressure. The pressure can be real

(involving physical presence) or imagined (pressure of
social norms/expectations)
Complying Change in behaviour without internalising
the opinion or reason
Identification Changes behaviour and opinion to
identify with the influencing group
Internalising Change in behaviour and opinion

Explain how principles that define the sociocultural

level of analysis may be demonstrated in research
-

The social and cultural environment influences

behaviour

o Milgram (1967)
84

Psychology HL Notes

o Zimbardo (1973)
-

We want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging

to others

o Asch (1951)
o Sherif (1936)

Discuss how and why particular research methods are

used at the sociocultural level of analysis
Natural Observation

IV is naturally occurring
Researcher records possible effects
Ecological validity natural behaviour in natural environment
Little bias from demand characteristics if characters dont
know
Impossible to establish cause and effect
Is impossible to replicate
Ethical issues of consent, deception, invasion of privacy.

o Cialdini (football jersey)

o Charlton et. al. (1999)

Laboratory Experiment
-

Artificial environment
Researcher manipulates IV (avoids confounding variables)
Controlled environment and standardized instructions
Establishes cause-effect relationship
Variable control and accuracy of measurements objectivity
Easy to replicate increased reliability
Artificial may result lack of ecological validity
Biased because demand characteristics and experimenter
effects.
Ethical deception

o Bandura and Ross (1961)

o Sherif (1936) - Conformity

Discuss ethical considerations related to research

studies at the sociocultural level of analysis
Protection from harm

o Zimbardo (1973)
o Milgram (1967)
85

Psychology HL Notes
Deception

o Crutchfield (1954)
o Asch (1951)

86

Psychology HL Notes

Sociocultural Cognition
Describe the role in situational and dispositional
factors in explaining behaviour
Attribution Theory - Heider (1958)

Assumes people are Nave scientists -> try to explain

observable behaviour
o People look for causes for others behaviour
situational or dispositional
o Look for causes and reasons for other peoples
behaviour because they feel there is motives behind
their own behaviour
o Make causal theories of behaviour to understand,
predict and control environment around us
Distinction between internal and external causes of behaviour
(situational/dispositional)
Causal factors make world more predictable
Most cultures have causal explanations for meaning and
origins of life (eg: religion)
We tend to see motives and dispositions behind human
actions -> this may cloud perception in cases when disposition
is not relevant

Evans Pritchard (1976): Azande peope in central Africa

believed that witchcraft had killed people when a granary door
collapsed believed they were under doorway when it
collapsed because of fate. Really just eaten by termites

Situational Factors external factors

The way in which you behave in certain situation (eg: with

friends, with family, in class etc)
Can be result of factors eg: social setting, social
pressure, immediate rewards and punishments etc

o Zimbardo (1971)

Dispositional Factors internal (personal) factors

Behaviour caused by tendency to act certain way

Related to beliefs, attitudes, personality

Bierbauer (1979) found that participants watching a film

of Milgrams experiments on obedience were more likely to
use dispositional attributions to explain the participants
administrating the electrical shots (eg. they were cruel)
87
than situational attributions (eg. they were intimidated by
the experimenter).

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss two errors in attribution

Attribution What you attribute emotion and behaviour to not
objective
Internal and external attributions relevant to ALL bias
External attributions ascribe events to situational demands and
environmental factors
Internal attributions ascribe events to dispositional traits
Gilbert (1989) people automatically make dispositional
attributions about others with little effort whereas situational
attributions require more thought and effort making them less
common
People take 3 factors into account consistency, distinctiveness
and consensus
Low consistency favours external attribution
Consistent behaviour = internal attribution when distinctiveness
and consensus low
External attribution when distinctiveness and consensus = high
Attribution Bias
Attributions not always made logically or objectively can
become distorted or biased:
People are cognitive misers we do not wish to use more
mental effort than necessary dont examine all evidence
take shortcuts
Information available = insufficient or viewpoint may not be
all-inclusive
Information used in way to maximize its usefulness
Fundamental Attribution Error
Behaviour attributed to stable internal causes not external
circumstances
Attributing behaviour to dispositional factors (esp.
personality) as opposed to situational factors (eg:
environment)
Western societies ideology that we get what we deserve
(Gilbert 1995)
Makes life more predictable behaviour determined by
personality helps to understand and deal with people
Why does it occur?
Focus of attention observers more likely to notice the
actor and their behaviour that the situation influencing it
Predictability of behaviour Attributions to personal, stable
characteristics, not changeable situational ones
88

Psychology HL Notes

Linguistic ease in English, it is easy to describe the actors

and their actions in the same way (same words) (eg:
aggressive action = aggressive actor)

o Ross et al. (1977)

o Suedfeld (2003)
o Fein et al. (1990)

Culture impacts attribution style:

Collectivist cultures emphasize primary social relationships
of an individual (family, social role, cultural activities)
Individualistic cultures = emphasize individual as primary
cause of action lead to dispositional attributions
individual = main cause of success and failure
People from individualistic cultures are more prone to the
error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less.
One explanation for this difference in attribution
lies in the way people of different cultural
orientation perceive themselves in the
environment. Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue
that (individualistic) Westerners tend to see
themselves as independent agents and therefore
prone to focus on individual objects rather than
contextual details.

Norenzayan et al (2002) American and Korean participants.

When given info about individuals, both made dispositional
attributions. When situational info given Koreans tended to include
in explanation more than Americans universal features of FAE,
and available info influences attribution.
Evaluation of Fundamental Attribution Error
Strengths
Created understanding of
common errors in understanding
what is happening in world
Supported by many studies

Used to explain many studies

(eg: The Milgram obedience
study)

Limitations
Culturally biased theory too
much focus on individualism
Research into theory conducted
in laboratories with student
samples.
Ignores the attributions made by
the actor themselves

Self-Serving Bias

89

Psychology HL Notes
Miller and Ross (1975)
Evaluating oneself positively by taking credit for success
Explain successes of the basis internal dispositional factors,
and blame failings on external, situational factors
Serve the interests of preserving or increasing self esteem
Self-handicapping explaining failure based on situational
factors relating to oneself (eg: not enough sleet etc)
Possible explanations:
Motivational Factors to uphold self esteem and maintain
esteem in the eyes of others

Zuckerman (1977) argued that the effect depends on a

desire to maintain self-esteem. If we can attribute successes to
dispositional factors it boosts our self-esteem and if we can
attribute our failures to factors beyond our control it can protect
our self-esteem.
This can be seen in the fact that the opposite of
the self serving bias is true for those who are
depressed, have low self-esteem, or view
themselves negatively. Abramson et al, (1978)
People with depression often attribute failures to
their own negative dispositional qualities (eg.
uselessness, lack of ability) and successes to
external factors such as luck.

Not have enough info people expect to succeed

exaggerate the amount of control they have, as they are
only limited to available info.
Cognitive Factors people usually expect to succeed on
basis of abilities failure = due to external factors.

o Johnson et al (2004)
o Lau and Russel (1980)
o Posey and Smith (2003)

Culture and SSB

Argued SSB linked to individualist cultures
Others believe exists in both

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Psychology HL Notes

Bond, Leung and Wan (1982) explanation for modesty bias

in collectivist cultures = cultural norm in Chinese societies
maintaining harmonious personal relationships self-

Kashima & Triandis (1986) asked American and Japanese

participants to remember scenes from unfamiliar countries. When
asked to explain their performance, Americans tended to attribute
their success in remembering details to ability, whilst the Japanese
in contrast, tended to attribute their failures to lack of ability. The
Japanese were less likely to make self-serving attributions thus
demonstrating that the link between the self-serving bias and
effacing attribtions = more liked
Evaluation of SSB
Strengths
Explains why people attribute
failure to situational factors

Limitations
Culturally biased theory cant
explain why some cultures
emphasize self-effacing
attribution (modesty bias)

Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to

relevant studies
Social Identity Theory (SIT):

Framework created by Tajfel and Turner (1979) for analysis of

intergroup relations
Social Identity = the part of ones self-concept based on the
knowledge of membership in social groups, in combination
with the value and emotional significance attached to that
membership
Personal identity associated with interpersonal behaviours
Individuals aim to maintain a positive self-concept as ell
as a positive social identity make comparisons
between ingroup and outgroup on dimensions to
establish maintain and defend positive ingroup
distinctiveness
When social comparison results in positive outcome for
ingroup need for positive social identity satisfied
opposite can also happen
Intergroup discrimination can maintain positive social
identity for ingroup

Stages in process of social identity:

1. Social Categorization categorize self as member of group
2. Social identification adopt norms of group and identify
differences between ingroup and outgroup

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Psychology HL Notes
3. Social Comparison ingroup favoritism and over accentuation
of similarities.
Social Comparison and positive distinctiveness

Seek positive social identities to maintain self-esteem

Social Comparison compare ones ingroup with outgroup in
order to gain positive distinctiveness (motivation to show an
ingroup is preferable to an outgroup) establish superiority
for oneself
General characteristics of intergroup behaviours:
Ethnocentrism ingroup-serving bias (like SSB)
Positive ingroup behaviours = dispositional
attribution
Negative ingroup behaviours = situational
Positive outgroup behaviours = situational
Negative outgroup behaviours = dispositional
Ingroup favoritism
Intergroup differentiation behaviour emphasize
ingroup and outgroup differences
Stereotypical thinking
Conformity to ingroup norms

Tajfel (1970)

we are what we are because they are not what we are

Theory: competition is not necessary to create conflict just the
existence of groups is enough
Membership of a group gives us a social identity serves to
define us and informs our self-concept
In-group favoritism.
Minimal group paradigm (groups formed using arbitrary
criteria)
No social interaction between groups
No shared goals
Participants unaware of others membership

o Tajfel (1970)
o Sherif (1956)
Difference between Tajfel and Sherif the presence of a common
goal reduced aggression. Sherif does not address that the mere
existence of groups causes in-group favouritism.

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Psychology HL Notes

Alternative Explanations
Social Representation theory
Moscovici (1973)
Social representations shared beliefs and explanations
shared by society of the group we belong to
Social cognition Help us make sense of the world and master
it
Cultural schemas that are fundamental to the identity of the
group and provide a common understanding for
communication

o Howarth (2002)

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Psychology HL Notes

Evaluation of social Identity

Strengths
May explain discrimination
(religious, racial gender)
Assumption that self-concept
depends on groups we
identify with and receive
considerable support from
Applied successfully to: ingroup bias, group
stereotyping and prejudice
reduction (self
categorization)
Shows prejudice determined
partly by strength of group
identification
Helps account for individual
differences in prejudice

Limitations
Not conclusive evidence that
group identity causes
discrimination
Limited view of prejudice
ignores conflict and
intergroup competition
Explains why prejudice exists
but does not explain how it
develops
Complex makes hard to
predict what theory would
predict in situation
Prediction that individual low
in self esteem will exhibit
more in group bias has not
been supported
Idea individuals motivated to
identify with various groups
to achieve personal
enhancement is less
applicable to collectivist
cultures than indiv
psychological process
involved of ingroup
favouritism may differ crossculturally
Focuses on conscious
strategies de-emphasizes
automatic ones
De-emphasizes emotional
and motivational factors
People readily adopt social
identities. Augoustinos and
Walker (1995) there are
limits, people actively seek,
avoid and negotiate
identities

94

Psychology HL Notes

Explain the formation of stereotypes and their eff ect

on behaviour
What is a stereotype?

A stereotype: a social perception of individual based on group

they belong to

Lipmann (1922) Stereotypes simplified mental images act

as templates to help interpret the social world
Posner and Smyder 1975) Automatic cognitive process
unconscious
Salient part of our social and cultural environment
Learn them through daily interactions, conversation and the
media
Based on individual experiences cultural and social factors
also involved stereotypes contextualized not result of
individual cognitive process
Can be shared by large social groups social representations
Most common process = social categorization (Tajfel 1969)
Example

Typically associated with characteristics eg: age, race or

gender
Fiske (1998) research shows men perceive women as very
nice but not very competent, and vice versa
Williams and Best (1984) cross cultural validity of this
evidence in Australia, Europe, Americas, parts of Middle East

Social-Cognitive Theory
Based off assumptions:

Our social world is very complex and presents us with too

much information
Our capacity to process information is limited there is a need
to simplify our social world
One of the ways in which we avoid information overload is
social categorization Stereotypes
Stereotypes are schemas and have the following
characteristics:
o They are energy-saving devices
o They can be automatically activated
o They are stable and resistant to change
o They affect behavior

95

Psychology HL Notes

Cohen (1981) - Effects of Stereotypes on Memory: Participants

shown a videotape of a woman having dinner with her husband. Half
were told that the woman was a waitress and the other half told that
the woman was a librarian. At a later memory test, participants
showed better recall for stereotype-consistent information. Those
who thought she was a waitress remembered her beer drinking.
Participants who thought she was a librarian remembered her
wearing glasses and listening to classical music.
Social Identity Theory
Formation based on the category accentuation effect and positive
distinctiveness
Pay more attention to ingroup and outgroup members who
mazimise positive distinctiveness
Ethnocentrism impacts way in which we make attributions
(pos and neg) to in and out group
Leads to generalization attributes of group generalized to
members of category
How does evidence supporting social identity theory explain
stereotypes?
Tajfel (1970) Demonstrates in-group favouritism
o Demonstrations of in-group favouritism and
discrimination against outgroup
o Accentuation of positive ingroup distinctiveness the
boys took measures to ensure that their group received
the most profit
o Important factor in second part = increasing difference
between two groups
Comparison

Social-cognitive models, social categorization simplifies social

perception;
SIT, it enriches social perception. Even in minimal group
experiments (flip of the coin assigning to groups), participants
try to make some sense of whatever trivial categories are
introduced by the experimenter by elaborating on what being
an ingroup or an outgroup member means in that situation
SIT theorists do not think that stereotypes have a
biasing effect on social perception, or that perceiving
humans as individuals, rather than as members of
groups, is necessarily more accurate

96

Psychology HL Notes

SIT theorists predict that stereotypes are flexible and

context-dependent while social-cognitive theorists
conceptualize stereotypes as stored mental schemas
with a fixed content waiting to be activated
Stereotypes do not have to be viewed as static structures
awaiting activation.
Haslam and Turner (1992): showed this when asking
Australian participants to report their perceptions of
Americans in contexts that encouraged comparisons either
with the Soviet Union or with Iraq. When compared to the
Soviets, Americans were seen as aggressive and then less
aggressive when compared to Iraqis. Interpreted as
stereotypes being flexible and changeable

Effects of stereotypes on behaviour

Stereotype threat effect
Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will
confirm an existing stereotype of a group with which one
identifies

Impairs performance when individuals asked to carry out a

task are made aware of a negative stereotype held against
them regarding their groups ability to perform well in that
task.
Can influence the way in which people in the perceived
outgroup are treated.
Steele and Aronson (1995): showed in several
experiments that Black college students performed more
poorly on standardized tests than White students when their
race was emphasized. When race was not emphasized,
however, Black students performed better and equivalently
with White students. The results showed that performance in
academic contexts can be harmed by the awareness that
one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of racial
stereotypes.
The mere presence of other people can evoke stereotype
threat.
Inzlicht and Ben-Zeev (2002): experiment. Women
who took a mathematics exam along with two other women
got 70% of the answers right; while those doing the same
exam in the presence of two men got an average score of 55%

Evaluation
In both studies, research does not differentiate between the
alleged threat and experienced discrimination questionable
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Psychology HL Notes

internal validity: could be another connection. Were students

worried about fitting the stereotype or about being
discriminated against?
Failure to generalize to real life settings (low external validity)
Wei (2009): examined real-world testing over a broad
population (rather than lab assessments with
questionable ecological validity), and found the opposite of
stereotype threat - randomly-assigned gendered questions
actually raised female students' scores by 0.05 standard
deviations.

Evaluation of stereotype research

-

Social desirability people may unconsciously present

themselves as less prejudicial
The pressure of wanting to disprove stereotype may
negatively affect performance

98

Psychology HL Notes

Social Norms
Explain social learning theory, making reference to
two relevant studies
Definition - Albert Bandura
Theory of learning that assumes people learn through
observation and mental processing of information.
Observational learning: learning behaviour by observing the
consequences that other people receive for performing it (we
learn without having to perform the behaviour).
This model uses vicarious reinforcement, be that direct
(parent) or indirect (TV) and can be intentional and
unintentional.
Processes of SLT
Attention: Learner must observe models behaviour and
consequences of it
Retention: Person must remember the behaviour
Cognitive, anti-behaviorist approach: coding and
memory behaviour must be properly stored in
learners LTM
Reinforcement increases ability to predict future
This is because we see reinforcement as consequence
of behaviour
Motor reproduction: person has to be able to replicate
behaviour
Motivation: must want to demonstrate what they learn
usually linked to reward and punishment. Controlled by
outcome expectancies
Motivation
Some factors which may influence motivation to demonstrate
behaviour learnt through modelling
Consistency across situations
Identification with the model has similar characteristics e.g.:
age and gender
Rewards/punishment vicarious reinforcement
Liking the model warm and friendly models are more likely
to be imitates than cold and uncaring models. Yarrow et al
(1970) children lean altruistic behaviour better from people
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Psychology HL Notes
they have already developed friendly relationship with than
strangers.
Self-efficacy we are more likely to learn behaviours we
believe we can do
Normative Standards we are more likely to learn behaviour
that fits with social norms

o Bandura and Ross (1961)

o Charlton et al (1999)

Limitations of theory:
-

not cross cultural much research = American, but American

perspective not common for all social norms

Answering question:
-

Theory demonstrated by Bobo doll study AMF

Limk each finding the particular aspects of theory, esp
motivation.
Briefly mention St Helena however findings did not support
the theory
Conclusion sum up general ideas Bandura supports SLT
Helena did not no violence increase SLT can explain
increase in aggression, but culture also a factor which can
contribute it St Helena could be different to American in
1961 this is an issue for debate.

100

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss the use of compliance techniques

Compliance: The modification of behaviour in response to a direct
request, even though the person making the request has no power
to enforce compliance.
A form of social influence involving direct requests from one person
to another.
Difference between compliance and conformity
No majority involved
Influencing behaviour
Obedience
Eg: Milgram (1963)
The behavioral change that comes in response to the request
of an authority figure.
Compliance techniques Robert Cialdini
Systematic participant observation
Research effectiveness of compliance techniques
Enrolled in training program for public relations, recruitment,
sales, fundraising etc.
Only 6 universal principles of influence
o Reciprocity
o Scarcity
o Commitment and consistency
o Authority
o Social Validation
o Liking/Friendship
Reciprocity
-

Evolutionary purpose- good for the group

The powerful norm of reciprocity dictates that we treat thers
as they have treated us
o This norm leads us to feel obligated to repay for acts of
kindness, even when unsolicited
- Does not always involve giving gifts
- Can also be because other person has already compromised
compromise should be acknowledge with behaviour
Example: Door in the Face technique request made which will
surely be turned down. Second request made asking less of
someone people more likely to accept the second request

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Psychology HL Notes
because they feel the person has already lowered their request to
accommodate them.
Having to return a favour
The social norm that if you treat others as they treat you
Cross-cultural research Lynn and McCall (1998)
restaurant customers more likely to give larger tip when given
a mint
Reciprocity can also involve capitalizing on compromise
Door in the face a variation
o Cialdini (1975) youth counseling program
o Day trip 83% refusal
o 2hrs week for 2 yrs 100% then followed by second
request of just day trip 50% agreed
Commitment
- Once a person agrees to a request, they are more likely to
perform another request
- Individuals act consistently with previous behaviour
- Longer the commitment, less likely to abandon the goal
- Foot in the door
o Ask for a small request, then ask for a larger request
o E.g. People asked to wear button to support a cause
o They were then asked to put a billboard on their lawn
- Lowballing
o Changing the terms of a deal after it is made
o After choosing
possession of it

something,

people

take

mental

o It becomes part of their self concept

o They will be more likely to negotiate to get it
Cialdini et al (1978) Lowballing
Control group: When asked whether they would participate in a
psychology experiment that started at 7am, most participants
refused
Experimental group: When asked whether they would participate
in a psychology experiment, most participants agreed later told
it started at 7am, and given the chance to drop out if wanted
turned up as promised.
when told start time, 24% agreed
when not told, 56% agreed, and then 95% showed up
102

Psychology HL Notes

Evaluate research into conformity to group norms

What is conformity?
Yielding to group pressure Crutchfield (1962)
Aronson (1976) pressure can be real of imagined
Kelman (1958) Yielding can take the form of:
o Compliance change in behaviour without change in
opinion
o Internalization Change in both behaviour and opinion
o Identification The individual changes their behaviour
and opinions to identify with the influencing group
How is this different from obedience?
Following group pressure as opposed to being forced to do
something by authority
Pressure in conformity = indirect
Pressure in obedience = direct

Theories
Informational social influence
Normative social influence
Referent social influence
Informational Social Influence
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) motive for conformity = need
for certainty
When individuals in ambiguous situations, more likely to refer
to others to know how to react Social comparison
Other people possess informational of expert power
individuals may show internalization conformity
Individuals may show internalization conformity behaviour
and opinions same as group
Evidence: Sherifs experiment. Majority of participants in
Aschs study believed groups judgment = superior

o Sherif (1936) - Conformity

Normative Social Influence
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) conformity based on need for
social acceptance and approval

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Psychology HL Notes
Conflict between opinions of individual and group other
people have reward or coercive power can lead to
compliance publically agree but privately have different
opinion
Can be used to explain some of Aschs findings, esp private
answer condition.
Factors Asch outlined which influence conformity:
o Conformed to avoid social discomfort
o Thought majority = correct
o Unanimous 37% conformity rate reduced by having a
confederate giving right answer (reduced by 2/3, or
writing answer not speaking.

o Asch (1955)
Differences between Asch and Sherif
Sherif ambiguity participants turned to each other for
guidance
Asch participants often found themselves in an awkward
position obvious right answer
Sherif subject didnt know correct answer
o Considered others views
o Participants later adopted social norms
o Conformity leads to internalization
Asch participants knew correct answer conformity does
not lead to internalization
Crutchfields conforming personality theory (1955)

o Crutchfield (1954)
Situational and dispositional influences of conformity
Mcguire (1996)
Found inconsistencies of conformity across situations when
analyzing personality characteristics showing again the role of
the situation
Shows role of situational factors in conformity
Arguing against the role of dispositional factors to explain
conformity
Generally accepted that situational factors play a major role in
conformity. Dispositional factors do play a role, but this is more
minor. Majority of people found to conform due to situational
factors. It is also likely, however that situational and dispositional
factors interact to some extent in conformity.
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Psychology HL Notes

Hogg and Vaughan (2008)

Analysis of studies by 7 researchers
Identified several dispositional factors associated with
increased conformity
o Low self esteem
o High need for support and approval
o High anxiety
o Feeling of low status in group conformity can give
feeling of status and power

To influence the majority:

These are recommendations for how to influence the majority,
based on research:
o Provide an alternative consensus
o Remain consistent
o Strike the right balance between similarity and
difference to the majority
o Promote systematic processing group members more
likely to think deeper about the issue. This can be
achieved through consistency in position.
Referent Social Influence
Turner 1991) suggests people have tendency to categorize
themselves as members of different groups
We are likely to conform to the norms of these groups that we
feel we are members of
People expect to agree with the members of such groups
dont necessarily expect coinciding views with those of other
groups --> less likely to conform to out-group than ingroup
pressure
Members of ingroup possess informational, reward and/or
referent power
Can lead to identification conformity behaviour and beliefs
similar to group and feel are members of group.

Weaver (2007)
We assess an opinions popularity based on how familiar it is We
are likely to believe in the popularity of an opinion to similar
degrees if expressed three times by either the same or different
105
people.

Psychology HL Notes

106

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss factors influencing conformity

Factors Affecting Conformity
Level of ambiguity

o Sherif (1936)

Group Size: Conformity increases the group size u to four

persona in the group and then levels off

o Asch (1951)

Minority influence:

o Moscovici (1969)
Other factors (not focused on)
Awareness of group norms: Conformity increases when the
norm is activated or brought to the persons attention
Unanimity: The presence of a single confederate who
disagrees with the majority reduces conformity
Status of group
Processes of conformity
Normative conformity Need to fit in
o Result of the existence of strong social norms directing
the accepted behaviour
Informative conformity The need to be right
o Individual conforms to others in order to be better
informed about a situation
Referent informational conformity need to be liked
o Process if conforming to achieve social approval or
sense of belonging
Gender
In general, sex differences in conformity weak and unreliable
o What matters is ones familiarity of situation at hand,
not gender
Small sex differences do emerge in face to face encounters
Women conform more and men less when being observed
May result from pressure to behave in ways viewed as
acceptable within traditional gender role constraints.
Cultural orientations:

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Psychology HL Notes
Individualism: Emphasizes independence, autonomy, and selfreliance
Collectivism: Emphasizes interdependence, cooperation, and
social harmony,
Conformity rates are generally higher in collectivist cultures
Three factors that determine social orientation in a society:
o Complexity
o Affluence
o Heterogeneity
The higher the level of these factors in a society, the more
likely it is to be individualistic.
Groupthink
Occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group
pressures lead to a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality
testing and moral judgment
Concurrence seeking overrides realistic appraisal
Groups affected by groupthink tend to take irrational actions
dehumanize other groups
Groups vulnerable when groups insulate from outside
opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision
making
Factors that lead to groupthink:
o Self-censorship
o Illusion of unanimity
o Direct pressure on dissenters
o Illusion of invulnerability
o Illusion of motality
o Stereotype and dismiss competitors
Typical Groupthink outcomes
o Tendency to maintain group cohesion and force
conformity suppress independent thinking and
disagreements
o Exaggeration of the prospects of success belittle any
notion of risk-taking
o Perception of group as superior and invulnerable
outgroups perceived as stereotypically negative
Groupthink and conformity
o Reaching a consensus
o Decisional urgency
o High group cohesiveness, esp in terms of social
identification.
Avoiding Groupthink
o Can be stopped by a good leader that avoids starting
opinions and expectations from the outset

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Psychology HL Notes
o Minorities can affect the group if they stick to their guns
(consistency)
o Involvement of external experts more objective
o Appointment of Devils advocate position shared
around to avoid becoming personal
Odd conformity data

Suicides go up after suicides are published

So do car crashes
Airplane crashes
And self-harm

Risky shift
People in group tend to make riskier decisions than would
individually
Being in group leads to diffused responsibility

Wallach et al (1962)
What does the study show? Influence of risky shift in influencing
conformity.
Aim: To investigate whether risky shift is a factor involved in
conformity
Method: Participants completed the choice dilemmas
questionnaire 12 stories all main characters face dilemma
with two solutions one riskier than other. First phase =
individual, second = group asked to arrive at unanimous decision
Findings: Options chosen in group condition more risky than
individual condition
Strengths: 2 conditions demonstrates cause and effect
Limitations: Low ecological validity participants not actively
involved in the situation thus lack insight, participants may have
experienced slight distress at having to pass judgment on some
of the situations.

Group Polarization

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Psychology HL Notes
Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme
than decisions than on own either more risky or more
conservative than individually
Risky shift = part of group polarization
Social Comparison Theory
Jellison and Arkin (1977) Group discussions make public
prevailing social norms indicate whether group favors risky
or cautious decisions
Normative influences group members seek acceptance by
group shift their initial views to favour group norms
Group polarization esp outcome in settings where individuals
need to stand out
Individuality registered by exaggerating direction of
consensus
Group outcome more extreme than group
Social identity theory
Polarization = regular conformity phenomenon
Ingroup-outgroup distinction (social categorization) group
norms constructed from positions of ingroup members in
relation to positions assumed to be held by outgroup members
Category accentuation effect norms minimalize variability in
the ingroup and maximize distinction between in and
outgroups
Norms polarized away from target outgroups focus on
positive distinctiveness
Strengths focuses on group dynamics
Limitations only looks at factors inside group overlooks
external pressures.
Relevance of group polarization to discussions of conformity
Factors involves in polarization:
o Strong need for consensus
o Preference within the group for the same side of the
argument
Factors that contribute to group polarization act as conformity
magnets
Conclusion
What methodology do the studies use are they reliable for
concretely determining conformity
Range of factors involved interrelation
110

Psychology HL Notes
Some are more influential than others
o Minority and gender = lesser
o Unanimity and size of group = important
o COME UP WITH SOME FORM OF CLASSIFICATION.
Many studies have low EV artificial tasks and groups

111

Psychology HL Notes

Cultural Norms
Defi ne the terms culture and cultural norms
Culture
No exact definition of culture:

Lonner (1995) Culture = common rules that regulate

interactions and behaviour in a group. Also relates to shared
values in group
Hofstede (1995) A collective mental programming that is the
software of the mind. Guides group of ppl in daily actions,
and distinguishes them from other groups of people
Matsumoto (2004) System of explicit and implicit rules,
established to ensure groups survival. System of attitudes
beliefs, norms and behaviours
Shirav and Levy (2004) A set of attitudes, behaviours and
symbols shared by a large group of people and usually
communicated from one generation to the next
Matsumoto and Juang (2008) A Unique meaning and
information system, shared by a group and transmitted across
the generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of
survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive
meaning from life.

Components of culture:
Culture includes:

Attitudes
Beliefs
Behaviours
Values
Symbols
Rules
Norms

Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952)

-

Found 161 definitions of culture

Six ways in which people discuss culture:
o Descriptive: activities and behaviours
o Historical: heritage and tradition
o Normative: rules and norms
o Psychological: learning etc.
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Psychology HL Notes
o Structural: society and structure
o Genetics

Types of Culture Triandis (2002)

Objective Culture visible characteristics eg: fashion, use of

tech etc
Subjective Culture beliefs, norms values passed to future
generations

Cultural norms

The rules that certain groups use to outline what is

appropriate and inappropriate behaviours, values, beliefs, and
attitudes.
Give ppl sense of order and control of lives & sense of safety
and belonging
Norms include communication style, marriage customs, childrearing practices, interaction between generations
Explicit -> eg: Legal codes
Implicit -> eg: conventional practices and rituals.

Essay Plan:

Intro -> talk about how there is no exact definition of culture,

and thus c norms
Paragraph on culture definitions
Paragraph on cultural norms definitions

113

Psychology HL Notes

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on

behaviour
Individualism/Collectivism

Relationship between individual and group

Cultures differ in how they socialize members to develop
either individually or collectively based identities
Individualist countries
o Person emphasized more than the social
o People = unique
o France, Germany, Denmark, US, etc
o Individuals must take care of themselves
o Lose voluntary ties between individuals
o Values = freedom, personal challenge, personal time,
self-expression, competitiveness, self sufficiency
Collectivist countries
o Japan, Mexico, Korea, etc
o Individual tied to social groups eg: families, clans
o Extended social group provide safety in return for loyalty
o Prioritize goals of certain groups
o Define identity on basis of membership of certain groups
o More emphasis on group harmony than individual
achievement
Difference = matter of degree -> Countries tend to adopt a
more or less extreme position on dimensions -> both types
can be found within a single country.
Individualism/Collectivism on compliance and conflict
resolution
-

Collectivist people less likely to behave with earlier

commitments (Heine & Lehman 1997)
Hence, they show lower levels of compliance than individualist
people

o Wei et al (2001)
o Petrova et al (2007)
Confucian Dynamism

Time not defined and perceived same everywhere

influenced by culture
Confucian dynamism = cultural aspect found in Asian
countries

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Psychology HL Notes

Reflects Confucius ideas about importance of perseverance,

patience, social hierarchy, thrift and having a sense of shame
Has been re-named long-term vs short-term orientation
Cultures rated high in this dimension
o Future-oriented mentality Value long-standing
traditions and values
o Fulfil long-term social obligations
o Avoid loss of face
Cultures with short term view:
o Not as concerned with past
o Impatient, present oriented and desirous of instant
gratification
Long-term v Short-term = the extent to which cultures
encourage delayed gratification of material, social and
emotional needs (Matsumoto and Juang 2008)

Hofstede and Bond (1988)

What does the study show? Asian cultures have a fifth cultural
dimension Confucian dynamism
Aim: To determine the way in which people in 23 cultures
perceived time orientation
Method: Chinese social scientists created list of what Chinese
people believed were basic values. Used to create questionnaire
for participants in 23 countries
Findings: Discovered 5th cultural dimension Confucian
dynamism present only in Asian cultures
Strengths: Strong cross-cultural validity, generalizability, high
ecological validity
Limitations: Self-report data

o Chen et al (2005)
o Basset (2004)

115

Psychology HL Notes

Using one or more examples, explain emic and etic

concepts
Pike (1967) Emic and etic concepts address the issues of culture
specific versus universal, ie: What is consistent across cultures,
and what is individual to one culture
Emic

Study one culture to try and understand culture-specific

behaviour
Not interested in cross-cultural comparisons
Study behaviour through the eyes of the people who live in
culture -> Emphasis on way phenomenon is linked to culture
structure and meaning it has in cultural context
Studies do not use theoretical frameworks from other cultures
Example: Neurasthenia = disorder in the CCMD (Chinese
Classification of Mental Disorders) Chinese term/diagnostic
framework for depression patients present with somatic
symptoms instead of emotion symptoms no physical cause
stigma surrounding depression
Assumed meaning of a behaviour can only be defined from
culture from which it is studied

Emic approach to the study of depression

Manson et al (1985)
Aim: To investigate the development of the American Indian
Depression Scale
Method: Used native informants to gain information about the
development of the American Indian Depression Scale
Findings: Five Hopi illness categories relevant to depression:
Worry sickness, unhappiness, heartbroken, drunken-like
craziness, disappointment. Many participants could not identify
Hopi word for depression. Some categories similar to western
view of depression (eg: unhappiness). Others foreign, eg:
heartbroken (symptoms incl: weight loss, disrupted sleep, fatigue,
psychomotor retardation ) -> does not fit with western
diagnosis scheme.
Strengths: Provides emic insight into depression in American
Indian culture
Weaknesses: Low cross-cultural validity and generalizability
116

Psychology HL Notes

Etic

Compare psychological phenomena across cultures to discover

universal human behaviours
Compare and contrast cultural phenomena across cultures ->
what specific, what universal
Theories developed in 1 culture tested cross culturally
Eckman (1969) expressions common across cultures
Researchers rely on theories from own culture => imposed etic
approach (Berry 1969)

Etic approach to study of depression.

World Health Organization (1983)

Aim: To investigate the diagnosis and classification of depression
in Switzerland, Canada, japan and Iran.
Method: Standard diagnosis scheme used to investigate
depressive symptoms of 573 patients from above countries
Findings: Most experienced several symptoms that were same in
all 4 countries. 76% reported sadness, joylessness, anxiety and a
sense of insufficiency
Strengths: Cross-cultural validity, supported by other studies, eg:
Keitner et al (1991)
Weaknesses: Gender differences (?), Ethical concerns
Combining Etic and Emic approaches

Depression = universal but usually expression = cultural

determinant
Also applicable to anxiety disorders (Kleinman 1988)
Best approach = combined emic and etic -> assume that the
condition in itself is same across cultures, but manifestations
are influenced by culture
Marsella et al (2002) -> expression of depression depends on
factors eg: Individualist or collectivist culture, and whether or
not it is seen as acceptable to report certain symptoms.

Conclusion
Talk about the differences between emic and etic, and how as a
whole, they can provide a wider view of a concept, which can be
approached from a number of angles. Use the depression example
117

Psychology HL Notes

SCLOA Studies
Milgram (1974)
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

To investigate the role of an authority figure (situational factor) on influencing

behaviour (dispositional)

Participants in role of teacher had to administer electric shock to learner,

each time made mistake in memory task
learner did not actually receive shocks, but made sounds of pain from next
room to convince teacher they were in pain.
Participants generally showed some pain in having to punish another. Turned to
experimenter for approval/advice told to continue many obeyed.
Women more likely to obey
Conclusions: Authority as a situational factor convinced participants to
act in way they would not normally (dispositional)
Strengths: Replications support findings, strong support of theory
Limitations: Ethical concerns

Zimbardo (1971)
Stanford Prison Experiment - Situational factors have strong influence on behaviour
To determine the role of situational and dispositional factors on behaviour in a situation
Aim
Method
Findings
Conclusio
n

where it was deemed acceptable to forgo moral values.

18 participants selected through interview process split into two groups 9
prisoners and 9 guards guards free to do whatever they deemed necessary to
maintain order in prison.
Guards began to abuse the prisoners claimed they were doing their job.
They became so brutal that the study had to be called off.
Situational factors can have an overwhelmingly strong impact on
behaviour participants selected for their good nature became animals
when given power over weaker beings.
Strengths: Strong support of situational factors, high EV,
Limitations: Ethics, extreme situation unsure if can be generalized.

118

Psychology HL Notes

Asch (1951)
Aschs Paradigm Experiment (Conformity)
Aim
Method

To investigate the existence of conformity.

Findings
Conclusio
n

Subject was placed into a room with 6 confederates and the experimenter.
Subject was deceived that the 6 confederates were participants just like them.
The subject was placed on the second last seat so they will be the second last
to give an answer.
The group of subject and confederates were asked to select the line on the
second card that matched the line on the first card.
There were 18 sets of cards in total, some of which had lines that were
completely different in length, others are similar in length.
Confederates were instructed to answer correctly on some of the cards but
answer incorrectly for most.
75% conformed at least once to the wrong answer
32% conformed to more than half of the wrong answers
24% did not conform at all
Ecological validity: Low, lab conditions.
Controlled environment removed confounding variables.
Meaningless stimuli.
Gender bias, only male participants were used.
Culture bias, only population of the US were used.
Cannot be generalised to all population.
Ethics: Deception, but subjects were debriefed.

Sherif (1956)
Aim
Method

To study informal groups to observe natural and spontaneous developments of group

organization and attitudes.
Sample:
Boys aged 11-12 picked by a long and thorough procedure
interviews with family, teachers, school officials, and observation of
medical reports, personality tests and observation of them playing.
All healthy, socially well adjusted, above ave intelligence, from stable,
white, protestant, middle-class homes. Homogenous sample to prevent
possible conflict on basis or race or class. Boys did not know each other
Method: Field Exp. Participants unaware they were in experiment believed
were at a camp (researchers = camp staff)
Experiment carried out in regular camp games and activities
Recorded behaviour, sometimes using cameras and microphones
Part 1:
Observed development of group structure
Boys housed in large bunkhouse could choose own buddies
After few days, all split into 2 groups separated any best friends
Given challenges camp outs, hikes, athletics etc
Both groups divided p tasks and duties
Findings: Leaders emerged, each group developed own jargon, jokes,
secrets and ways of performing tasks. Maintained social control through
ridicule, threats, ostracism. Groups selected own names and symbols
The Eagles and The Rattlers
Investigating Social evaluations

119

Psychology HL Notes
Target practice no marks on board observing boys judged accuracy
Board really wired to show accuracy
Findings: Well-liked boys accuracy overestimated and vice versa
All boys asked to name friends in group those named most = highest
status, and those named least = lowest status
Findings: One group had 2 clear leaders, and other had a leader, and
some with intermediate status this group better at tasks.
Second part
Conflict introduced through games
Started well, and then rivals began name-calling etc
Turned on previous friends
Gave neg ratings to boys in other group
Raids etc between groups
Findings: Hypothesis proven when two groups have conflicting aims,
their members will become hostile to each other even though the
groups are composed of normal well adjusted individuals. Difficult to
bring groups together without violence.
Third Part
Subordinate goal established for both groups
Series of urgent natural situations eg: Interrupted water supply, truck
break down
Findings: New friendships formed groups actively seeking
opportunities mingle. Less negative ratings, and hostility disappearing.
Strengths:
field experiment (conducted in real life higher ecological validity),
rich data (not just ne set of quantitative data also used
observations to gather qualitative data),
methodological triangulation (various methods used),
Limitations
some variables couldnt be controlled (couldnt control weather or
behaviour of staff),
use of qualitative data could lead to confirmation bias lack of
reflexivity used in interpretation,
use of deception (ethics),
Confounding variable (time spent together may have caused
friendships not just situation), sample bias boys only difficult to
generalize to general population {if used girls, there would have
been some natural tension and the establishment of in and out
groups based on gender},
Cultural bias (only one culture used American) {the use of one
culture would also prevent the formation of groups on the basis of
groups}

Conclusio
n

120

Psychology HL Notes

Cialdini (1976)
In-group out-group in college football supporters (Basking in reflected glory)
To test the BiRG theory.
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Experiments with football fans from large prestigious American football

universities.
1. Field experiment (in large lecture halls across 7 different schools) where
they observed student clothing/apparel on a Monday following a big football
game.
2. Randomly calling students and interviewing them about the performance of
their schools football team following a game.
1. The researchers found that students tended to wear more apparel associating
themselves with their own university (e.g., jersey or sweatshirt) when the
football team won compared to when they lost
2. The researchers found that people tended to use the pronoun "we" more to
describe their team when they won and "they" more when the team had lost.
Connections to social identity theory, which explains how selfesteem and self-evaluation can be enhanced by the identification with
another persons success by basking in reflected glory not earned.
Strengths:
Good ecological validity, manipulated variables are naturally occurring
(football games in experiment I)
Methodical triangulation: three different experiments conducted
confirming the same results
Researcher triangulation: Cialdini worked with a different team for each
of the three experiments, total of six researchers, good reliability
Operationalized what categorized apparel as school-identifying
Limitations:
Conducted in psychology course- may have been demand characteristics
if students found out about observer recording data
Students in the same class are more likely to have similar interests and
social groups so may not be representative of entire student body
May be hard to generalize
Was not tested cross culturally

121

Psychology HL Notes

Charlton et al. (1999)

Saint Helena Study
Aim
Method

To investigate the impact of TV introduction on a remote community

Findings
Conclusio
n

Sample: School-age children on St.Helena, a small island in the Atlantic.

Study began 2 yrs before TV was connected to the island.
Researchers used questionnaires and parent/teacher reports to gather info
about childrens behaviour.
Behaviour in the playground was observed, specifically the level of aggression
displayed by children.
Researchers monitored how much TV watched, content analyzed this and also
monitored how much violence was watched.
Video cameras placed in classrooms and playgrounds to measure aggression.
No increase in antisocial behaviour.
Good behaviour from before maintained for 5 years of study
No significant increase in rate of behavioral problems.
The study suggests TV did not have any significant effect on childrens
behaviour.
Community control and surveillance from parents may have been a
contributing factor.
Strengths:
Natural experiments have greater realism than a lab exp. The
researcher does not set up the situation- it happens naturally.
Cameras used were DISCREET therefore the children acted naturally
because they did not know they were being watched.
Limitations:
Relying on parent/teacher reports means results may be biased.
Children may have acted more aggressively but the community did
not want to report this in order to stop a negative view of the island.
Playground violence could be stopped quickly as well.
Psychologists have reported that the programs watched were not the
same as mainland TV.
Small community allows parents to have a high level of control over
their children. The impact of TV may have been greater in a less
isolated place.

122

Psychology HL Notes

Bandura and Ross (1961)

Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate whether children who are passive witnesses to aggressive behaviour

displayed by an adult will imitate this behaviour when given an opportunity.

Sample: 36 boys and 36 girls between 37 - 69 mean age 52 months. One male adu
and one female adult = role models.
Independent Variable: three IVs for each of the conditions, there were three IVs
boys opposite-sex model, girls with same-sex model or girls with opposite sex model
Dependent variable: Whether imitated aggressive behaviour
Method:
Experiment Uses observation to collect quantitative data list of violent ac
and counted how many times participants did these
Three conditions control group, group exposed to aggressive model, group
exposed to passive model.
Children exposed to passive model subdivided by gender and gender of mode
exposed to.
Pretested for aggressiveness judged on 4 five point ranking scales physic
aggression, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects,
aggressive inhibition. Results used to group children into similar groups.
Children tested individually exp room set out on one side as play area with
articles selected for childs interests.
Other side = tinker toys, table, mallet and Bobo doll
Stage 1: Non-Aggressive condition male and female models for male and
female children model assembled tinker toys quietly ignored Bobo
Stage 1: Aggressive condition started assembling toys, then began attacking
Bobo physically and verbally experimenter returned and took child out aft
10 mins
Stage 2 mild aggression arousal child started playing with nice toys, and
then told were experimenters best toys and reserved for other children
Stage 3: variety of toys aggressive (crayons, bears) and non-aggressive
(mallet peg board, dart gun, bobo) stayed for 20 mins behaviour observed
through one-way mirror observations every 5 seconds 240 per child
Measured:
Imitation for physical and verbal aggression and also non-aggressive verbal
responses.
Incomplete imitations mallet aggression, sitting on bobo
Non imitations punching Bobo, other physical and verbal aggression,
aggressive gun play
Those exposed to aggressive model made more aggressive acts - Boys more
aggressive than girls
Boys in aggressive condition most aggressive with male model
Girls in aggressive condition more physically aggressive with male models, an
more verbally aggressive with female models
Children looked more favorably to male aggressive model how a male
expected to act
All results = opposite for when punching Bobo
We can learn aggressive behaviours by copying others, especially those
like us
Strengths: strong correlational evidence supporting social learning
theory aggressive behaviour can be learned
Limitations: Small number of children in each group, results could be
distorted if one group contained children who were normally quite
aggressive, rating scales for organizing groups children may have
been ranked differently by different people, aggressive female =
confusing didnt fit stereotype, aggressive male fitted stereotype,

123

Psychology HL Notes

ethics long term effects on children?, artificial situation, children wer

not blank slates already had pre-existing beliefs and stereotypes.

Sherif (1936)
Conformity and group-norms
Aim

Demonstrate that people conform to group norms when they are put in an ambiguous
(i.e. unclear) situation.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Subjects - first individually, then in groups - in a dark room and told them to
watch a pinpoint of light and report how far it moved (light didnt actually move
- autokinetic effect).
Individually - established their own individual norms for the judgmentusually 2
to 6 inches.
Group - tendency to compromise, People changed to more resemble the others
in the group.
"Were you influenced by the judgments of other persons during the
experiments," most denied it. A subject who previously settled on an estimate
of 2 inches or 6 inches was more likely (after the group experience) to say the
light was moving about 4 inches.
Conformity to a perceived group norm
Shows cause and effect, one of most influential social psychology
experiments has generated much research, demonstrates how group
norms can be established and continue to influence judgment even
when social influence not present.
The experiment was conducted in a laboratory. The task was artificial
and ambiguous and this could influence the results. Lacks ecological
validity. There was no correct answer. It is not very surprising that
individuals rely on the judgments of others when they have no clear way
of deciding what judgments to make.
Ethics: participants were not informed about the purpose of the
experiment (informed consent) but this was not the norm at the time of
Sherifs experiment.
Doesnt assess conformity directly. There was no majority influencing a
minority. Jacobs and Campbell (1961) used the autokinetic affect but
arranged for all but one of the participants in the experiment to give the
same judgment. They found strong evidence for conformity.

124

Psychology HL Notes

Crutchfield (1954)
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the difference in conformity without the presence of a group (belived

there was a group, but they werent really there).
Sample: 600 participants tested privately
Lab experiment.
Sat in private booths with light in front of them to press.
Results on an electronic display board (results of supposed other participants).
Allowed subjects to believe they finished last and presented them with wrong
group answers on half the tasks.
Tasks included Aschs line comparison test, obviously incorrect factual
statements are personal opinions
30% conformed with Aschs line test.
46% conformed to the suggestions a picture of a star had a larger surface than
a circle (when it was 1/3 smaller)
37% agreed to the statement I will make a good leader when none agreed
when asked on their own.
Conformity differed depending on the task
Strengths: Efficient (not actors etc involved, electronically gathered
data), large sample size
Limitations: Lab experiment artificial and thus lacks generalizability,
use of deception (subjects unaware that they were only person
participating), discomfort caused by being constantly marked wrong and
constantly answering last, high conformity levels may reflect social
context of 1950s America more recent, cross cultural studies have
indicated varying conformity levels.

Ross et al (1977)
Prevalence of attribution of behaviour to dispositional factors
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

To investigate whether knowledge of allocated social roles in a quiz show would affect
participants judgments of others expertise.
18 participants recruited in pairs assigned roles of questioner or contestant
and there were also 24 audience members random selection.
Questioners asked to compose 10 questions based on their general knowledge
given to contestants.
Asked question given 30 seconds to answer. All participants and observers
then asked to rate general knowledge of participants and questioners.
Contestants and observers repeatedly ranked questioner as smartest, even
though roles randomly assigned.
Contestants and observers underestimated situational factors
(questioner) allowed to ask questions) and over estimated dispositional
factors (intelligence of questioner)
Strengths: Randomly assigned roles, ethics considered, reliable, both
genders used, all participants aware that questioners created own
questions clear demonstration of FAE
Limitations: not representative sample, low EV, low cross-cultural
validity, no original hypothesis, no triangulation.

Suedfeld (2003)
Understanding of the nature of a situation can lead to a change in attribution

125

Psychology HL Notes
To investigate attributions made by Holocaust survivors.

Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Questionnaires given to participants some = Holocaust survivors, and some

age-matched Jewish participants who had not been persecuted by Nazis.
Asked about factors involved in surviving Holocaust
91% of survivors made situational attributions (luck and help from others)
compared to 51% in control.
34% of survivors = dispositional attributions psychological s.trength and
determination, compared to
71% of control. Personal experience of survivors gave them clearer
understanding of the situation
Strengths: Provides evidence for FAE, control condition used for
comparison
Limitations: Low cross-cultural validity, no original hypothesis, ethics
could reawaken old memories which are painful.

Fein et al (1990)
Doubts the existence of FAE
Aim
Method

To investigate attribution theory.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants read essay about character called Rob Taylor.

One condition participants told Rob had to write in favour or against some
view.
Other condition Participants told that the essay expressed views similar to the
teacher pleasing to the teacher
Condition 1 demonstrated FAE, but Condition 2 did not they did not believe
that he wrote the essay to please the teacher (situational), but simply wrote
what he himself believed (dispositional).
Strengths: Low cross-cultural validity (US students), randomly assigned
to conditions
Limitations: Does not necessarily support FAE, Not a generally accepted
view based on other studies.

Johnson et al (2004)
Demonstrates the role of SSB in attributions
Aim
Method

To investigate self-serving bias.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants taught two children to multiply numbers by 10 and 20 through a

one-way intercom. After each, children completed worksheets.
Pupil A = right answer to all questions on both sheets,
Pupil B (depending on condition) did badly in both tasks or in one participants
had either failed or succeeded to teach pupil B.
In the condition where Pupil B improved, participants explained it based on their
teaching abilities.
Failure attributed to Pupils lack of ability
Strengths: Demonstrates self-serving bias, lacks EV
Limitations: Lack of cross-cultural validity

Lau and Russel (1980)

Self-serving bias
Aim

To investigate whether individuals; specifically coaches, athletes and sport writers,

contain a self-serving bias.

126

Psychology HL Notes
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Articles from eight daily newspapers from 1977 covering 33 major baseball and
football sporting events were analysed for self-serving attributions.
Direct quotes were examined to study whether or not coaches and athletes
would create different reasons within the explanations made relating their
games to successes or failures.
A group of eight undergraduates worked in pairs identified 594 explanations
from 107 articles.
Each explanation was then recorded with information such as the game,
newspaper and type of attributor (coach, athlete, sports writer).
74.9% of the winning teams attributions were internal where as 54.9% internal
attributions from the losing team.
Coaches and athletes displayed greater motivational bias then sports writers
while making more internal attributions for successes (84% compared to 68.5%)
and less for failures(52.8% compared to 57.1%).
Other factors were tested however the findings were not significant enough.
Strong reliability since easily replicable
Limited to 2 sports only; baseball and football
No demand characteristics
High ecological validity since real-world setting utilized
Lacks cross-culturally validity since only applies to American-males

Posey and Smith (2003)

Role of SSB in behavioural attributions
Aim

To investigate SSB.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Children asked to do maths problem individually, while sitting with either a

friend or non-friend.
Total score of pair noted. After, were asked who did better job.
Children who failed while working with friends less likely to show SSB and more
likely to give credit to friends for success.
Children working with non-friends more likely to demonstrate SSB.
Strengths: Supports SSB
Limitations: Lack of cross-cultural validity, specific sample low
generalizability

Tajfel (1970)
Social Identity Theory
Aim
Method

Findings

To discover if individuals who are supposedly categorized by a simple task, show

intergroup discrimination.
Minimal group study
Boys of the ages of 14 and 15 were split into groups over-estimators and
under-estimators.
Had the chance to reward each other by giving them money, or punish them by
taking money away from them, even though they didnt win or lose anything
themselves in making the decision,
o in-group favoritism soon became apparent as the boys gave more to
their own group members and punished others

127

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

o
o

-Fair when judging between to members of same group.

-Between in-group and out-group member, significant favoritism

to in-group (max in-group profit)
Combined results demonstrate in-group favoritism supports prediction
of social identity theory
Strengths: Helped develop SIT, demonstrated need for minimal group
to prompt individuals to exhibit discrimination against outgroups, can
establish cause and effect and has highly controlled variables. Clear
quantitative results.
Limitations: Artificial, impact of demand characteristics (required to
discriminate). Task could have been interpreted as a competitive game
influenced reactions. Only one gender used, low cross-cultural validity
(only British students), low generalizability.

Howarth (2002)
Aim

To see how social representations of Brixton affected teenage girls

social identity.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Sample: Adolescent girls living in Brixton, London (slightly dodgy area)

Method: Case Study, using an interview method. Focus group interview using
groups of friends (ethical issue making sure participants are in comfortable
environment for disclosing information).
Negative representations of living in Brixton from those living outside Brixton.
Residents had a more positive social identity. People from Brixton described the
community as diverse, creative and vibrant
Social identity impacted how girls living in Brixton made friends, joined sporting
teams, relation with police and employment opportunities.
Demonstrates how social representations may be basis for positive and
negative stereotypes contributing to social identity.
Strengths: Ethical considerations taken into account (friends interviewed
in groups. Feel more comfortable in an environment with friends more
likely to reveal things),
Limitations: No clear cause and effect (case study saying that the two
identities are different, not that one is right/better), used case study
method (this is qualitative, and not qualitative), only girls used (Is there
an issue, or other influences with boys likely social representation of
boys in Brixton have a different representation of themselves) lack of
generalizability

Moscovici (1969)
Minority Influence
Aim
Method

To investigate the process how a consistent minority affect the opinions of a larger
group, possibly creating doubt and leading them to question and alter their views.

Findings

Participants first given eye test to check they were not colour blind.
Placed in a group of four participants and two confederates.
Shown 36 slides that were different shades of blue asked to state colours of
each slide.
Two groups. First group confederates = consistent and answered green for
every slide. Second group confederates inconsistent and answered green 24
times and blue 12 times.
For 8.42% of trials, participants agreed with minority said slides were green.
Overall, 32% of participants agreed at least once.

128

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

Study suggested minorities can exert effect over the opinion of the
majority Not to the same degree as the majority, but the fact that
almost a third of people agreed at least once is significant. However, this
also leaves 2/3 who never agreed.
Follow up experiment demonstrated consistency = key factor in
minority influence by instructing stooges to be inconsistent. Effect
sharply reduced.

Wei et al. (2001)

Role of collectivism/individualism in conflict resolution styles
Aim
Method

To investigate the extent to which the dimension of individualism vs collectivism

influenced conflict resolution communication styles.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Group of 600 managers in companies in Singapore randomly selected for

survey.
Divided into 4 groups: Japanese, Americans, Chinese & Singaporeans working in
multinational companies and Chinese Singaporeans working in local companies.
Questionnaires and correlational analysis used to find possible relationships
between scores on cultural dimension and conflict resolution.
Higher the score in individualist dimension, the more likely the manager would
adopt a dominating conflict resolution style.
Americans more likely to adopt dominating conflict resolution style than Asians.
Asians did not always adopt avoidant conflict resolutions.
Some Americans who had been in Singapore for several years adopted more
Asian conflict resolutions style.
Collectivism v individualism dimension related to conflict resolution
styles = only somewhat confirmed. Conclude conflict resolution styles =
complex and cant be reduced to cultural dimension alone. Differences
within groups of Asian managers = larger than between
Strengths: Large, representative sample, cross-cultural validity, high
level of generalizability
Limitations: Self-report data -> issue of reliability of data.

Petrova (2007)
Collectivists are less compliant than individualist in FITD
Aim

To investigate the difference in compliance between members of individualist and

collectivist cultures.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

US and Asian uni students (at same uni) sent email asking them to participate
in a survey.
Sent another email month later about participating in online survey.
More Asians complied to first request than US students.
In US students, compliance with first request made them more likely to agree to
second request twice as high as Asians.
Strengths: Field test High EV, large sample (3,000), cross-cultural
validity, generalizable.
Limitations: Difficult to ensure participants received email in first place
reliability of data questionable

Chen et al. (2005)

Western cultures demonstrate more impatience, and desire for instant gratification
129

Psychology HL Notes
Aim
Method

To determine the difference between time orientation in participants from eastern and
western cultures.

Findings
Conclusio
n

147 Singaporean bicultural participants (exposed to two different cultures

Singaporean and American believed to affect behaviour depending on what is
the most actively represented culture in the mind at a particular time).
Cultures selectively activates used distinctly US/Singaporean collages to
activate.
Impatience tested online shopping activity had to buy book which could be
delivered within 4 days for standard fee, or next day for extra.
US primed participants more likely to be impatient and pay.
Strengths: Cross-cultural validity, ecological validity
Limitations: What if people didnt like reading or what the book was
about. Also could be reading something else, and dont need straight
away, collages = low EV

Basset (2004)
Individualism and collectivism and long-term v short-term orientation impact conflict
resolution behaviours

Aim
Method
Findings
Conclusio
n

To investigate the differences in Chinese and Australian students method of conflict

resolution in relation to collectivism v individualist and long-term orientation v shortterm orientation
Bachelor students in business and management asked to analyse potential
conflict situation between Japanese supervisor and assistant teacher asked
Discuss how this conflict might be resolved in China/Australia.
Data confirmed theories of individualism v collectivism, but not all could be
explained by theory. Confirmed importance of short-term long term in
understanding behaviour.
Strengths: Supports theories, cross-cultural validity
Limitations: Low EV, small sample (30)

130

Psychology HL Notes

Abnormal Psychology
General Framework
To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural
factors infl uence abnormal behaviour?
- Aetiologies of depression and OCD amalgamation of
biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors
Evaluate psychological research relevant to the study of
abnormal behaviour
o Rosenhan (1973)
- Nicholls et al is also a good one

131

Psychology HL Notes

Concepts and Diagnosis

Examine the concepts of normality and abnormality
What is abnormality?

How do we define abnormality?

Seven views of abnormal behaviour:

o Mental illness is a myth
o Psychological disorders are violations of societal norms
o Psychological disorder as whatever professionals treat
o Psychological disorder as statistical deviance
o Psychological disorder as biological disadvantage
o Psychological disorder as distress or disability
o Psychological disorder as harmful dysfunction (to self or
others)
Psychological disorder a psychological dysfunction
associated with severe distress or impairment in functioning
that is not a typical or culturally expected response

Possible definitions of abnormal behaviour

Abnormal behaviour can also be defines as a maladaptive

behaviour or a norm of value violation.
Problems:
o People want to use the term disorder to describe some
condition that are statistically frequent
o Positive and negative deviations not distinguished from
on another
o We do not want to call all negative deviations a disorder

Abnormal behaviour as a dysfunction

A person has a abnormal behaviour when a mental

mechanism is not performing in the natural function it was
designed to perform
Problems
o Natural selection does not design mechanisms
o For many mechanisms there is a wide range of adaptive
functioning across people and situations

Abnormal behaviour as a personal discomfort

132

Psychology HL Notes

A person has an abnormal behaviour if they experience

personal distress
What about people who are not unhappy about this?

Abnormal behaviour as maladaptive behaviour

Person engages in behaviour that prevents them from

meeting the demands of life
There may be situations that people may not adapt to
Approach emphasizes importance of fitting in

Abnormal behaviour as a personal discomfort

A person has a abnormal behaviour if they experience

personal distress
What about the person who abuses drugs or believes they are
receiving messages from out of space without experiencing
distress?

Abnormal behaviour as norm or value violation

Abnormal behavior have experiences and exhibit behaviour

that are inconsistent with the norms and values of society
Examples
o Behaviour that is harmful to oneself and others
o Poor reality contact
o Inappropriate emotional reactions
o Erratic behaviour.
Problems
o What if violation is result of external circumstances
o Such a criteria can seem too arbitrary and open to
abuse

Maladaptive behaviour
2 aspects of this:

Maladaptive to ones self inability to reach goals, to adapt to

the demands of life
Maladaptive to society interferes, disrupts social group
functioning

Examples of abnormal behaviours

133

Psychology HL Notes
Psychological disorders

A harmful dysfunction in which behavior is judged:

o Atypical- not enough in itself
o Disturbing-varies with time & culture
o Maladaptive- harmful
o Unjustifiable-sometimes theres a good reason

Homosexuality

Removed from DSM II in 1974 after a vote by members of the

APA
60% coted to remove it as mental disorder
DSM III classified sexual disorders differently and focused on
the distress factor in diagnosis
Such a focus was in line with the literature as well as changing
ideas on sexuality.
Sex was not longer seen as only having a reproductive
purpose, therefore there was greater acceptance of diverse
sexual identities.

Koro example of a culture bound disorder

Affects younger Chinese Males

Southern Chinese anxiety disorder
Includes depersonalization and a fear of sexual dysfunction
and death
Victimes of Koro worry about what they believe to be sexual
excess
Lack confidence in own sexual capacity and virility
Causes body image distortion

Gender and disorders

Feminist organizations have expressed concern over the

inclusion of premenstrual dysphoric disorder in the DSM-IV-TR
because of he implications of labeling women hao have these
problems as mentally Ill

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Not an official disorder proposed as a condition that needs

further study
Affects 3-5% of menstrual women

134

Psychology HL Notes

It is a cyclical condition in which women may feel depressed

as irritable for one or two weeks before their menstrual period
each month
Symptoms disappear within a week or so of beginning od her
menstrual period.

Models of Abnormal Behaviour

Rosenhan and Seligman (1984)

7 criteria for deciding whether behaviour = normal or

abnormal
1. Suffering
2. Maladaptiveness
3. Irrationality
4. Unpredictability
5. Vividness (are they intense, noticeable, etc) and
unconventionality
6. Observer discomfort
7. Violation of moral or ideal standards.
Criteria
Explanations
Suffering
Distress or discomfort.
Irrationality
Incomprehensible, cannot communicate
in a reasonable manner.
Unconventionali
Experiencing things that are different.
ty
Violation of
Breaking ethical and moral standards.
morals
Maladaptiveness
Engage in behaviour that made life more
difficult.
Unpredictability
Act in ways that are unpredictable.
Observer
Acting in ways that makes other feel
discomfort.
discomfort
Problems

Danger of social judgments

Misunderstanding of cultural norms can lead to misdiagnosis.
Better because not just based on social views
Ambiguity and subjectivity in defining terms e.g. reality and
positivity.
There are people who are normal that does not fulfil the
characteristics and people that are abnormal that fulfil the
characteristics.
Influenced by cultural attitudes.
Too idealistic, only a few individuals can achieve the idealistic
self.

135

Psychology HL Notes

Too difficult to measure, too vague to diagnosis.

Mental Health Criteria: Jahoda (1958)

Identified 6 characteristics of ideal mental health

Efficient self-perception
Realistic self-esteem and acceptance
Voluntary self-esteem and acceptance
Voluntary control of behaviour
True perception of the world
Sustaining relationships and giving affection
Self-direction and productivity
Problems
o Characteristics are vague
o Most people would be abnormal
o Danger of value judgements
o Reflects an individualistic perspective on the world
o This criteria would deem most people to have poor
mental health

Biological Model of Abnormal Psychology

Medical model
Being psychologically normal involves having no genetic
predisposition to suffer from mental illness and having a
proper functioning body
Being psychologically abnormal underlying physical cause
which produces psychological and behavioral symptoms of
mental illness
Causes considered to be biological, genetic, chemical or
anatomical outward signs of an inner disorder
Mental illness can be diagnosed from the symptoms of the
illness, and be treated by therapy in psychiatric hospitals
physical treatments appropriate
Accepted by many psychiatrists.
Comforting gives people something else to blame

Causes of mental disorders in the medical model:

4 possible causes

136

Psychology HL Notes

Nervous system: problems in the

structure of the nervous system eg:
ventricles in the brain

Biochemistry: Chemicals can cause

illness eg: schizophrenica can have
excessive amounts of dopamine in the
brain

Genes: Genetic factors may mean that

people inherit predisposition to develop
certain illnesses, eg: relatives of
schizophrenics 18 times more likely to
develop it

Infection: Bacteria/viruses can cause

illness eg: increase in risk of
schizophrenia if mother had flu during
pregnancy.

Psychological Model

Psychoanalysis (Freud)
Behavioural therapy (Wolpe) based on behaviourism, and
involving classical and operant conditioning.
Humanistic therapy aiming to achieve self-actualisation Carr
Rogers, 1961)
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy aims to influence thought and
cognition (Beck, 1977).

Socio-Cultural Model

Socio-cultural factors
Effects of urban/rural dwelling, gender and minority status on
state of mind.
British psychiatric Morbidity Survey conducted by Jenkins
(1998)
Systemic factors
Family systems

137

Psychology HL Notes

Negatively Expressed Emotion playing a part in schizophrenic

relapse and anorexia nervosa.

Evaluation of this model:

This model lessens the stigma of mental illness people not

viewed as responsible for their behaviour this can in turn
lead to a loss of rights
Mentally ill people can be institutionalized safety. This can
impact their ability to function in a natural environment
become passive and dependent
Labelling and prejudice views mentally ill as different
Biologically-based treatments can be effective, but may
have negative side-effects
Effective biological treatments do not suggest the cause is
biological
Disproportionate focus on symptoms instead of patients
experiences and difficulties
Not relevant to some disorders.

Answering the Question

Talk about assumptions and interrelationships

Are there only 2 categories normal and abnormal

More of a continuum
Reductionist and simplistic view
Situational v dispositional factors
Whats normal and abnormal can lead to
misdiagnosis this can be influenced by culture
Ethics cultural variation ad stigmatization.

MCEG
M no methods as it is theoretical how do you test concepts of
normality and abnormality
C Culturally relative, behaviour and perception of normality are
influenced by culture koro and female orgasmic disorder
E Misdiagnosis, Stigmatization, over-medication or incorrect
treatment medical model determinism, cultural
misunderstanding, prejudice, legal implications
G - Danger of labeling women as mentally ill (eg: premenstrual
dysphoric disorder), prejudice and bias

138

Psychology HL Notes
AASE
Application Normality and abnormality cannot be defined as two
different categories, as they are influenced by a number of factors
such as culture of observer opinion. Thus, normality and abnormality
should be viewed as a continuum, as there the behaviours we
ourselves define as normal or abnormal vary a great deal.
Another Application There is no exact consensus on what
defines normality and abnormality, however the assumption should
not be that human behaviour falls into two categories of normality
and abnormality, but that there are degrees of normality and
abnormality, and there are some commonalities found in theories
and definition. It is clear concepts of normality and abnormality are
influenced by culture and human behaviour itself is influenced by
culture. This has clear ethical implications for judgments particularly
in western culture about what defines normality and abnormality
Analysis The methodology used to pass judgment on whether
behaviour is normal or abnormal calls into question whether it is in
fact possible to objectively label behaviour as normal or abnormal.
The way in which abnormal behaviour differs between models, and
furthermore, reflexivity has demonstrated that judgments of
abnormal behaviour are primarily subjective. This has ethical
implications, as being seen as abnormal can have a significant
impact for individuals sense of self etc
Synthesis Evaluation of studies this isnt really applicable in
this situation, but can instead evaluate the models and theories
proposed
Evaluation Concepts of normality and abnormality are ultimately
subjective and influenced by the values and culture of researchers.
The difference between normal and abnormal behaviour can be
seen as a continuum, rather than two binary opposites, as behaviour
is a complex phenomena, which cannot simply be placed into
specific categories. Thus, while the various concepts of normality
and abnormality can be seen to explain behaviour to some extent,
these two concepts are by no means individual, and are in fact
implicitly linked.

Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis

Diagnostic Manuals
-

These classify disorders

Purpose - Identify abnormal disorders so treatment can be
applied accordingly and provides investigation opportunities
into the etiologies of disorders.

139

Psychology HL Notes
-

Examples:
o DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders)
o CCM (Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders)

Diagnostic Techniques

Biological/physiological tests
Blood test
Brain scans - use of technology to locate brain
dysfunction
Psychological Testing
Projective testing (e.g Rorschach Testing)
Intelligence testing (IQ)
Cognitive tasks

Diagnosis

Identifying and classifying abnormal behaviour on basis of

symptoms, self-reports, observations, clinical tests etc
Psychological assessments and diagnostic manuals used to
make diagnosis helps classify and standardize diagnosis
Diagnosis = matching results of psychological assessments
with classification systems eg: DSM-IV-TR used to make
prognosis and find treatment

DSM

Criteria used to diagnose mental disorders

DSM 4 came out in the 90s
TR version released in 2000 (this is the one studies have
used).
The date of studies is important how reliable is the
diagnosis criteria
Earlier versions: value judgments made how valuable is
something vague, subjective criteria.
Etic approach behaviour approached from a multicultural
perspective
Editions:
1962, 1968, 1980, 1987, TR2000, 2013

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10)

Published by WHO
140

Psychology HL Notes

Uses the term mental disorder

Includes references to causes of disorders (etiology)
Used more internationally than the DSM
Wide range of diseases for the primary purpose of
classification
ICD and DSM now closely linked improves consistency
fewer differences between the two with different
Etic approach behaviour approached from a multicultural
perspective

CCMD Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders

Includes culture bound disorders

Leaves out some disorders found in ICD and DMW not found in
China eg: eating disorder
Published by Chinese Society of Psychiatry
Clinical guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders
Currently CCMD 3
Published in Chinese and English
Emic approach: behaviour approached from within a Chinese
cultural context.
Strengths
Limitations
Simplicity
Translation linguistically
complicated
Stablity
Long sentences
Inclusion of culture
Awkward terms and syntax
distinctive categories
Exclusion of certain western
Ethical consideration is the
diagnosis categories
main weakness of
Classification systems
Statistical diagnosis
The effects of labeling
Ability to identify disorders
Leads to stigmatisation
based on symptoms
Therefore suitable treatment
Prejudice and discrimination
can be applied
Self labeling can lead to
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Person diagnosed with
disorder act according to the
label

141

Psychology HL Notes

Reliability

Different psychiatrists agree on diagnosis

Test-retest reliability: Does the test give similar values if
the same subject takes it two or more times?
Inter-rater reliability: Two testers that rate the same person
on the same variable should give similar ratings to the
subject.
Reveal that some diagnostic categories are more
reliable than others.
More reliable for some types of patients than
others

o Cooper et. Al. (1972)

o Nicholls et. Al. (2000) inter-rater
reliability

o Mary Seeman (2007) - test-retest

reliability
Validity

Validity is the extent to which the diagnosis is accurate.

The key concern is whether diagnostic systems correctly
diagnose people who really have particular disorders and do
not give a diagnosis to people who do not.

Criterion Validity: Assessing validity compare results to

another measure
Construct validity: Measuring the theoretical construct it is
supposed to measure
Face Validity: Does it appear to measure what it is supposed
to measure.

Validity of diagnostic system

Validity: The degree to which the system measures what it

seeks to measure
Construct validity: Whether the symptoms chosen as
criteria for a disorder are consistently associated with the
disorder
Predictive Validity: The extent to which a diagnosis is able
to predict the course of the disorder and he likely effect of
treatment
Content validity: The extent to which a diagnosis reflect
what experts in the field think of a diagnosis.

o Rosenhan (1973)
o Temerline (1970)
142

Psychology HL Notes

Ethics and cultural factors

In practice, professional diagnoses can be influenced by

biases and subjective viewpoints of the diagnostician.
People from minority groups are less likely to receive help for
mental conditions
People from minority groups are more likely to be misdiagnosed
Different cultures have different disorders
Western Psych is often imposed on other cultures
Clinical psychology in the west can be criticised for imposing
notions of normality and healthy that are rooted in western
culture.

o Fernando (1991)

143

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in

diagnosis
Labelling

Mental illnesses = labels for life (disorder) in remission

Gives the impression that there is a cure
Can lead to simplification of complex problems diagnosis
and classification really = shorthand.
Labels involve whole person sufferer of schizophrenia =
schizophrenic

Scheff 1966:
Self-fulfilling prophecy: Patient act as they are expected to
act with a certain condition internalize role of mentally ill
patient can worsen disorder
Distortion of behaviour: Diagnosis of mental disorder
labels the whole person any actions can thus be attributed
to the label.
Oversimplification: Labeling can lead to reification
classification transformed into real physical disorder really
descriptive term to refer to patients.
Prejudice: Langer and Abelson (1974) evidence of
prejudice against those with mental disorders those who
were told that he had a mental condition more likely to judge
him less favorably, eg: frightened of his own aggressive
impulses ethics of labelling in diagnosis stigma
Institutionalization - ethical

Main concerns:
o Lack of normal interaction
o Powerlessness and depersonalization
o Dependency
Difficult for participants in Rosenhan to get out of a mental
facility, even though were not mentally ill.
In institutions, all behaviour treated as a symptom
reinforces notion patient should not be released.
Rosenhan (1973)
o Case history distorted emphasize ambivalence and
emotional instability shown by schizophrenics
o Pseudo-patients never asked why taking notes
believed to be symptom
o Bored pacing seen as nervousness
o Waiting outside cafeteria before lunch oral acquisitive
nature of the syndrome

144

Psychology HL Notes
o Lack of normal interaction: lack of rights,
constructive activity, choice, privacy an frequent verbal
and sometimes physical abuse
o Dependency: Dependent on doctors and nurses for
survival not required to cook, clean, work, interact etc
lose ability to function in real world.
Bias in Diagnosis

Some classification systems not 100% objective

Can be influenced by attitudes and prejudices of psychiatrist
or diagnostic test
Eg: women and black people more likely to be diagnosed as
mentally ill psychiatrist expectations
Forms of Bias:
Racial: Jenkins-Hall and Sacca (1991), Stowell-Smith &
McKeown (1999)
Misconception: Clinician may have preconceived ideas
about the nature of mental states and behaviour
influence how they interpret signs and symptoms. Eg:
Chapman and Chapman (1967)
Expectation: Involved in the consultation process
clinicians tend to expect a person must have a problem
if they are seeking help reading-in syndrome (Phares
1979) eg: Rosenhan (1973)
Sick Role: Interpretation of the diagnosis of a mental
disorder as a label of the person themselves eg:
someone with schizophrenia = schizophrenic. Eg:
treatment of participants in Rosenhan as being ill may
have influenced their self-perception.
Demand characteristics: Being labeled as mentally
ill can influence friendships, employment opportunities
etc can exaggerate emotional difficulties
Expert Role: Patients behave in a way that they believe
a clinician expects them to behave relationship
between patient and clinical can be seen to have
created some symptoms of disorder.

o Jenkins-Hall and Sacco (1991)

Chapman and Chapman (1967)

Study of 32 therapists showed a tendency to diagnose male

clients as homosexual if they saw Rorschach inkblots as human
or animal images feminine clothing or genitalia
Despite the fact that no research supports the link between such
interpretations and the client being homosexual, researchers
persisted
Assumed there is evidence to suggest correlation made

145

Psychology HL Notes

o Rosenhan (1973)
o Fernando (1991)
Cohen 1988 found that mentally ill people are considered cursed
in India
Rack 1982 found that mental illness has a simila stigma in China
Chinese only label only those whose behaviour is obviously
psychotic

Women and Depression

Women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression than

men. Is this because they suffer more from depression or are
they more likely to be diagnosed with depression

o Mary Seeman (2007)

Cultural considerations

People from minority groups less likely to receive help for

mental conditions
People from minority groups are more likely to Bemisdiagnosed
Discussing cultural differences can be seen to involve
generalizations and variation needs to be taken into account
by therapists.

Etic

Study behaviour across cultures

Eg: WHO (1983) study aims to examine similarity of
depression symptoms between cultures
Assumes elements of behaviour = universal
Researcher views culture from the outside can be as nonparticipant observer
Examples
BLOA and CLOA
Evolutionary psychology eg: Buss
Emotion and Ekmans research on facial expressions

Emic

Approaches behaviour from a culturally specific viewpoint

Eg: culture bound syndromes eg: koro
146

Psychology HL Notes

Does not assume behaviour = universal truth is relative

Examples
o Neurasthenia Chinese version of depression
different symtoms eg: somatic.
Mason et al (1985)

Emic Study Depression

Found no disorder that corresponds with
depression
However 5 separate illness that have
depressive symptoms:
o Worry sickness
o Hearbreak
o Drunkenlike craziness
o Unhappiness
o Disappointment pouting

Neurasthenia

Disorder found in CCMD symptoms and behaviour similar to

depression
The exception is that patients report primarily somatic
symptoms not emotional
Stigma associated with depression neurasthenia =
preferable to be diagnosed with neurasthenia more
compatible with Chinese culture

Etic v Emic
Etic Approach
Emphasizes similarities between
cultures
Considers behaviour patters
invariant and universal
Brings an outside perspective

Emic Approach
Emphasizes differences between
cultures
Considers behaviour patterns
unique and specific to a culture
Seeks an inside (native)
perspective.

Resolution

Derived Etic Approach: Assumes that although the

phenomenon under study is the same across cultures, its
development and expression may well show cultural
influences
There are, however, some culturally specific conditions eg:
Koro.

147

Psychology HL Notes
Western research and Ethics

Western clinical psychology can be criticized for imposing

notions of normality and health rooted in western culture
Buddhist culture and beliefs about suffering at odds with
western quest for happiness
Pharmaceutical ads in Japan marketing depression and
imposing notions of normality and abnormality.
Studying a cultural group using qualitative methods reveal
more about culturally specific behaviour

o Bolton (1999)
o Morgan et al (2006)

148

Psychology HL Notes

Psychological Disorders
Describe the prevalence and symptoms of one anxiety
disorder
PTSD coach Australia app

PTSD
Symptoms
Flashbacks
Hyper awareness
Insomnia withdrawaral
Feeling angry
Avoiding relations to trauma

Prevalence
Davidson et al - 15-24% of people that experience traumatic
experiences
(US 5% men 15% women)
higher for women than men difference in reporting
cog flashbacks
bio nausea insomnia elevated heartrate weight change
Kessler (1999) 60% men and 51% women report traumatic events
Achenback (1991)

149

Psychology HL Notes
Nolen-Hoeksema (1994)PTSD
Describe the prevalence and symptoms of one aff ective
disorder
Symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder

DSMIV not DSM5

- Depression is an affective disorder
DSM-IV symptoms of Major Depressive Episode
- Five or more during the same two week period
- Must include either depressed mood and/OR loss of interest or
pleasure
- Depressed mood for majority of time
- Reduced interest or loss of pleasure in normally pleasurable
activities
- Significant weight loss or gain (not influenced by deiting)
- Insomia or hyperinsomnia
- Psychomotor agitation or retardation
- Fatigue
- Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
- Inability to concentrate
- Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
Depression as a syndrome
- Comer,
Concept
Motivatio
nal
Emotional

1998
Symptoms
Apathy, loss of energy and interest: things seem
pointless and hopeless
Low mood, anhedonia, emptiness, anger or
resentment, anxiety, shame, guilt
Cognitive
Poor concentration, negative ideas about the self, the
world and the future
Behaviour Lowered activity, social withdrawal, agitation or
al
retardation
Biological Sleep disturbance, loss of appetite, loss of weight,
changes in circadian rhythms, hormones and brain
chemicals
- Lasts for several months
- Patients can slip into depression over time (Endogenous
depression)
- Depression can be caused be an event (Reactive depression)
Prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder
-

18-24 most likely group to experience it

Studies listed in the DSM-IV show in sampled communites:
150

Psychology HL Notes

o Varied results between 10%-25% of women for lifetime

o Varied results between 5%-12% in men over a lifetime
o 5%-9% of adult women
o 2%-3% of adult men
Appear unrelated to ethnicity, education, income or marital
status
This is questionable
In 1998 9 million Britons asked GPs for help with depression
(British psychological society, 2000)
Charney & Weisman 1988 15% of people at some time
during their lives
Department of Health 1990 during 1980s depression was
of all psychiatric hospital admissions in the UK
Levav 1997 found prevalence rate higher than normal in
Jewish males
o Mason (198
o Beck Youth inventory

151

Psychology HL Notes
Disorder: Depression
Group: Affective disorder

Major Depressive Episode

Period of at least two weeks depressed mood or loss of

interest or pleasure in nearly all activities
Must show at least 4 additional symptoms
To count towards a major depressive episode symptoms must
either be newly present, or have clearly worsened
Must be present most of day every day for at least 2 weeks
Do not include conditions generally due to a pre-existing
condition

Symptoms

Physiological
o Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain
o Changes in appetite or weight
o Changes in sleep insomnia or hypersomnia
o Changes in psychomotor activity, decreased energy
o Fatigue or loss of energy
o Headaches and other pain
Cognitive
o Difficulty thinking, concentrating or making decisions
o Depressed mood for all or most of day
o Diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all
activities for most of day
o Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
Emotional
o Distress and sadness
o Loss of interest in the world
Behavioral
o Recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation, plans
or attempts
o Disturbed sleep patterns
o Avoidance of social company

Implications of Symptoms

Symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in

social, occupational or other important areas of functioning
Symptoms not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance or general medical condition
152

Psychology HL Notes

Symptoms not better accounted for bereavement

Prevalence

Studies have reported a wide range of values for the

proportion of the adult population with the disorder
National Comorbidity Study (1994): The prevalence of
lifetime major depression in the USA was 17.1%
National Institute of Mental Health (Kessler et al 2005):
Lifetime prevalence of depression in USA =
o 16.6% (total population)
o 13.2% for males
o 20.2% for females
Andrade and Caraveo (2003): lifetime prevalence of
depression varies across cultures 3% in Japan and 17% in
USA
Kessler et al (1993): lifetime prevalence for major
depression of 21.3% in women compared to 12.7% in men

Things to consider in this dot point:

DSM IV list and criteria

WHO study universal symptoms
Chinese Neurasthenia somatic symptoms in some cultures
Mason (Hopi Indians) culture can influence expression of
depression and mental illness

153

Psychology HL Notes

Most common psychological disorder

Low moods and low levels of self esteem
Lack motivation
Guilt and sadness
Lack of enjoyment or pleasure in familiar activities of
company
Lack of initiative
Faulty attribution to blame
Suicidal thoughts
Irrational hopelessness
Difficult to make decisions
Loss of energy
Insomnia
Weight loss / gain
Hypersomnia
Diminished sexual desire (libido)
Think that everything is black and they will never be happy
again
Drugs and different kinds of therapy
Looking at the following for treatments and cures
Biological factors (genetic make up and biochemical

factors)
Cognitive
factors
(thoughts
of
hopelessness,

pessimistic thinking patterns, feels of low self esteem)

Social factors (stress of poverty, loneliness, or troubled

personal relationship)
Diagnosed when one experiences 2 weeks of either
depressed mood / loss of interest and pleasure
Diagnosis requires at least 4 additional symptoms (insomnia,
appetite disturbances, loss of energy, worthlessness, thoughts of
suicide, difficulty concentrating)
Charney and Weismann: Affects around 15% of the world
at some time in their life
Department of health : depression in 1980's accounted for
1/4 of all psychiatric hospital in UK
2-3 more times more common in woman than in men
More frequent in members of lower socio-economic groups
Most frequently amongst young adults
Levav: prevalence rate to be above in Jewish males
No difference in prevalence between Jewish men and

women
Some groups may be more vulnerable to depression
Indicates problem in making a reliable diagnosis

Difficult for clinician to find out if people are suffering

from a major depressive disorder or "the blues" (state of

depression)
Recurrent disorder
80% subsequent episode, lasting 3-4 months
Average number of episodes: 4

154

Psychology HL Notes

12% of depression becomes a chronic disorder which lasts of

2 years
Development and course of disorder reflects complex
interaction between several biological and psychological factors
Negative events, neurotransmitters, hormones --> depression
Could be long term problem
Continuing source of stress, disappointment

Stress and depression association

Many people with stress do not develop depressive

disorder
Individual differences in vulnerability

Not possible for any doctor / psychologist to find THE cause of

depression in anyone
Treatment aims to alleviate the symptoms

155

Psychology HL Notes
Analyse aetiologies of one anxiety disorder
Hoff and vaglum found possible genetic disposition
Noradrenaline linked to ptsd

geracioti
Seligman people who have a sense of perpose are less likely to
suffer

Biological aetiology of PTSD - Gilbertson

Gilberston: Research on Vietnam Veterans
1.

Non veteran twin with smaller than average hippocampal size was more likely to
have a veteran twin who developed PTSD.
2.
Smaller hippocampus = biologically predisposed to PTSD.

Biological aetiology of PTSD - Gilbertson - CA

Critical Analysis:
1.
2.
3.
4.

No bidirectional ambiguity
PTSD is not just exclusive to war vets
Did not control for homosexuality
Naturally occurring variables

156

Psychology HL Notes

Analyse aetiologies of one mood disorder

Biological theories

Categories
o Genetic theories
o Biochemical theories
o Endochrine (hormone ) theories
Including cortisol
o Diathsis-stress model theories
Genes

Theory: genes are involved in the cause of depression

How to investigate: twin studies

o Nurnberger and Gershon

(1982)

Current genetic theories:

As the symptoms of a mood disorder are typically varied and

many researchers think it will be related to a set of genes, not
just one
It is unlikely that a gene controls if a person gets depression
but may guide.the way a person gets depression but may
guide the way people regulate emtions or respond to stress

o Caspi et al. (2003)

Neurotransmitters

Which neurotransmitters are implicated in depression?

o Norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine influence mood
and involved in love

Neurochemical theory

Janowsky et al (1972)
o Participants given drug: physostigmine depletes
serotonin levels
o Became depressed
o Suggests drugs can impact depressed mood and may be
the result of a disturbance in the normal metabolic
process
o Further evidence: drugs increasing norephinephrine can
effectively reduce symptoms of depression
o SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
increase levels of serotonin effective in treating

157

Psychology HL Notes

depression for some people does not have a 100%

success rate (50-80%)
Evaluations of theory
o Reductionist
o Ethical considerations the use of a drug to deplete
serotonin
o Self-report data tell about own feelings etc
o Demand characteristics
o Lacks mundane realism ARTIFICIAL ecological
validity
o SSRIs do not have 100% success rate indicates other
causes also involved in depression

Hormone Studies

Current research indicates that the stress hormone cortisol is

implicated in depression
Burke et al (2005): Overall the research seems to indicate a
difference in the way depressed and non-depressed people
react to stress. Depressed people show a blunter response to
stress and therefore remain under stress for longer

o Kendler et al. (2006)

Lacasse and Leo (2005)
There is no baseline balanced level of serotonin level to
measure against
Cutuli et al (2010)
A study of homeless children between the ages of 4 and 7 found
a significant correlation between high levels of cortisol and a
history of many negative life events
Diathesis-stress model

Vulnerabilities to depression include:

o Genetics
o Hormones
o Neuroticism and perfectionism
Environmental and life events stressors

Vulnerabilities, eg: Genetics, hormones, pessimistic personality, low serotonin,

negative feedback, neuroticism

Environment - life events: stressors, eg: fired, do IB, Divorce,

158

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusion

Therefore, the biological factors implicated in the causes of

depression include:
o Genetic link
o Biochemical neurotransmitters and hormones
o Brain structures

Personality Research

Neuroticism: a personality trait

Sensitive, nervous v secure/confident
A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as
anxiety, anxiety, depression or vulnerability
Jorm et al (2000) predicts onset of depression
Current research is investigating a link between perfectionism
and depression.

o Hewitt (1991)
Underlyng principls of cognitive therapy

Cognitive triad
o Thoughts about self
o Thoughts about the world
o Thoughts about the future
Disfunction is caused by the way in which the person thinks
about an actual situation
Therapies
o Rational-Emotive therapy (RET) Ellis
o Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy (CBT) Beck

Thoughts
about self

Thoughts
about the
future

Thoughts
about the
world

159

Psychology HL Notes

Cognitive

Psychological problems stem from faulty beliefs

representing distortions in schemata pertaining to
oneself the world and the future
Schemas can cause cognitive biases
People with depression are overly attentive to negative
feedback and less so to positive feedback
Becks focus is on unbidden cognitions: Automatic
Thoughts people with depression can the following
errors:
o Arbitrary interference: Conclusion with absence of
evidence
o Selective abstractive: Focusing on one element and
ignoring others
o Overgeneralization: sweeping conclusion
o Catastrophizing: Envisioning the worst possible
outcome starting from a small thing and blowing it out
of control

Rumination

Hypothesized cause of depression

Nolen-Hoeksema (1991): Depressive rumination
thoughts and behaviours that focus the attention on
depressive symptoms, and their possible causes, meanings
and implications
An extensive body of evidence demonstrates that individuals
who engage in rumination when they feel sad are:
o More likely to become clinically depressed
o Stay depressed for longer
What is rumination?
o Persistent, repetitive, passive thinking about the self,
ones emotional state events in the past and current
stressors
o Ongoing stream of thoughts that clients can become
stuck in, struggle to disengage from
o Tends to be evaluative and abstract: why me?, why do
I feel like this?
o Common themes: past losses, analyzing past mistakes,
social-evaluative judgments/comparisons
o Associated with procrastination, poor motivation, low
mood, indecisiveness, prolonged emotional reactions
Prspective evidence: Rumination predicts:
160

Psychology HL Notes

o Likelihood of depressive episodes over 18 months

(Nolen-Hoeksema et al 1993)
o Depression onset (Nolen-Hoeksema et al 1995,
Spasojevic and alloy 2002) and duration (NolenHoeksema 2000)
o Depressive symptoms in students 7 weeks postearthquake (Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow 1991)
o Persistent depression in bereaved men (NolenHoeksema 1994)
o Maintenance of symptoms in clinically depressed
participants Kuehner and Weber 1999 and NolenHoeksema 2000)
Important to address rumination as both a risk factor and a
maintaining factor in depression
2 components of rumination proposed:
o Focus on self ans symptoms
o Abstract/analytical thinking about causes, meanings and
consequences
Summary
o Rumination predicts the onset of depression plats role
in its persistence
o Adopting an abstract mode of processing during
rumination leads to poor outcomes
o Important for psychologists to assess the presence =,
extent ad content of rumination in their clinical
assessment of depressed individuals
o Psychological treatment and relapse prevention should
teach adaptive ways of responding to problems other
than engaging in rumination.
If rumination addressed as a cause, allows clinician to reduce
rate of relapse holistic approach required to prevent triggers
of relapse in future

Sociocultural Factors

Social factors such as poverty or living in a violent relationship

linked to depression
Women more likely to be diagnosed with depression than men
link with stress of being responsible for many young
children and lack of social support

o Brown and Harris (1978)

Evaluation of sociocultural theory of depression

Supported by many studies

Role of social stressors in mental health commonly accepted

161

Psychology HL Notes

Women more likely to be exposed to violence

162

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss culture and gender variations in prevalence

of disorders
1. Reporting bias
2. Rooted in rooted in levels of rumination
Gender variations in prevalence
o 2 to 3 times more common in women than men
o Males and females are equally affected prior to puberty.
After puberty, this disorder is twice as common in
females as in males.
o 10-25% for Women
o 5-12% Men
Cadoret & Hostetter (1983)
Cultural variations in prevalence
o More frequently amongst members of lower socioeconomic groups
o Levav (1997) above average rate in Jewish men and
women (some groups may be more vulnerable to
depression, but indicates difficulty of reliable diagnosis)
Prevalence

Studies have reported a wide range of values for the

proportion of the adult population with the disorder
National Comorbidity Study (1994): The prevalence of
lifetime major depression in the USA was 17.1%
National Institute of Mental Health (Kessler et al 2005):
Lifetime prevalence of depression in USA =
o 16.6% (total population)
o 13.2% for males
o 20.2% for females
Andrade and Caraveo (2003): lifetime prevalence of
depression varies across cultures 3% in Japan and 17% in
USA
Kessler et al (1993): lifetime prevalence for major
depression of 21.3% in women compared to 12.7% in men

Culture
The epidemiologic and comorbidity data presented previously are
derived from studies of American men and women. Surveys of PTSD
in other nations have yet to be done. Extrapolating from current
research findings, however, it seems likely that PTSD prevalence will
be much higher in nations where the probability of exposure to
interpersonal violence and war is great. Indeed, nations such as
Rwanda, Bosnia, and Cambodia in which unspeakable genocidal
violence has been perpetrated, can be expected to exhibit PTSD
prevalence that greatly exceeds that found in the U.S.A.

163

Psychology HL Notes
A number of criticisms have been leveled at the PTSD diagnosis
from a cross-cultural perspective. These include: a) conceptualizing
PTSD as a culture-bound syndrome; b) rejecting PTSD for failing to
incorporate unique psychohistorical dimensions that define the
meaning of trauma; and c) rejecting PTSD as a construct because it
pathologizes a normal and healthy rehabilitative process that is
more suitably characterized as cultural bereavement. We disagree
with these criticisms and have argued elsewhere that the PTSD
construct has both culture-bound and universal dimensions (23).
That is not to say, however, that there may not be other culturespecific idioms of distress, such as "calor" or "atiques de nervios,"
that may fall outside strict DSM-IV diagnostic criteria, but which are
significant indicators of clinically significant ,post-traumatic distress
in their own right (53). In this regard, PTSD may be only one of a
spectrum of post-traumatic syndromes that need further explication
in future research and clinical practice.

164

Psychology HL Notes
Gender Variations

Women diagnosed with depressive disorder more significantly

and frequently than men

Nolen-Hoeksema (2001)

LOA
CLO
A
BLO
A

SCL
OA

Women twice as likely as men to develop depression

Has not been possible to find a single variable that accounts
for this distinct gender difference.
Claim
Evidence
Evaluation
The difference is rooted in levels in rumination
There are
biological
reasons for the
hinder
prevalence
among women
It is an income
effect, not a
gender effect

It is difficult to
diagnose
depression
because men
and women
have different
kinds of
symptoms.

Hormonal
fluctuations impact
womens moods

It is the result
of reporting
bias

Kessler (2001)

Women generally
have lower
economic status
then men
Ensel (1982)
McGrath et al
(1990)
Sex differences =
result of mens
unwillingness to
admit to and seek
help for symptoms
of depression
King and Buchwald
(1986)
Barsky, Peeka and
Borus (2001)
Egeland and
Hostetter (1983)
no sex differences
in depression I
cultures where
alcohol is banned
eg: Amish

165

Sex differences in
depression not simply
the result of differences
in income
reductionist view.

Hypothesis: Men
and women
experience
symptoms with
equal frequency to
same degree, but
some symptoms
perceived as
feminine men less
likely to report

Men and women

equally susceptible
to depression
experience and
express symptoms
differently
Male version of

Psychology HL Notes
The origin of
depression is
rooted in
gender roles.

depression =
alcoholism
Alcoholism and
depression = 2
different
maladaptive
behaviours social
influences against
women drinking
may have impacted
this statistic

Ensel (1982):

It is an income effect not a gender effect

Compared mens and womens mean scores on depression
scale controlled for income level, education level and
occupation
Women still had more depressed mean scores than men after
socioeconomic indicators taken into account
Suggest sex differences in depression not simply the result of
income differences

McGrath et al (1990)

It is an income effect not a gender effect

Woman more likely to encounter stressful life factors eg:
physical and sexual abuse, poverty, single parenthood, sexual
discrimination

King and Buchwald (1986)

It is the result of reporting bias

Men no less willing to disclose symptoms than women
Participants = college students

Barsky, Peekna and Borus (2001)

It is the result of reporting bias

Women and men differ in thresholds for judging and
considering a given sensation to be unpleasant or bothersome
labeling and describing sensations as symptoms
Women report more intense, numerous and frequent bodily
symptoms

166

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusion: women and men experience somatic symptoms,

bodily distress and physical health differently

Padesky and Hammen (1977)

It is the result of reporting bias

College students
Level of depressive symptoms at which women would seek
psychotherapy lower then men
Student tested not suffering symptoms hypothetical
situation

Amenson and Lewinsohn (1981)

It is the result of reporting bias

Study of help-seeking behaviour
Men and women with similar levels of self-reported depressive
symptoms equally likely to seek psychiatric help or go to a
general practitioner
Men and women with equal self-reported symptoms equally
likely to be diagnosed as depressed in clinical interview.

Kessler (2000)

There are biological reasons for the hither prevalence among

women
What does the study show? Women are two or three times
more likely to develop depression. Statistical rates for
depression vary but not significant (for everyone)
Gender differences emerge in puberty
Other experiences related to change in sex hormones (eg:
pregnancy, menopause), do not significantly influence major
depression
Necessary to investigate joint effects of biological
vulnerabilities and environmental provoking experiences

Possible explanations for gender variation in depression:

Biological Factors: Hormones

Effect of sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) on mood

Nolen-Hoeksema (2001): Little scientific evidence to
support the theory

167

Psychology HL Notes

Adverse experiences in childhood (eg; sexual abuse) linked to

increased risk of depression, as long-term dysregulation of the
stress-response system
o Weiss et al (1999): women more likely to have
dysregulated response to stress more likely to have
been exposed to traumas in early life.
Nolen-Hoeksema (2001): Suggests women and men
experience same stressors, but women are more vulnerable to
developing depression, due to gender differences in biological
responses to stressors.

Sociocultural factors:

Womens lower power and status: Nolen-Hoeksema

(2001): Women have les power and status then men more
likely to experience sexual abuse, constrained choices,
poverty, lack of respect etc.
o This contributes to depression women feel they
cannot control their lives
o Chronic strains embedded in womens social roles.
The role strain hypothesis: social roles and cultural
influences contribute to higher ratio of female depression
o In many cultures married women do not have a paid job
rely on husband for identity and self esteem leads
to frustration
o Bebbington (1998): Marriage can have negative
effects on women limits choices, having to stay home
and look after child = associated with higher levels of
depression

Cultural Variation
Weisman et al (1996)

Cross cultural variation in data from 10 countries

Lifetime prevalence of depression ranged from 19.0% in
Lebanon to 1.5% in Taiwan
Paris = 16.4% close to Beirut, although Beirut had
experiences war for 15 years
Women had higher rate than men in all countries
Conclusion: different risk factors social stigma and cultural
reluctance to endorse mental symptoms, and methodological
limitations of study may have produced result.

Marsella et al (2002)
168

Psychology HL Notes

Depression has been a major concern in Western medicine

now becoming the worlds foremost psychiatric problem
Growing evidence of rates of depression increasing,
particularly in those born after WWII

Possible explanations for culture variation:

Differences in social and cultural background

Dutton (2009): Cultural variation in prevalence of major

depression could be result of cultural differences in stress,
standards of living, reporting bias. People in some countries
have harder lives unemployment and living standards also
differ across social groups.
Sartorius et al (1983): Significant cultural differences in
stigma associated with mental health disorders individuals
in areas where psychological disorders more associated with
stigma = more likely to report physical pain rather than
psychological problems

Urbanization

Marsella (1995): Proposed that urban settings are

associated with increased stress, due to problems of housing,
work, marriage, child rearing, security and other urban
difficulties. Factors eg: urban crowding, poor working
conditions, underemployment, chronic hunger, gender
discrimination, limited education and human rights violations
weaken both individuals and social support increase
likelihood of mental health disorders.

Implementing Treatment
Examine biomedical, individual and group
approaches to treatment
Biomedical:
Electroconvulsive therapy
How does it work?

Believed to change the activity levels in certain brain regions,

hormones released and signaling between brain cells modified
Stimulate brain using carefully controlled currents to induce
seizure while patient is unconscious
Effective short-term treatment for depression usually more
effective than drugs High doses more effective

169

Psychology HL Notes
Types of ECT

Bilateral ECT: electrodes on both sides (more effective)

Unilateral ECT: electrodes on one side may be used to
target a specific area.

Used to treat:

Severe depression
Suicidal desires
Acute mania
Catatonia
Schizophrenia

Before procedure

Patients are given thorough psychiatric evaluation, and

general health screening to reduce chance of complications

During the procedure:

Patients anaesthetized and given muscle relaxant

Patient given oxygen
ECT stimulus administered for approx. 5 seconds
Induces seizure (lasts about 1 minute)
Allowed to regain consciousness heart rate and blood
pressure monitored
Whole procedure = approx. 30 mins.
-

Results of the procedure:

Can cause brief period of confusion

Could cause head aches, muscle soreness or nausea treated
with medication
Generally improves the condition of patient
Can also help improve concentration and attention issues

What assumptions does it make about the cause of

Depression?

Assumes depression has a biological basis

170

Psychology HL Notes

Theories: stimulates growth of new brain cells, restoration of

impaired brain circuits, could reverse changes in brain when
someone is depressed

Effectiveness and Evidence

o Prudic et al. (2001)

Criticisms of ECT

Relapse rate high 50% within 6-12 months (Sackeim et al

2001) however can be reduced by antidepressants
Unpleasant therapy
Many see ECT as form of abuse patient encouraged to go
through it when vulnerable and cant stand up for themselves
No real knowledge about how it works
Stigma
APA taskforce (2001) concluded there is no objective evidence
that ECT causes damage to the brain or has any lasting effects
on the ability to learn and remember information
Rose et al (2003) argues that it induces cognitive deficits
however the evidence is largely anecdotal

Lobotomies

Can cause people to be in a vegetative state cant think or

function for themselves and changes personality
These are far more dangerous and complicated
Now they are not used
Side effects too great to justify use of lobotomies.

Drug Therapy

Drug therapy is the most widely used treatment for

depression
Effective drugs rapidly developed in 1960s
Takes about 2-3 weeks for antidepressants to demonstrate
improvement in mood

3 main groups of anti-depressants

Monoamine-oxidise inhibitors (MAOIs)

o Fell into disuse safety issue
o Now used for cases that do not respond to other
treatments

171

Psychology HL Notes

o Side effects: dry mouth insomnia, hypotension,

dizziness, constipation, sexual dysfunction and weight
gain etc
o Have to take several times a day
o Reacts with food eg: cheese, chocolate and red wine
Tricyclic antidepressants (trofranil)
o Popular in the 60s
o Side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision,
constipation, memory disturbance, sexual dysfunction,
rapid heart beat, sedation and weight gain
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs),Prozac,
Zoloft etc
o Became popular in 90s as they have less side effects
than the earlier antidepressants on the market
o Works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin
o Different types work differently eg:
Tricyclic antidepressants: inhibit reuptake of
serotonin and norepinephrine
o Side effects (dependent on dosage)
Nausea
Insomnia
Anxiety
Sexual dysfunction
o Cheap, ease, convenient and widely available

Assumptions of drug treatments

According to chemical imbalance theory, low levels of the

brain chemical serotonin lead to depression and depression
medication treats this imbalance

Serotonin

Not test that can measure the amount of serotonin in the

living brain
No way to even know what a low or normal level is
No way of showing these medications fix these levels

o Klerman et al (1974)
o Kirsch et al (2008)

Individual
Techniques

Cognitive techniques
o Disputing irrational beliefs
o Cognitive homework
Emotive techniques

172

Psychology HL Notes
o Rational emotive imagery imagine situation you are
fearful of
o Role playing
o Shame attacking
o Use of force and vigor (also part of shame attacking
exercises)
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) Albert Ellis (1961)

Irrational thoughts negative emotions

Controlling and changing irrational thoughts is the key to
better mental health
Focused not on excavating childhood but confronting the
irrational thoughts that lead to self-destructive feelings and
behaviours
Beliefs:
o Irrational and self-defeating beliefs are harmful
o Eliminate beliefs through rational examination
o Directive, persuasive, confrontational

The ABCD Model (Ellis)

A. Activating Event: Briefly describe situation or event

leading to emotional disturbance
B. Irrational Beliefs or Self-Talk: List the things that you
have said about yourself positive or negative
C. Emotional Consequences: Describe feelings when A
occurred
D. Disputing Self-Talk: For each statement in section B,
describe what you would ask or say to dispute your self-talk

RET or REBT (Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy)

Mental exercises
Behavioral shame attacking
o Buying condoms loudly
o Leading the train carriage in singing (badly)
o Telling people you just got out of a mental hospital
These exercises used by many cognitive therapists
Highly cognitive, active-directive, homework assigning and
discipline oriented. Therefore fewer sessions
The behavioral exercise provides evidence that the irrational
belief is not true
Could also be interpreted in behavioral terms eg: extinction.

173

Psychology HL Notes
Becks Cognitive therapy

Approach uses collaboration Empiricism and Guided discovery

o Cognitive therapy often involves doing work between
sessions (count the number of times you cause a family)
o Therapist gently confronts clients beliefs and guides the
discovery of errors
o Empirical information can be used to challenge the false
belief, or develop strategy
Beliefs:
o Negative thoughts psychological problems
o Challenge accuracy of automatic thoughts
o Less directive, reflective, open-ended dialogue

Ellis: RET
Beck
Therapist = teacher

Therapy blunt often

confrontational
Highly directive and

persuasive
Methodology determined
by clients personality

Eg: Depression Ellis

adapts RET model

according to clients selfesteem or perception

Differences between RET and CT

CT
Warm personal approach
Stresses quality of
therapeutic relationship
Emphasis on client
discovering
misconceptions for
themselves
Methodology based on
particular disorder
Much more supporting
research

o Elkin et al (1989)
Mindfulness based cognitive therapy
Mindfulness

Not primary treatment technique appropriate in

combination with CT
Differing definitions of mindfulness
Basically is bringing ones complete attention to the present
experience on moment-to-moment basis

What is it useful for?

174

Psychology HL Notes

Relapse common in depression

Costly problem in terms of additional therapy, long term drug
treatment
Has been shown to replace relapse when used in combination
with CT
Can be delivered in a group therapy context more cost
effective
Behaviour treatment can help patients be aware of negative
thoughts and feelings and disengage from them

Group Approaches
Group therapies
When and why developed

Cost-effective
Institutions many people, few psychologists
Developed by group of psychotherapists incl: Pratt, Burrow,
Moreno and Yalom
Also contributions from Foulkes and Bion
Creates unit for collective development

Structure

6-12 people per group

1-2 facilitators
Usually 8-20 sessions duration based on purpose and group
needs
Diverse different theoretical training for therapists
Therapist works to establish safe environment builds trust
and empathy between participants can talk personally and
honestly
Different types: time-limited or ongoing, set focus or general
support, skills focus or conditioned focus
o Ongoing: continues indefinitely, members complete
treatment and leave, new join etc
o Time-limited: set number of sessions, beginning,
middle and end, cannot join at any time
Diverse goals in group setting relate to improving
satisfaction gained from, and functionality of life, and
interpersonal relations
Usually heterogeneous groups various backgrounds and
psychological issues
Some groups = focused or topical therapy groups
members have similar problems

175

Psychology HL Notes

Some groups focus on specific skills eg: coping strategies,

stress management
Some individual therapies can be provided in small groups, eg:
CBT and Interpersonal therapy
Psychodynamic group therapy: group context and process
used as mechanism of change explore and examine
interpersonal relationships in group
Non-verbal expressive therapies: Dance or music therapy

Therapeutic factors in group therapy (Yalom)

Universality: recognize shared experiences and feelings,

remove isolation, validate experience, raise self-esteem
Altruism: members help each other, lift self-esteem, develop
adaptive coping and interpersonal skills
Instillation of hope: Members at various stages of
development inspiration and encouragement
Imparting information: Helpful to learn from other
members of group
Corrective recapitulation of the primary family
experience: members unconsciously identify other members
of group as family helps understand impact of childhood
experiences on personality prevent repeats of past
Development of socializing techniques: safe and
supportive environment extending repertoire of
interpersonal behaviour
Cohesiveness: Primary therapeutic factor humans = herd
animals need to belong to group belonging, acceptance,
and validation
Existential factors: take responsibility for own life, decisions
and consequences
Catharsis: relief from emotional distress free and
uninhibited expression of emotion relief from chronic
feelings
Interpersonal learning: self-awareness through interaction
with and feedback from the group
Self-understanding: achieve greater levels of understanding
into ones problems and motivations for behaviours
Setting: Psychiatric in-patient unit, etc. Can also include
group-based expressive therapies, eg: drama therapy,
psychodrama, art therapy, music therapy

More specific forms of group therapy

Therapeutic communities and milieu therapy:

environment = medium of therapy, all interactions and

176

Psychology HL Notes

actions = potentially therapeutic, exploration and

interpretations
Projective therapy: effective for psychotic adolescents and
recovering addicts. Use novel or film to provide safe focus for
discussing plotline related to experiences of patient.
Explores repressed and suppressed emotions through
discussing book/film

Studies on effectiveness of group therapies

Callahan (2004): meta-analysis of 5 studies on group

psychotherapy for adult sexual abuse survivors moderate to
strong effectiveness
Kanas (2005): Supports effectiveness of chronic traumatic
stress in war veterans
Kanas (2006): Not as strong evidence for effectiveness for
patients with borderline personality disorder. Suggests poor
outcomes reflect need for additional support eg: eclectic
approach
Lorentzen et al (2002): Long-term intensive interactional
group psychotherapy assumes diverse and diagnostically
heterogeneous group membership, and an open-ended time
scale for therapy good outcomes
Gardenswartz (2009): Group therapy more effective than
individual therapy for higher functioning adults.
Tucker and Oei (2006): Reviewed 36 studies group CBT
more cost-effective than individual CBT in treatment of
depression.

177

Psychology HL Notes

Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual and group

approaches to the treatment of one disorder
-

Use above studies for empirical support, as they all relate to

depression
Disorder for this question is depression

Biomedical:
ECT
Strengths and Limitations

Strengths
Can be used if nothing else
has proved effective
Generally very safe
Measures usually taken to
prevent/reduce potential
side effects
Side effects usually
temporary eg: transient
memory impairment only
lasts for small amount of
time eg: a month
Has been shown to
improve memory
processing in some
patients eg: depressed
patients often have issues
with concentration etc
ECT can help
No explicit evidence ECT
causes brain damage

Limitations
People may not have
adequate training or
experience could
administer treatment
incorrectly
Informed consent people
may be too unwell to give
informed consent
Can cause some memory
loss some patients also
have difficulty forming new
memories during the
course of the treatment.
Can sometimes destroy
occasional memories from
past
Dont understand cause
and effect what is the
long term effect if we dont
understand how it works?
Maintenance treatments
required to prevent
relapse

Ethical Considerations:

Informed consent patient must understand associated risks,

understand outcomes, ask questions, discuss views etc sign
a form
Able to withdraw consent
In some cases, patient = too unwell to give consent:
o ECT can be given under Mental Health Act
o Input from independent clinical and legal experts
o Views of patient and family also considered

178

Psychology HL Notes
Gender considerations:

Women over 65 = most common patients treated with ECT

is it to do with gender depression, over prescription, why that
age group?

Cultural considerations:

Treatment could go against cultural and religious beliefs eg:

some cultures have different views of causes and symptoms of
depression and other associated conditions
Must ensure that cultural beliefs considered and catered for
wherever possible

Drug Treatment
Strengths and limitation:

Strengths
Effective in reducing
relapse rates
Studies support their
effectiveness

Limitations
Time lag issue
Side effects: sexual
problems, drowsiness,
sleep difficulties, nausea
In adults over the age of
65, SSRI medication may
increase the risk of falls,
fractures and bone loss
SSRIs can also cause
serious withdrawal
symptoms
Some claim placebo ie=s
just as effective
Reductionist
Deterministic

Ethical considerations

Most drug therapies were developed using animals ethics

Ethics of using a placebo for patients with suicidal thoughts.

Individual
Evaluation of Individual/Cognitive Approach to therapy

Strengths
Model has great appeal

179

Limitations
The precise role of

Psychology HL Notes

because it focuses on
human thought
Human cognitive abilities
has been responsible for
our many
accomplishments so may
also be responsible for out
problems
Cognitive theories lend
themselves to testing.
When experimental
subjects are manipulated
into adopting unpleasant
assumptions or thoughts
they became more
depressed and anxious
(Rimm and Litvak 1969)
Many people with
psychological disorders,
particularly depressive,
anxiety and sexual
disorders have been found
to display maladaptive
assumptions and thoughts
(Beck et al 1983)
Cognitive therapy has
been very effective for
treating depression and
moderately effective for
anxiety problems.

cognitive processes is yet

to be determined. The
maladaptive cognition
seen in psychologically
disturbed people could be
a consequence rather than
a cause
The cognitive model is
narrow in scope thinking
is just one part of human
functioning broader issues
need to be addressed
Ethical issues: RET is a
directive therapy aimed at
changing cognitions
sometimes quite forcefully.
For some, this may be
considered an unethical
approach

Ethical Considerations:

Informed consent
Reawakening painful or suppressed memories
Right to withdraw or stop

Cultural considerations:

Cultural sensitivity, especially when discussing memories or

experiences which are of cultural significance
Individualist v collectivist: collectivist cultures may not be as
willing to share emotions and feelings about event it is not
in their culture to do so.

180

Psychology HL Notes

Group therapy
Strengths and Limitations

Strengths
Group experience
beneficial in ways not
addressed by individual
therapies
Relevant for many
conditions
Support and reassurance
not alone in experiences
Experiment with relating to
and interacting with others
Safe environment
Learn from experiences of
others sense of hope
and see alternative
solutions
Better understanding of
varying perspectives on
world
Give feedback to one
another
Interaction try new
behaviours.

Limitations
Some people do not
benefit from this
experience

Ethical Considerations:

Informed consent
Right to withdraw or stop
Sensitive to each participants wishes not obliged to share
information

Cultural considerations:

Cultural sensitivity, especially when discussing memories or

experiences which are of cultural significance
Individualist v collectivist: collectivist cultures may not be as
willing to share emotions and feelings about event it is not
in their culture to do so.

Effectiveness of treatment

181

Psychology HL Notes
Defining Effectiveness

Issues in assessing effectiveness of treatment programs.

Kleber and Gawin (1987): Different conditions pose
different treatment problems one treatment may not work
in some conditions
Some people recover spontaneously cant always claim
recovery is due to treatment
Comer 1995): Some people appear to have recovered
relapse at later date difficult to determine successes and
failures of treatment
Woody et al (1988): Different criterias used by different
researchers difficult to make conclusions about
effectiveness
Crooks and Stein (1991): Difficult to determine which
criterion of success is most effective
Guscott and Taylor 1994): If a person has a phobia before
the therapy, and not afterwards, therapy = successful
unconscious conflicts causing the phobia must be removed

Who decided what entails the effectiveness of therapy?

Therapist?
o Dubious unlikely to say their treatment was ineffective
o Paid by client
o Have known them for long time
o Cannot believe therapy = useless without contradiction.
Psychoanalysts?
o Might want to rely on clients own decisions
o Assumes clients insightful and good judges of own state
of health, and are able to effectively communicate this
o Unrealistic
Family and friends?
o May seem plausible have no stake in therapy
o Family and friends may be root of problems their
judgment may be reliable and invalid
o Family may find it difficult to accept client reshaping
their relationships
o Reluctant to say therapies were successful
Other therapists
o Professional opinion
o Distance less bias
o Likely to be the best judges

o Elkin et al (1989)

182

Psychology HL Notes

Empirical studies on Effectiveness

Other evidence:
Rush et al (1977): suggest higher relapse rate for those with
drugs, as cognitive therapy provides with patients with
strategies for coping with depression
Stravynski and Greenberg (1992), Hollon et al (1992):
little difference in effectiveness of three main treatments
(CBT, IPT and drugs)
Hollon and Beck (1994): Cognitive therapy more effective
than drug treatment at preventing relapse or recurrence hen
drug treatment is continued in the long term
Klerman et al (1994): combination of psychotherapy and
drugs = more effective than each individually.
Emmelkamp (1994): Biological therapy less affective than
cognitive, interpersonal r biological therapy, but more
affective than a placebo or no attention
Svartberg and Stiles (1991): psychodynamic therapies
more effective than placebos at treating all levels of unipolar
depression
Berk and Efran (1983): psychodynamic therapies no more
effective than placebo
Smith et al (1980): meta-analysis of 475 studies found
psychodynamic therapies beneficial according to different
criterion concluded ave person better off after
psychotherapy than without
Ethical Issues with therapies and treatments

ECT: dont know how works, effect could be caused by staffpatient relationship, unnecessary side effects eg: memory loss

183

Psychology HL Notes

Drugs: Do not provide cure, can cause dependency,

undesirable side effects
Behaviour therapies: loss of freedom to choose how to
behave, potential punishments, could be open to abuse, some
believe electric shocks = acceptable last resort after failure of
other treatments
Psychoanalysis: brings out feelings and experiences buried
in the subconscious, less traumatic, more ethical.

Considerations for evaluating treatments:

Who is it used on
What is it used for
Implications does it address causes, what are ethical
considerations, is it effective

184

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss the use of eclectic approaches to treatment

Eclectic approaches to treatment of depression

Most common approach to the treatment of depression =

antidepressive medication
This often relieves the depressive symptoms can take
weeks to be effective
High drop-out rates significant adverse side effects
High risk of relapse of repeated depressive episodes
Incorporate principles from range of treatments
Combination of psychotherapy and drugs helps prevent
relapse

Effectiveness

Combination improves efficacy (Strength)

Approach must be supported by evidence on efficacy
(Limitation)
Eg: if a patient is suicidal CBT may take too long to work, or
they may not be in a state to discuss their cognitive processes
drug therapy may lessen symptoms. Therefore, a combined
approach would be the most appropriate.

Theoretical Base

Broader theoretical base (Strength)

Sometimes in place of clear theory (limitation)
Appeals to a broad range of clients

Client

Must be tailored to their needs must be specific and focused

approach with clear direction
o Culture
o Gender

Clinician

Allows for flexibility

Not biased to one treatment
Not biased to one treatment
Needs broad knowledge and skills
Can be too complex, particularly if not targeted to specific
condition
Danger: no sense of direction
185

Psychology HL Notes

Why is the eclectic approach more effective than medication

alone?

Risk patients will stop taking their medication

o May cause them to feel somewhat better, and then they
decide they do not need any more
o May stop because experiences too many negative side
effects
Pampallona et al (2004): supports the eclectic approach
o Combinations of drugs and psychotherapy generally
leads to greater improvement
Study demonstrated psychotherapy keeps patients in treatment

o Klerman et al (1974)
Strengths
Broader theoretical base
more sophisticated than
using 1 theory
Eclectic approaches give
clinician more flexibility for
treatment individual
needs better matched to
treatments available
More chances for finding
efficacious treatment using
more than one in
combination
Apply to broader range of
clients
Failure to offer eclectic
approach limits clinicians
ability to help patients
Not biased towards one
treatment greater
objectivity
Adapt primary treatment
wit benefits of other
treatments that have
evidence of effectiveness

Limitations
Can be used in place of a
clear theory approach
not a substitute for
conducting tests and have
clear understanding of
patients condition instead
of a clear theory
Can be applied
inconsistently clinician
should have thorough
understanding of what
they are doing
Can turn into grandiose
goals for the client
overwhelming
Clinicians may not actually
have a clear direction for
their treatment eclectic
only in name
Eclectic approaches
should be backed up by
efficacy studies,

o Keller (2008)

186

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss the relationship between aetiology and

therapeutic approach in relation to one disorder
-

Use information from above syllabus points

Talk about how the treatment mostly aims to cure the cause
Except for things such as drugs, which simply prevent
symptoms

Etiology:

Explaining the cause of a disorder

Can be difficult in abnormal psych no simple explanations
for complex disorders
Logic suggests the cause of a disorder should dictate the
treatment This is not possible for psychiatric disorders, eg:
depression, as the causes of the disorder are unknown, and
there is no cure (yet)
Scientific research has failed to show link between serotonin
levels and depression
SSRIs can regulate serotonin levels, but this does not mean
low serotonin causes depression

Etiology: the serotonin hypothesis

Serotonin hypothesis: depression is caused by low levels of

serotonin in brain (Coppen 1967)
Anti-depressants block the reuptake process of serotonin
increases serotonin levels in synaptic gap and improves mood
Henninger et al (1996): Experiment on individuals with
reduced serotonin levels to see if would develop depressive
symptoms
o Results did not support role of low serotonin in
depression
o Argued is necessary to revise the serotonin hypothesis.

Etiology and therapeutic approach to major depression

Treatment often uses anti-depressant drugs interfere with

neurotransmission attempt to regulate imbalance
Some psychiatrists question usefulness of these drugs:
o Serotonin system = complex dont know much about
long term effects
o Drugs do not cure depression, and have side effects
o Evidence suggests placebo may be just as effective
o Psychotherapy also just as or more effective in some
cases

187

Psychology HL Notes

Abnormal Studies
Cooper et al. (1972)
Diagnosis in America and Britain
Aim

To investigate reliability of diagnosis of depression and schizophrenia

Method

Researches asked American and British psychiatrists to diagnose patients by watching

a number of videotaped clinical interviews.

Findings

British psychiatrists diagnosed patients as clinically depressed twice as often.

American psychiatrists diagnosed the same patients to be suffering from schizophrenia
twice as often
Indicate that the same cases did not result in similar diagnoses in the two countries.
This points towards problems of reliability as well as cultural differences in
interpretation of symptoms and thus diagnosis.

Conclusio
n

Nicholls et al. (2000)

Inter-rater reliability
Aim
Method

Findings

To investigate the reliability of different diagnosis classification manuals.

2 practitioners diagnosed 81 children (7-16 years) with eating difficulties

Did this with different manuals
Manuals used: (DSM-IV, ICD-10, GOS)
(GOS was hospitals own manual)
Rate of reliability ( 1 = maximum)
DSM-IV 0.636
ICD-10 0.357

GOS 0.873

Conclusio
n

Using DSM criteria, 50% of children with eating disorder not otherwise classified
or could not be classified
According to DSM less than half had a disorder, so inaccurate result
GOS was specifically designed for children

Mary Seeman (2007)

Test-retest reliability

Aim
Method
Findings

To investigate the reliability of diagnosis over time.

Literary analysis/review of schizophrenia diagnoses

Initial schizophrenic diagnoses commonly changed as more information on

patient was gathered

188

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

Schizophrenic symptoms were commonly caused by other disorders

This research indicates a problem of test-retest reliability with schizophrenia..

Rosenhan (1973)
Validity - Being sane in insane places
Aim
Method

Findings

Follow-up
Study

To test reliability and validity of diagnosis in a natural setting. And investigate whethe
psychiatrists can reliably tell the difference between people who are sane and those
who are insane.
Opportunity sample of 8 people (including himself)
o 5 men 3 women
o A student, a psychologist, a doctor, a psychiatrist, a painter and a
housewife.
Pseudopatients applied to 12 different psychiatric hospitals
o Ranged: modern and old, well-staffed or poorly funded
At admissions interviews, told the truth about their life stories except: they
claimed they were hearing voices
o Control - claimed to hear an unknown voice repeating the words EMPTY
HOLLOW and THUD.
o Rosenhan picked these words because they suggested an "existential
crisis"
Once inside hospital, given careful instructions:
o Stop claiming to hear voices and act perfectly normally
o Don't take any of the medications
o Take written notes of what happens - do this secretly but if found out,
carry on taking notes openly
o Approach members of staff with this question: "Pardon me, could you t
me when I am likely to be discharged?"
All the pseudopatients were admitted,
o 7 with schizophrenia
o 1 with manic-depression.
Kept in hospital between 7 and 52 days
o 19-day average.
Only discharged when they stopped claiming to be sane and admitted to being
ill, but feeling better.
All were discharged with "schizophrenia in remission" (a non-existent medical
condition).
o Interestingly, other patients had no problem recognizing pseudopatient
were healthy ("You're not crazy, you're a journalist or something").
Hospitals found out and were outraged.
o Challenged to send more, confidant that the forewarned doctors and
nurses would spot them.
Informed the hospital that, during the next 3 months, at least one
pseudopatient would try to be admitted to the hospital.
Members of staff asked to rate all new admissions on 10-point scale,
o 1 = "definitely a pseudopatient"
o 10 = "certainly a genuine patient"
Over 3 month period, 193 patients were admitted for treatment.
o 41 were judged to be pseudopatients by at least one member of staff
o 23 were judged to be pseudopatients by at least one trained psychiatri
There were no imposters.

189

Psychology HL Notes
Conclusio
n

Ethical issues:
Deception staff were not told about study, however this is justified science it
provided evidence of problems in diagnosis that benefit others
Follow-up study staff thought that imposters would be present and so real
patients may not have got the treatment they needed.

Psychiatric diagnoses = "sticky labels", stigmatization and depersonalization.

Once you've been given a diagnosis of mental illness, it's extremely hard to
persuade people you're sane.
o Pseudopatients walking the corridors out of boredom were diagnosed a
suffering from "anxiety"
Sparked discussion and revision of diagnostic procedures.
Field experiment/covert observation, high ecological validity.
Can argue that experiment is low in ecological validity, psychiatrist dont usua
diagnose pseudo-patients. It is expected that the person will have some sor
of disorder if they seek diagnosis. Psychiatrists would normally play safe in the
diagnosis. Because there is always an outcry when a patient is let out of
psychiatric care and gets into trouble.
Shows that the diagnostic procedure in psychiatric hospitals was unreliable (40
years ago).
DSM-II was in used then, an updated version of the DSM (DSM-IV) used now ha
more sophisticated descriptions for diagnosis.

Temerline (1970)
Validity - Diagnostic bias in community mental health
Aim
Method

To investigate the effect of authority on diagnosis.

Findings

Conclusio
n

2 groups of participants listened to the same taped interview of a person

describing their own life.
The person talked about a seemingly normal life (i.e. happy marriage,
enjoyment at work).
A respected figure in psychiatry then told 1 group of participants that he thinks
the man was psychologically health.
He told the other group that he thinks the person was a psychotic.
Participants were then asked to judge the persons mental health.
Those who were told the participants were normal gave a normal diagnostic.

Those who were told that the participant was a psychotic agreed with that
diagnosis.
Shows that someone with authority and expertise can have stung influence on
the way people are perceived

The story of the taped person was hypothetical Might have gave a different
response if the person was physically present.

Difficult to gather information about real-life roles and interactions between

psychiatrists and patients.
May break ethical guidelines (Privacy and Confidentiality).

Opinions on causes and treatment may differ between psychiatrists.

Fernando (1991)
Discrimination in Diagnosis
Aim
Method

An institution may not set out to discriminate but through its rules, may have this very
effect.
Meta-analysis

190

Psychology HL Notes
Findings

Conclusio
n

There is research linking racial discrimination to mental illness

Recent cross-sectional research provides strong evidence of an association

between perceived racial discrimination, psychosis and depression in ethnic
minority groups.

However, there are no longitudinal studies to support a causal relationship.

Link back to question.

Jenkins-Hall and Sacco (1991)

Discrimination in Diagnosis
Aim

To investigate cultural bias in diagnosis.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

White therapists asked to watch a video of a clinical interview then evaluate the
female interviewee. 4 conditions:
1. African American woman non-depressed
2. White woman non-depressed
3. African American woman depressed
4. White woman depressed
Therapists rated the non-depressed African American woman and white woman
very similar.
Rated depressed African American woman in more negative terms as her as
less socially competent than the depressed white woman
White woman may be more stoic not expressing emotions. AA
woman expressing emotions potentially in culturally specific way.
Cultural judgments of therapists.
Strengths: Demonstrates cause and effect,

Jenkins-Hall and Sacco (1991)

Discrimination in Diagnosis
Aim
Method

To investigate cultural bias in diagnosis.

White therapists asked to watch a video of a clinical interview then evaluate the
female interviewee. 4 conditions:
5. African American woman non-depressed
6. White woman non-depressed
7. African American woman depressed
8. White woman depressed

191

Psychology HL Notes
Findings

Conclusio
n

Therapists rated the non-depressed African American woman and white woman
very similar.
Rated depressed African American woman in more negative terms as her as
less socially competent than the depressed white woman
White woman may be more stoic not expressing emotions. AA
woman expressing emotions potentially in culturally specific way.
Cultural judgments of therapists.
Strengths: Demonstrates cause and effect,

Nurnberger and Gershon (1982)

Depression Genetics
Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the concordance rates of unipolar depression in pairs of monozygotic

and dizygotic twins.
Reviewed results of 7 twin studies

Average across all studies (on unipolar depression).

Concordance rates:
MZ (identica) = 65%
DZ (fraternal) = 14%
Does suggest genes play role, but not 100% concordance rate other
factors involved. Environmental influences?
As the concordance rate is higher for MZ twins than DZ twins it
supports the hypothesis that genetic factors can predispose someone
to depression
Methodology small sample size, cultural variability
The fact it is not 100% suggests there is not 100% concordance rate
suggest other factors involved not genetically pre-programed
Ultimately supports view that both psychological and environmental
factors involved in depression.

Caspi et al (2003)
The role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful events.
To determine the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful
Aim
Method
Findings
Conclusio
n

events
Longitudinal study, correlational study.
Compared participants with normal 5-HTT gene (influences levels of serotonin,
and controls mood) to those with a mutation of the gene (shorter alleles)
Participants with the mutation and had experienced many stressful events
more likely to become depressed than those with normal gene.
The 5-HTT gene could indicate a vulnerability to depression after stress.
Speculation that genes could moderate individuals response to
environmental factors.
Strengths:

192

Psychology HL Notes

Demonstrates correlation between presence of the allele and

depression, does provide info into the possible role of genes in
depression role of particular gene
Limitations:
Large proportion of population carry mutation difficult to conclude
whether gene is major contributor to depression those without it can
also be depressed, reductionist, cannot establish cause and effect
relationship correlation not causation.
Role of environment unclear, this is only in combination with stressful
events the combination of event and gene can cause depression.
May be a lurking variable

Kendler et al. (2006)

Aim
Method

To determine the effects of genetics on depression

Findings
Conclusio
n

Participants: SWEDISH twin study 42 000 participants

Method: Telephone interviews to diagnose depression of basis of: a) the
presence of most of DSM-IV symptoms, b) prescription for antidepressants
Concordance rates between monozygotic = 0.44% for female and 0.31% for
male compared with 0.16% and 0.11% for female and male dizygotic twins.
If the disorder was purely genetic, we might expert the monozygotic
concordance rates to be higher. Difference between MZ and DZ
concordance rates indicate strong genetic component
Strengths:
Indicates correlation, confirms findings of some other studies, large
sample size increases validity.
Limitations:
Phone conversation lack of rich data, may be rushed, or
uncomfortable disclosing personal information over the phone,
sampling
limited, monocultural, anti-depressants = overprescribed does this
mean that sample = representatives.

Hewitt (1991)
Aim
Method
Findings

To investigate dimensions of perfectionism in unipolar depression.

Compared levels of perfectionism in depressed and anxious patients, and

normal control subjects. Used multidimensional perfectionism scale
Depressed patients were differentiated from other two groups by higher
levels of self-oriented perfectionism. In both depressed and anxious patients
were characterized by elevated levels of socially prescribed perfectionism

193

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

Findings support usefulness of further research in the role of

perfectionism in clinical depression.
Strengths: Suggests self-oriented perfectionism may be linked to
depression
Limitations: Self-report data, does not give credit to individual factors
involved eg: personality, environmental factors etc.

Brown and Harris (1978)

Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate to what extent cultural an social factors may play a role in the onset of
depression in women.
Sample: 458 women in South London
Method: Women surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. Focused
on biographical details particular events or difficulties faced by women
Large effect of social class as measured by occupations of womens
husbands on the development of depression in women with children
Working class women with children = 4 times more likely to develop
depression than middle class women with children
8% of all women had been clinically depressed in previous year
Nearly 90% had experienced adverse life event or serious difficulty
30% who didnt become depressed had suffered from adversity
Only small no of women without adversity became depressed
Identified three major factors that affected the development of depression
Protective factors: protect against development of depression in
spite of stressors eg: high intimacy with husband. Leads to higher self
esteem and possibility of finding other sources of happiness
Vulnerability factors: increase risk of depression in combination with
stressful life events provoking agents. Eg: Loss of ones mother
before 11, lack of confiding relationship, more than three children under
the age of 14, unemployment
Provoking agents: contribute to acute and ongoing stress can
result in grief and hopelessness in absence of social support
New way of investigating depression with focus on individual experiences and
exploration of depression using semi-structured interviews
Provides in-depth understanding of the participants situation as they see
themselves
Increases reliability of results
Provided new methodological insights later applied to other studies
Only females interviewed can be generalized to men?
Relationship between stressful events and onset of depression might be
applicable to men
Self-report data
Impossible to determine extent of depression
Qualitative research not experiment not much control of variables
Conducted in South London this may be influenced by rigid class system
Individualist society: the way in which child rearing is conducted in this culture
means it may not be able to be generalized to collectivists.

Prudic et al (2001)
Aim
Method

To investigate the effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy in community settings

Participants: 347 patients at 7 hospitals

194

Psychology HL Notes

Findings

Conclusio
n

Method: Examination of clinical outcomes immediately after ECT administered

and over a 24-week follow-up period. Examination of patient characteristics and
treatment variables
Patient features and ECT administration differed, however clinical outcomes
did not.
Remission rates according to criteria = 30.3% - 46.7%.
Poorer outcomes associated with longer episode duration, comorbid
personality disorder, schizoaffective disorder their relapse rate = 64.3%
Relapse more frequent in patients with psychotic depression
Remission rates in community setting after ECT significantly less than
clinical trials. Often the opinions of the clinicians = patient has
benefitted often residual symptoms
Strengths:
Indicates the effectiveness of ECT (more so in certain settings), large
sample range, large time-range, ecological validity
Limitations:
Ethical considerations privacy and confidentiality, labelling.

Klerman et al (1974)
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To test the efficacy of treatment with antidepressants and psychotherapy, alone or in

combination
Participants: 150 females diagnosed with depression
Method: Patients divided into 4 groups: 1. Anti-depressant alone, 2.
Antidepressants and psychotherapy, 3. No medication but more psychotherapy,
4. Placebo and no psychotherapy
Results showed relapse rates highest for patients in placebo group alone
(36%).
Anti-depressant alone group = relapse rate of 12%, psychotherapy alone =
16.7%, combination of drug and psychotherapy = 12.5%
Strengths: Experimental method multiple conditions shows cause
and effect,
Limitations: No significant difference between drug therapy alone or
drug therapy in combination with psychotherapy, ethical considerations
deception in placebo condition, lack of consideration of significance
of culture or gender

Elkin et al (1989)

195

Psychology HL Notes
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the outcomes of depression treatments.

Participants: 280 patients diagnosed with major depression

Method: Participants randomly assigned to 5 conditions: an antidepressant drug
and normal clinical management, a placebo and normal clinical management,
CBT, IPT or antidepressant treatment. Treated for 16 weeks patients assessed
at start, after 6 weeks and after 18 months .
Reduction of depressive symptoms of over 50% in therapy groups and drug
group
29% recovered in the placebo group
No difference in effectiveness of CBT, IPT or anti-depressant treatment
Medication and clinical management = most effective for symptom
reduction severely depressed patients
There is no evidence to prove that serotonin is the/a cause of
depression
Strengths: Large sample, highly controlled showed cause and effect,
experimental method, extended time frame over which study
conducted
Limitations: Ethics placebo condition = not provided with adequate
treatment

Kirsch et al (2008)
Aim
Method
Findings
Conclusio
n

To investigate whether placebos are as effective as antidepressants in the treatment of

depression.
Review of 47 clinical trials involving drug therapies for depression.

Drug treatments for depression no more effective than placebos.

Anti-depressants should only by administered to severe patients, or

where other methods have failed
Strengths: Supported by other studies
Limitations: No new information

196

Psychology HL Notes

Psychology of Human Relationships

General Framework
To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural
factors infl uence human relationships?
- Use the information from theories of attraction here
Evaluate psychological research relevant to the study of
human relationships
- Toi and Batson is a good one to do
-

197

Psychology HL Notes

Social Responsibility
Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behaviour
Altruism

Altruism is a type of prosocial behaviour

It is prosocial behaviour without the expectation of benefit for
oneself
Evolutionary explanation:
o Behaviour that benefits other organisms but has some
costs
o Costs and benefits are measured in terms of
reproductive fitness
Social Psychology explanation:
o Subcategory of helping behaviour which is meant to
benefit another person rather than oneself (Batson and
Coke 1981)
Staub (1978): Altruistic acts may also result in reward for the
individual, eg: feeling good
Piliavin and Charng (1990): Claim psychologists have been
unable to agree on common definition

Altruistic Motivation

Debate over whether it does exist

People motivated to act out of concern for the welfare of
others despite the possible costs of actions
Batson (1991): Altruism is a motivational state with the
ultimate goal of increasing anothers welfare

Prosocial Behaviour

Acts intended to benefit others

Acts positively valued by society (Hogg and Vaughan 1998)
Can be any behaviour associated with the purpose of
increasing another persons physical or psychological wellbeing and has positive consequences for that person
Intentional prosocial behaviour sometimes known as helping
behaviour
There is often an desire of some benefit for the person
performing the action

Egotistic motivation

Sometimes people engage in prosocial behaviour for selfish

reasons, eg: to feel good about themselves
Many argue that this accounts for most prosocial behaviour
people desire to benefit from their actions
198

Psychology HL Notes
Answer requires:

Definition
Example
Understanding of difference

Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans

Kin Selection theory (Evolutionary theory)

Hamilton (1963): based on the idea individuals are more

likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non-relatives
o Sacrificing yourself for a relative is contributing to the
survival of your genes
Dawkins (1989): selfish gene theory suggests that what
looks like self-sacrifice may in fact be for the promotion and
survival of ones genes. Kin altruism is in fact egoism
Reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971): suggests that helping
behaviour among non kin has evolved as an alternative
system during evolution
o Supplements KST
o This theory based on strategy that altruistic acts are
returned (tit-for-tat) and therefore pay off in long term

o Sime (1983)
Richard Dawkins (1976): Selfish Gene theory

Proposes there is an innate drive to ensure the survival and

procreation of ones genes
According to this theory it is not the individual or group that is
the goal in the competition for survival but the genes

o Simons et al (1977)
Reciprocal Altruism

Trivers (1971) seeks to explain altruism among non-kin

Benefit of altruism if there is an expectation that it will be
returned. Could increase survival
Cooperative behaviour more likely to increase chances of
survival.

Evaluation of Kin selection theory

Strengths of Kin selection
theory
Supported by empirical
studies, which typically
show preference for
helping close relations
Mathematical computer

Limitations of Kin selection theory

199

The theory cannot explain why

people help people who are not
relatives, eg: spontaneous acts of
kindness
Human kinship patterns are not

Psychology HL Notes
simulations
demonstrate kin
selection as one of the
possible selection
processes in evolution

necessarily based on blood ties

shared developmental environment,
familiarity and social bonding also
contribute to kinship
Unclear whether the genetic
closeness is the actual factor
responsible for altruistic behaviour
Does not acknowledge free will

Empathy-altruism theory

Batson et al (1981)
Proposes that some helpful actions are truly altruistic because
they are motivated by a genuine desire to increase anothers
welfare
Batson believes that it is the helpers motives that determine
whether a behaviour is altruistic or not
Perception of the situation and the emotion that follows
determines whether an individual will help or not
Altruism can only happen if another persons perspective is
taken
Observing another persons situation can produce:
o Empathetic concern: positive emotions like sympathy
and compassion
o Personal distress: negative emotions
Empathy evokes altruistic motivation to reduce the distress of
another
Personal distress evokes egotistic motivation to reduce ones
own distress.

o 1. Batson et al (1981)
o Baston (1991)
Batson (1991)
Three factors facilitate perspective taking
1. The observer has ad similar experiences
2. The observer is attached to the victim
3. The person is instructed to imagine what it is like to be in
the victims position
Perspective taking produces altruistic motivation to reduce the
other persons distress
Evaluation: Problems in finding out whether the motive really is
altruistic or egotistic

o 2. Batson et al (1981)
o Oliner and Oliner (1988)
200

Psychology HL Notes

Oliner and Oliner (1988)

Interviewed rescuers of Jews in WWII

Situational factors eg: being asked to help
increased altruism
Only 37% said they felt empathy with Jews
52% did it because of moral values
Researchers argue personality factors also play
role in altruism

Evaluation of the Empathy-Altruism theory

Strengths
Theory supported by many
studies
Theories can predict
conditions under which
altruistic behaviour will
happen, eg: the more
people feel empathy for
others, the more they are
to help others

Limitations
Difficult to generalize
findings from experiments
Not possible to determine
whether altruism is the
result of empathetic
motivations, or motivation
to escape ones own
negative emotions
Empathy does not always
precede altruistic
behaviour people may
help for other reasons

Contrasting the theories

Kin Selection theory
Focus on genes that operate at a
biological level without human
consciousness. Theory largely
based on observation of animals
and insects
Altruism seen as a behaviour
that has a cost to the individual

Theory based on egoism

genes = selfish and humans
tend to favour those with a
closer genetic similarity
Theory can explain observations
of people who behave more

Empathy-Altruism theory
Focus on human emotion
empathy as the primary
motivating factor in altruism

Theory based on altruism which

is seen as a behaviour that
increases another persons
welfare
Humans can be truly altruistic.
Theory does not rule out
existence of an altruistic
personality
Can explain why people tend to
behave altruistically in situations

201

Psychology HL Notes
altruistically towards kin does
not explain why.

evoking empathy, but there is no

clear linear relationship. People
may feel empathy and choose
Also does not explain why people not to help
behave altruistically towards
non-kin
Difficult to test evolutionary
Easy to test the theory under lab
theories empirical support for
conditions, but it is difficult to
kin altruism eg: organ donation
operationalize concepts like
empathy
Answering the question

Kin Selection theory

Outline which two theories will be outlined
Introduce KST some of the underlying assumptions: selfish
gene and inclusive fitness
Research
Evaluate: is it effective, what does it actually measure
genetic or emotional closeness, what does it overcome
Trivers why do we help strangers this is linking to Kin
selection theory, but it explains why people may help non-kin.

202

Psychology HL Notes

Using one or more research studies, explain crosscultural differences in pro-social behaviour
The role of culture in pro-social behaviour (SCLOA)

Cultural norms, socialization practices in the family,

socioeconomic status factors influencing how and when
prosocial behaviour or altruistic behaviour is exhibited
Children learn cultural norms through observation and
reinforcement
Cultural dimensions eg: individualism and collectivism
influence degree to which children are encouraged to
participate in prosocial behaviour
Collectivists: value helping family members, meaning
children exhibit higher tendency to engage in prosocial
behaviour
Individualists: value personal success and competitiveness,
and children are likely to behave in a way that promotes
future personal success lower prosocial tendencies.

o Miller et al (1990)
Cross-cultural differences that affect pro-social behaviour
- Family
- Population density
- Economic status
Family

More involved children are in family life, the more they are
likely to help
If they have to do chores, they are more likely etc
Graves & Graves 1985: Found those with younger children
more likely to help

o Whiting and Whiting (1979)

Population density

Help more common in rural areas

Less common in big cities

o Levine et al (1990)

Economic Status

Helping rates tend to be high in countries with low economic

productivity
Levine found helping rates higher in cities with slow pace of
life
This was measured with walking speeds
203

Psychology HL Notes

This is probably because there is more importance placed on

social harmony

204

Psychology HL Notes

Examine factors influencing bystanderism

Bystanderism is the phenomenon of a person or people not
intervening, despite awareness of another persons need, the
phenomenon of remaining a bystander.
Murder of Kitty Genovese

1964
Attacked, raped and stabbed several times by psychopath in
New York
Number of witnesses claimed they had heard or seen
incident, but none intervened
Reported they did not want to be involved and that someone
else would do it

Darley and Latan (1968): bystanderism can be defined as the

phenomenon that an individual is less likely to help in an emergency
situation when passive bystanders are present
Latan and Darley (1970): Theory of the unresponsive
bystander

Based on cognitive evidence

The presence of others, or the perception that others are
witnessing an event will decrease the likelihood that an
individual will intervene
Psychological processes involved:
o Diffusion of responsibility: Responsibility is diffused
when more bystanders are present and this reduces the
psychological cost of not intervening
o Informational social influence (pluralistic
ignorance): If the situation is ambiguous people look to
others to see what they do
o Evaluation apprehension: Individual bystanders are
aware that other people are present and may be afraid
of being evaluated negatively if they react
o Audience apprehension: fear of social blunders

Diffusion of responsibility

Each individual in a group puts in less effort than if he or she

were acting alone. When in a group, a person contributes less
because everyone is sharing the responsibility of the task
(Pettijohn)
Manifests itself in:

205

Psychology HL Notes
o In a group of peers who, through action or inaction,
allow events to occur which they would never allow if
alone
o In hierarchical organizations as when., for examples,
underlings claim that they were following orders and
supervisors claim that they were just issuing directives
and not doing anything per se

o Darley and Latane (1968)

Pluralistic Ignorance
-

When in a group, people look to others to know how to act

Occurs only in situations that are not clearly an emergency
(ambiguous)
Called informational social influence
People cue their behaviour of others.
If people see others not helping, they wont help either
Informational influence (conformity)

o Darley & Latane (1968)

Social Loafing

A reduction in effort by individuals in groups as compared to

alone

Reasons for bystander effect

Onlookers
either
Onlookers
Onlookers
Onlookers

see that others actually or presumable do not help

believe others will know better how to help
feel insecure helping with others watching
tend not to act if there are more bystanders

Latan and Darley (1970)

Cognitive decision model

Helping requires the bystander to:
o Notice the situation
o Interpret the situation as an emergency
o Accept some personal responsibility for helping even
though others are present
o Consider how to help
o Decide how to help
present.

Cost-reward model - Pilliavin et al (1969)

The cost reward model of helping

206

Psychology HL Notes

Both cognitice (cost-benefit analysis), and emotional factors

(unpleasant emotional arousal) determine whether a
bystander will intervene in an emergency
Model focuses on egotistic motivation to escape an
unpleasant emotional state
Based on field experiment in NYs subway

o Piliavin et al (1969)

Situational determinants in helping behaviour

Number of bystanders
Plualistic ignorance
Ambiguity
Norms of society
Environmental location

Oliner and Oliner (1988): Dispositional factors and

personal norms in helping

Interviewed 231 Europeans who had participated in saving

Jews in Nazi Europe and 126 similar people who did not
67% of rescuers had been asked to help, either by a victim
or someone else. Once they had agreed to help, they
responded positively to subsequently requests
Results showed that rescuers shared personality
characteristics and expressed greater pity or empathy
compared to non-rescuers
Rescuers more likely to be guided by personal norms eg:
high ethical values
Rescuers often said that behaviour of their own parents had
made an important contribution to their personal norms

Factors in Bystanderism

Diffusion of responsibility
Pluralistic ignorance
Ambiguity
Decision making information processing and cost/reward
model
Culture
Gender
Nature of the bystander (characteristics)
Cost versus benefits of helping

Costs and rewards of helping

207

Psychology HL Notes

Exchange theory: Proposes that the decision to help is made

on rational grounds by calculatin the profits of intervening and
the costs of helping
If the costs outweight the benefits, then help is unlikely
Theory may be over-rationalistic, and ignore the emotions
aroused by distressed victims
Arousal: cost-reward model: Different kinds of helping
situations may cause different motives for helping (Piliavin et
al 1981)

Nature of bystander

Past reinforcement history of individual for helping behaviour

Level or moral development reached
Personality of he individual eg: empathetic
Similarity to victim
Individuals relationship with the victim
Mood of the bystander

Dispositional and situational factors

Dispositional
Nature of the bystander
Gender
Culture
Nature of the victim

Situational
Ambiguity
Pluralistic ignorance
Decision making
Diffusion of responsibility

208

Psychology HL Notes

Interpersonal Relationships
Examine biological, psychological and sociocultural
origins of attraction
Biological
Evolutionary Explanation 1: Neurobiology of love

Fisher (2004): Love is universal, and has 3 main motivations

o Attraction
o Sex drive
o Attachment
o Motivate courtship, mating, reproduction, and parenting
Attraction = equivalent to human romantic love in animals.
Characterized by:
o Increased energy
o Focused attention on a specific mate
o Obsessive following
o Affiliate gestures
o Possessive mate-guarding
o Motivation to win a preferred mating partner
Attraction motivates one to focus on and pursue favored
partner
Sex Drive: craving for sexual gratification has evolve to
produce offspring
Mutual nest building, grooming, maintenance of close
proximity, separation anxiety and shared parental
shores: characterizes animal attachment
Research into brain systems involved:
o Nucleus Accumbens: Reward center
o This structure contains oxytocin and vasopressin
o Explains physiological processes created by feelings of
love

o Fisher et al (2003)
Evolutionary explanation 2: Partner selection based on
genes

A natural selection favor couples with genes that mutually

enhance chance of offsprings survival
We select a preferred partner

o Wedekind (1995)

Men and Women

Both women and men are trying to reproduce successfully

209

Psychology HL Notes

Because of the physiological differences between them they

adopt different strategies
So they are looking for different things in potential
reproductive partner
Consequently, evolution predicts that they will find different
characteristics attractive
Evolution and mate choice

Women can have only a few offspring and invest a great deal
in time and energy and often their own health is compromised
Men can have virtually unlimited offspring and can get away
with little or no investment
Sexual selection suggests that men and women adopt
different mating strategies
o Male = relatively indiscriminate, interested in fertility of
mate
o Female relatively discriminating, interested in
availability of resources
Evolutionary hypothesis:
o Men are looking for women who are likely to reproduce
successfully young and physically attractive
o Women= older and financial resources
Natural Selection: Ability to survive in a particular
environment
Sexual Selection: Ability to attract/find a mate and
reproduce effectively
Investment and returns
o Reproduction requires investment of resources and
energy
o Poor evolutionary sense to waste resources must be a
return
o The greater the amount of resources, the harder an
organism will try to protect its investment

Anisogamy

Female invests more energy in reproduction than male

Thus, females adopt quality strategy selective
Males adopt quality strategy indiscriminate
Consequently
o Females choose from males on offer
o Males compete with each other to be chosen
True for many animals males and females different in
appearance Sexual diamorphism
Animal research important in this topic relate to biological
principle that animal research can be generalized to humans
210

Psychology HL Notes
Sexual Dimorphism

In many species males have characteristics to attract females

Males competing for female attention
Male sexual diamorphism:
o Can produce offspring with many women in short time
o Low energy investment in each gamete
o Does not carry offspring
o Lower arousal threshold
Female sexual diamorphism
o Can produce offspring with one an at a time
o High energy investment in gamete
o Carries offspring for 9 months

Is beauty a subjective quality?

Standards of beauty change over time

o In US, curvaciousness standards have changed with a
more boyish figure seen as more attractive today
o Playboy centrefolds 1953-2001: over time models have
become thinner and lower bust-waist ratios
Situational factors can influence judgements of beauty
o Liking increases ratings of attractiveness (Gross and
Crofton 1977)
o Love decreases ratings of attractiveness of non-partners
(Johnson and Rusbalt 1989)
o Men who viewed playboy and Penthouse rated wives as
less attractive than men who did not (Kenrick et al 1989)

Helen Fisher and LOVE - More contemporary research

Characteristic symptom of romantic love is obsession

Physiological symptoms indicate the release of biochemical
Argues brains hardwired through evolution
Attraction, sex drive and attachment all 3 symptoms
interact giving rise to the emotions, behaviours and
motivations we associate with love
Biochemicals identified:
o Testosterone
o Estrogen
o Serotonin
o Dopamine
Adrenaline high energy, more focus on potential mate less
on food and sleep
Serotonin Marazziti (1999) low levels of serotonin to those
found in people with OCD

211

Psychology HL Notes

Study on 20 ppl in early stages of love and suffering from

OCD. All had higher levels of serotonin in the blood while none
of the controls did correlational data
Argues romantic love is not an emotion but a motivation
system enabling mating
Evidence: fMRI scans show reward pathway in brain activated
in those who are in love

Hormones

Bowlby (1969) humans have innate system of attachment

behaviours
Oxytocin deepens and intensifies feelings of attachment
Vasopressin shown to have a role in long term commitment
for prairie voles
Both released during sex and allows mates to form a deep
attachment

o Buss (1989)
o Anderson et al (1992)

Criticism

Self report data

Langlois et al (2000): found physical attractiveness equally
important for men and women
Gender differences found in other studies have been criticized
for being small

Evaluation of Evolutionary explanations

Research indicates potential universal biological system

involved in attraction
Does not rule our importance of cultural factors
Data from BIT shows activity in specific brain areas
o Brain = complex
o Neuroimaging does not explain attraction
Evolutionary theory cannot explain attraction in homosexual
couples not motivated to produce offspring

Psychological/Cognitive

212

Psychology HL Notes
Similarity

Liking people who are just like us

Can be on basis of factors eg: ethnicity, race, social class or
age

o Markey and Markey (2007)

Burne (1971): Similarity Attraction Hypothesis

Assumes people likely to be attracted to individuals who =

perceived as similar
Share attitudes and values validation boost self-esteem
Well supported by research

o Newcomb (1961)

Reciprocity

We like people who like us

If you want others to like you, make sure they know you like
them
Dittes and Kelley (1956)
o Anonymous feedback to participants in a group
discussion about what the others thought of them
o Reported attraction to group members if they believed
they liked them
Processes involve: we feel validated by others liking and are
more likely to like them in return

Reward/Need satisfaction theory: Clore and Byrne (1974)

Proximity: Physical closeness we are social animals and need to

Morry (2007) Attraction Similarity Theory

When people attracted to others, perceive them as similar

and project own attitudes on to them
Prefer similar traits and attitudes in friends and partners
perception not always accurate
Perceived similarity = factor in attraction and relationship
satisfaction has psychological benefits and validates
ones views reinforcement.
be with others
Exposure and familiarity: Proximity increases possibility of
interaction (exposure) leading to familiarity.
Similarity: We like people who make us feel more confident of our
own opinions, which boosts self-esteem
Reciprocal liking: If you like someone who likes you, this is
rewarding

213

Psychology HL Notes

Physical attractiveness: We think attractive looking people have

better personalities

Halo effect

We assume attractive people have other attractive qualities

Eg: attractive people more likely to get job, less likely to be
punished harshly etc

Sociocultural Origins of Attraction

Proximity Factor: Physical closeness is important in
attraction

Suggests being in the presence of another individual will

enhance the probability of friendship.

Why does proximity work?

Availability: More likely to meet, so more likely to form a

relationship
Mere exposure: The more often people are exposed to an
object, the more positively they evaluate that object
humans like familiar things, which make them feel safe and
happy.

o Buss (1989)
o Festiger et al. (1950)
Evaluation of proximity

Provides minimum requirements for meeting and potentially

forming a relationship
Reductionist much more involved
Modern living = loss of community ties and growth of urban
centres

Discuss the role of communication in maintaining

relationships
-

Many psychologists agree that communication is essential

It allows couples to maintain level of trust and intimacy with
partner
Allows problems to be solved without conflict

Dindia & Canary

-

1993
Defined four types of relationship maintenance
o Keeping a relationship in existence
o Keeping a relationship at a specifies state (e.g. level of
intimacy)
o Keeping a relationship in satisfactory condition

214

Psychology HL Notes
o Preventing/correcting relationship problems
Canary & Dainton
-

2003
Describe communication as force that maintains relationships
Without it, relationships destined to be pulled apart by other
forces
Found even simple forms of communication aid maintenance
E.g. how was your day?
Because changes to this routine are noticeable and indicate a
problem
E.g. why do you ask?

Weigel & Ballard-Reisch

-

1999
Investigated link between length of relationship, satisfaction
and communication
New relationships involve explicit maintenance and high
satisfaction levels
This fades over time
Increases again towards later years of relationship

Weigel & Ballard-Reisch II

-

1999
Studied communication patterns across different marriage
types
Traditional marriages:
o Members see themselves as interdependent
o Communicate a lot
o Avoid issues or problems that may cause conflict
Independent relationships
o Communicate to negotiate or renegotiate relationship
o Confront issues rather than avoid them
o More freedom and egalitarian roles

Weigel & Ballard-Reisch III

-

1999
Aim: test differences in maintenance behaviour in different
marital types
Questionnaires completed by 141 heterosexual couples
Questions tested for positivity, openness, assurances, network
use and sharing tasks
Also used scales to determine type of marriage, satisfaction
and commitment levels
Findings
o Traditional marriages use most maintenance behaviours
o May be caused by expectations of dependence

215

Psychology HL Notes
o Separate marriages less likely to use openness and
assurances
o No significant difference in satisfaction
o Hints that high levels of communication not essential for
maintenance
Collins & Miller
-

1994
Disclosing something makes friends like you more
Also leads to self-validation (feeling of being truly understood)
Deeper mutual understanding allows partner to meets others
needs easily
Also a symbol of trust, which is important in attachment

216

Psychology HL Notes

Examine the role that culture plays in the formation

and maintenance of relationships
Cultural comparison
Individualist
Emphasizes rights, needs and
attitudes of the individual
Emphasis on voluntary choice
nonromantic love is
predicated on the idea that
finding someone you deeply
love is needed to fulfill ones
own needs
Discontinuous cultures: youth
and progress are emphasized
and change is seen as
inevitable and necessary
Therefore there may be an
increase in temporary and
increased divorce
Rules may be seen as less
important and if they are
broken another relationship
can be found

Collectivist
Emphasizes the group needs
and attitudes and duties to
the group
Less focus on voluntary
choice and emphasis on
marriage as a social contract
arranged marriages
Ie: Families are of a similar
status
Continuous culture:
emphasizes heritage,
tradition and respect for ones
elders wishes
Change is viewed with
suspicion
There is a greater likelihood of
adhering strictly and formally
to the rules of a relationship
because of the need to
maintain stability.

Formation of relationships

Duck (1999): Individualists assume that the free choice of a

spouse is based on romantic love, but in some societies,
marriages may be arranged for reasons such as: social
position, religion, wealth, opportunities and class
Moghaddam et al (1993): Interpersonal relationships:
o In Western Cultures tend to be individualistic
voluntary and temporary
o In non-Western Cultures: tend to be collectivist,
involuntary and permanent
In collectivist cultures, social networks motivate marriages
families play active role in choosing marriage partners. Love is
supposed to be discovered after marriage (Bellur 1995)

o Buss et al (1989)
o Levine et al (1995)

Maintenance of Relationships

Large proportion of marriages in the Western world end in

divorce
Divorce non-existent or rare in other cultures, eg: China

217

Psychology HL Notes

Arranged marriages usually last longer than romantic

marriages
Marriage in traditional societies is a contract between families
often involves economic and social engagements creating
powerful bonds between families, and making divorce
impossible

Gupta and Singh (1982)

Love based verses arranged marriages and happiness

Newly weds in India who married out of love
Reported more intense feelings of love than those who had
arranged marriages
At 5 years this was reversed
At 10 years there were more exaggerated differences

Spread of Western Culture

Mass media: Hollywood movies transmit the ideal of

romantic love to previously traditional cultures
Young people are especially influenced and more likely to
reject traditional values to emulate popular culture

Problems with Research

Due to prejudice and discrimination it is almost impossible to

obtain a representative sample
Unlike heterosexuality, homosexual individuals may hide their
sexuality, and be unwilling to share personal information with
researchers
Homosexual individuals volunteering for research may be
doing so to remove prejudice
Individuals may overemphasize the positives and underreport
the negatives
Must of the research was conducted over a decade ago
Societys attitude towards gay people may have changed
considerable in that time meaning that we have research to
support an argument
Some research compares homosexual to straight married
couples may be inappropriate
Little research into relationships of bisexual people may not
be appropriate to assume their relationship is the same as

218

Psychology HL Notes
either group may have been included in either gay or
straight research.
Assumptions: reflexivity

We need to be critical of our cultural and social lens

Homosexuality is a relatively modern construct by modern
definitions ancient romans and Greeks were bisexual,
despite the fact they did not have such a word and this
behaviour was considered the norm age and status were
more important factors.

Online relationships

Seek out others similar to us

Hultin (1993): found that initially, people seek out similar
individuals on the internet eg: ethnic origins
Just as in real life, if significant differences in attitudes and interest
were discovered then communication became shorter and less
frequent, before being ended all together

219

Psychology HL Notes

Analyse why relationships may change or end

How relationships are maintained

Two influential theories:

o Social exchange theory
o Equity theory
These are referred to as economic theories as they assume
that couples calculate costs and benefits and investments

Social Exchange theory (Kelley and Thibaut 1959)

Relationships are maintained through a cost benefit analysis

The costs of the relationship must not outweigh the benefits
The more one invests in a relationship, the more one expects
greater returns
Balance must be maintained for a relationship to survive
Social exchange theory

Four states that long-term relationships go through:

220

Psychology HL Notes
Social
theory
Thibaut

exchange
(Kelley and
1959)

Rusbult
that

1983: Found
costs are only
calculated after
honeymoon

the
phase

Simpson
Found that
participants
were dating
members of the
sex as less
attractive,
they close
themselves off
attractive
alternatives
Evaluation
Simplistic
Mechanistic
approach how
you define costs
and rewards
exactly
Cannot quantify
the point of
dissatisfaction

1990:
who
rated
opposite
showing
from

o
o
do
o

Equity theory: Hatfield (1979)

Study of over 2,000 couples

Predicts that a couple is happiest when benefits and casts are
balanced
Explanation for infidelity

Walster et al (1978)

Balance achieved more through perceived fairness, as in the

matching hypothesis.
Inequity results in striving to restore balance or in dissolution
This theory is similar to social exchange, but attempts to
quantify what makes a relationship fair

221

Psychology HL Notes
Hatfield et al (1972)

Hatfield interviewed over 500 students about equity in their

relationships
Three months later, the inequitable relationships were more
likely to have ended
Evaluation
o Equity may be maintained by matching any attractive
characteristics, such as looks, money or status
o Individual differences individuals low in exchange
orientation dont bother about equity
o Demand characteristics reflecting on relationships may
change perspectives on them
o Cultural differences: equity is not a norm for all cultures
some countries do not promote equal relationships
o Temporal validity nature of relationships has changed
o These two theories are called economic theories

Why does an equity type relationship break down?

People try to maximize their rewards and minimize negative

experiences within a relationship
The distribution of rewards is negotiated to ensure fairness.
This may be achieved through trade offs or compensations
Unfair (inequitable) relationships produce dissatisfaction
As long as the loser feels there is a chance of restoring the
balance (equity) they are motivated to save the relationship

Evaluating social exchange and equity theory

Social exchange theory tends to see relationships as

snapshots at one point in time whereas they are dynamic
and constantly changing
This theory sees people as calculating and selfish
The theory doesnt take into account the social context of the
relationship eg: arranged marriages, religion, parenting,
health, traditions
The communal couple: giving is motivated by concern and
positive regard for the other they give to meet each others
needs not expecting anything in return shared
responsibility for relationship
The exchange couple: As in social exchange certain
amount of score keeping is evident. Expect a return on their
investment cost benefit analysis of relationship give, but
expect same in return
Evidence equity is not the same for everyone (Hatfield) may
be more important for females
222

Psychology HL Notes

Murstein at al (1977) equity may only be a problem in

troubled relationships

Cultural bias in economic theories

Lacks cultural relativism ethnocentricity

Moghaddam (1993): concluded that western relationships
were generally:
o Individualistic
o Temporary
o Voluntary
Non-Western relationships tended to be:
o Collectivist
o Obligatory
o Permanent
Era dependent: social structures and norms change over
time
Assuming heterosexuality: Most research conducted on
heterosexual couples cant be applied to homosexuals
Ethical problems: What if no one wanted to date you
Difficult to generalize from tasks conducted in artificial
environment
Self report data: perceptions of how people might behave,
or what people think they value, not naturalistic

Reasons

Conflict on an issue
Breaking agreed rules
Dissatisfaction or boredom
Lack of stimulation or novelty
Attractive alternative relationship
Perceived changes in relationship
Interference form others
Abuse alcohol, sexual, monetary
Changes in one partner
Falling out of love
Saving face

Factors leading to the breakdown of relationships:

Environmental Factors
Individual factors

223

Psychology HL Notes
Inter-personal Factors

Enviromental
Factors

InterPersonal
Factors

Factors
leading
to
Breakdo
wn

Individual
Factors

Environmental factors:
Physical Environment
Distance lack of
proximity
Hardship lack of
resources

Social Environment
Field of availables
Family and friends
competition for intimacy
and attention.

Interpersonal Factors
Boredom
Lack of stimulation
Reduction in stimulation

Conflict
Rule breaking
Compromise difficulties
Conflict maintenance

Individual factors
Background (DUCK)
Difference in demographic
background
Marriage at early age
History of lack of
relationship commitment

Lack

224

of social skills
Coping strategies
Conflict avoidance
Emotional expressiveness

Psychology HL Notes

Low socio-economic or
education level

Duck (1981): causes for relationship breakdown

Predisposing personal factors, eg: personal habits or emotional

instability
Precipitating factors
o Exterior influence (rival, family etc)
o Process/behavioural management features eg:
incompatible working hours
o Emergent properties of relationship that cause decline eg:
relationship got too intense
o Attributions of blame

Lees sequences of Separation model (1984)

Based on survey on 112 romantic break ups of premarital

couples. Following stages identified:

In some cases, stages are missed. Some go from

Dissatisfaction to termination.
Exposure and Negotiation tend to be the most intense,
exhausting and negative aspects of the experience

225

Psychology HL Notes
Duck (1999) Model of relationship breakdown

Strengths of Ducks Phase model

Addresses cognitive not just behavioral aspects of

relationships
The theory has practical implications for the repair of
relationships and looks at strategies to repair relationships

Weaknesses of Ducks phase model

Descriptive rather then explanatory

Riding and doesnt allow for individual differences

Similarities between the models

Models show that there is a process to dissolution of

relationships not sudden
Identify stages where things start to go wrong
Lee has greater emphasis on the early stages, especially the
painful stages of exposure and negotiation
Duck focuses on the beginning and end stages, and impact
when the relationship is over.

Rule violations

Argyle and Henderson (1984): 160 participants aged 17-34

were asked on the dissolution of friendships
o The most critical rule violations were jealousy, lack of
tolerance for a third party, disclosing confidences,
publically criticizing the person and not volunteering to
help

226

Psychology HL Notes
o Individual differences: Women identified emotional
support, younger participant public criticism, over 20s =
lack of respect or request for personal advice.
Karney and Bradbury (1995): Vulnerability-stress-adaptation
model

Enduring vulnerabilities
High neuroticism, unhappy childhood
Stressful events
illness, employment and poverty
Adaptive processes
Destructive and constructive coping
strategies to resolve difficulties
Communications

4 communication factors that predict marital satisfaction

o Criticism
o Contempt
o Defensiveness
o Stonewalling withdrawal from relationships
Negative communication patterns

o Gottman (1973)

Culture
Arranged marriages built on different premise not enough
evidence to show they are any less likely to end
What to include in a response:
Duck, Lee, Gottman, culture
Possible questions:

To what extent do biological/cog/SC factors influence the

breakdown of relationships

227

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss cognitive, biological/sociocultural factors involved in

the breakdown of relationships
Evaluate one or more research studies related to the
breakdown of relationships

228

Psychology HL Notes

Violence
Evaluate sociocultural explanations of the origins of
violence
Sociocultural explanations

Inter-group conflict theory

SIT self categorization theory
Deindividuation
Cultural norms
Social Learning Theory
Cultivation theory
Bullying

Deindividuation

Making someone anonymous and taking away distinctive

individual characteristics
Milgram study didnt see the person they were shocking
couldnt form connection with them
Deindividuation makes it easier for people to mistreat others
as they do not give them personal characteristics.

o Bartholow (2006)

Inter-group conflict theory

Sherifs Robbers Cave (1956)

Explains violence as demonstrates conflict between groups
when resources are scarce

o Sherif (1956)

Cultural norms

o Cohen (1996)
Social Identity Theory self categorization theory

Tajfel (1970)
The mere existence of groups is enough to cause conflict

Social Learning Theory

Vicarious reinforcement: Seeing someone behaving in a

certain way, and being rewarded or no given consequences
makes you more likely to carry out that behaviour
Theory focuses on observational learning and modelling
Can be applied to explain the development of aggression and
intergenerational transmission of violence through
socialization
229

Psychology HL Notes

Effect of SLT can be:

o Direct: via instructions
o Indirect: through role models and no direct instructions
Children growing up in violent families and neighborhoods
may be likely to see violence as a legitimate means of getting
what they want
This can apply to modelling violent behaviour
o Charlton et al (1999) Saint
Helena Study

Evaluation of SLTs explanation of violent behaviour

Strengths of SLT in relation
Limitations of SLT in relation
to violent behaviour
to violent behaviour
Social norms of violence
SLT cannot explain how
can be transmitted from
structural factors eg:
parents to children as
factors such as poverty
predicted by SLT
contribute to establishing
social norms of male
SLT can also explain that
superiority
adolescents use violence in
The theory does not take
marginalized social peer
groups because it pays off
individual factors such as
in the form of status
intelligence and
personality into account
Some people may be more
prone to violence eg: due
to brain damage from child
abuse

o Bandura and Ross (1961)

Bullying parental influence

Enron (1987) found parents of bullied are more authoritarian,

using very strict, often physical methods of punishments
Social schemas
Teaches them violence is an effective and normative way to
meet goals

SCLOA Principles

Violence can be linked to SCLOA principles.

The social and cultural environment influences individual
behaviour
We cant connectedness with and a sense of belonging to
others
We construct out conceptions of the individual and social self

230

Psychology HL Notes

BLOA explanations

Neurotransmitters serotonin
Hormones testosterone
Localisation of function prefrontal lobe and amygdala

Hormones

Testosterone
Bernhardt (1997): positive correlation between high levels of
testosterone and antisocial behaviour in males of low socio
economic status
o Lurking variable: low socioeconomic status.
Serotonin
Bernhardt (1997) proposed a combination of serotonin
(makes people irritable) and high testosterone (dominance
seeking behaviour) can result in depression

BLOA principles

Patterns of behaviour can be inherited

Animal research may inform our understanding of human
behaviour
Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are products of the
anatomy and physiology of our nerves and endocrine systems

o Raine et al (1997)

Cognitive Origins

Cultivation theory media

Inner working models Bowlby
Theory of threatened egotism

Inner working models Bowlby

Inner working models are personal and social schemas or

scripts which guide our view of self and other people and how
to behave in social situations
Information processing
Influences how we respond to situations and judgments we
make about other peoples motivation and behaviours.

Cultivation theory media

Gerbner et al (1994)

231

Psychology HL Notes

Media gives children a perception of a world that is more

hostile than it is in reality
Teaches them violence at some level is acceptable
Develop scripts that problem can be solved through violence

Theory of threatened egotism

Baumeister and Buchman (1998) argues when someone

threatens, questions or undermines ones self concept those
with inflated, tenuous or unstable forms of high elf0esteem,
are more likely to act aggressively

Ideas on how to approach the question

-

There is a relationship between all factors eg: the presence

of biological factors may be increased by Socio cultural
factors
Evaluation of how SC factors explain violence there are
other factors that can have an impact eg: biological
theories

232

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss the relative effectiveness of two strategies

for reducing violence
What is violence?
The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual,
against oneself, another person, or against a group or community,
that either results in or had a high likelihood resulting in death,
psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation (WHO 2002)
Strategies for reducing violence

Developing empathy
Cooperation
Developing social skills
Equal status contact
Teaching social skills
Anti-bullying programs
The Olweus Bullying prevention program

Includes all staff, parents and students in the school (universal

programme)
Aims to change school environment as a whole while targeting
individual students
Teachers receive training so that they can recognize and deal
with bullying and implement cooperative learning strategies in
the classroom.
Includes supervision of playgrounds and lunchroom
Students fill out questionnaires
Aims to identify bullies in all areas of school and help them
and their victims
Adults should be positive role models and set firm models of
unacceptable behaviour.
Counselors conduct therapy with bullies and their parents
Programme has reduced bullying by 50%

Olweus (1993)
Aim: To investigate the effect of the Olweus Bullying Prevention
Program on bullying
Method: Conducted in Bergen, Norge, after 3 adolescents committed
suicide as a result of bullying. 2,500 children from 5th to 8th grades
participated in program over 2 years. Data collection through
observations and questionnaires

233

Psychology HL Notes
Findings: 50% reductions in self-reported bullying incidents
victimization or bullying. General improvement in social climate of
the class. Self-reports showed higher satisfaction with school life,
improved order and discipline more positive social relationships, and
a more positive attitude towards schoolwork and school in general
Conclusions: Indicates high level of effectiveness of programme, but
not all studies find the same
Strengths: large sample, conducted over 2 years, rich data
Limitations: Roland 1993 could not replicate findings in another part
of Norway suggests the technique is dependent on the people
who participate, and their culture, norms and engagement with the
programme, conducted after 3 adolescents committed suicide
may have had stronger desire for change, limited age and specific
location

Black (2007)
Aim: To investigate the effectiveness of OBPP in USA schools
Participants: 13 inner city schools in one urban school district.
Method: Program ran for 4 years, but only 9 schools completed it
Findings: Not all schools followed programme ave fidelity = 48%,
bullying incidents decreased 25.5% in all schools. The drop may
have been due to increased supervision in all schools. Number of
students self-reported bullying incidents
Evaluation of effectiveness of Olweus

Issue with generalizability

o Research conducted in Norway
o Norway already emphasizes communitarian norms
some cultures which are less communitarian also require
chance in cultural norms
Policies of programmes may only be effective ef everyone is
aware of them and committed to change, including parents
Research is qualitative, therefore there are possible researcher
biases or Hawthorne effects
Research cannot measure whether the methods are effective
outside of school
This strategy does not directly address violence
What about cyberbullying??

234

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusion: Antibullying programmes have been shown to be

effective and are important at all grade levels

Jigsaw Classroom
-

Developed by Aronson 1978

Reduces violence by reducing prejudice
Works on concept that prejudice leads to violent behaviour
Children work together to achieve common goal
Conclusion: probably quite effective

Aronson
-

1978
Found jigsaw classroom results in:
o Higher self esteem
o Better liking of classmates
o Some reduction in prejudice
o Minority group members blamed for slowing down faster
students
o This confirms prejudices rather than reducing them

Strengths of Jigsaw classroom

-

Emphasises collective norms, reducing bullying

Found to lower bullying rate
Increases positive interaction

Feschbach
-

1982
Trained some junior school children in empathy skills
To recognise feelings of others and share their emotions
Found those with empathy training were less aggressive in
everyday playgroup activities

Limitations of jigsaw classroom

-

Possible researcher bias or Hawthorne effect

Research about 20 years old

Vreeman
-

2006
Found that classroom discussions, role-playing and detentions
are ineffective in changing violent behaviour
235

Psychology HL Notes
-

Whole school interventions and social workers most effective

^^ Especially in high school

236

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss the effects of short-term and long-term

exposure to violence***
Short-term effects
Cahn
-

2006
Found short-term effects of violence on children
o Increased levels of anxiety and depression
o Feelings of fear, anger, grief and shame
o Increased risk-taking and early sexual activity
o Diminished school performance
o Increased risk of learning difficulties
o Increases levels of aggressive behaviour

Olweus
-

1992
Categorised short term and long term effects of violent
bullying
Short term
o Anger
o Depression
o Higher rate of illness
o

Long-term effects

Bullying
Domestic violence
General violence including murder
Cahn (2006): describes the short-term effect that witnessing
and experiencing violence can have on children:
o Increased levels of anxiety and depression
o Feelings of fear, anger, grief, shame, distrust and
powerlessness
o Increased risk of suicide
o Increased risk-taking, school truancy, early sexual
activity, substance abuse and delinquency
o Diminished school performance
o Increased risk of learning difficulties such as dyslexia
o Obedience problems, more lying and more cheating at
school
o Problems maintaining relationships with others
o Increased likeliness to respond to conflict aggressively

237

Psychology HL Notes
Long Term effects

Can be difficult to trace causal connection between exposure

to violence and potential long-term effects:
o Potential for boys to become abusers later
o Increased likeliness that girls who enter violent
relationships will tolerate violence
o Continuing depression for both males and females and
low self-esteem in females
Male perpetrators more likely to come from home where they
experienced or where exposed to violence
Correlational studies so cannot show a causal link
Impact on adults: PTSD

Rhodes et al (2002): Intimate partner violence and possible effects

on mens mental heath
Aim: to find out what mental health problems are present in people
involved in intimate partner violence (IPV)
Sample: 122 men mostly of African-American descent, visiting a
trauma centre in public hospital for non-urgent treatment
Method: Asked to use computer to complete 20 min health
assessment questionnaire contained items concerned with IPV,
depression, traumatic stress, suicidality, substance abuse and
general

Kidscape survey
Aim: To determine the effect of bullying in school on later life
Participants: 1000 adults, some self-selecting and others randomly
selected in street. 70% women, 30% men, 49% non-bullied =
women, 51% = men. All aged 18-81,
Method: Questionnaire 16 questions, with room for extra detail.
Questionnaire for adults who were bullied and adults who werent
compared
Findings: Majority had left school at or before 16, 40% of bullied
respondents said bullying had affected plans for further education,
for many, bullying started between 7-13, with highest levels
occurring at around 11-12. Most thought they were bullied because:

Shy

238

Psychology HL Notes
Too short/tall
Good or bad looking
Not interested in or bad at sports
Sensitive and cried easily
Parents divorced, died or in prison
Smart/stupid
Minority race or religion
Skinny/fat
Talented at music, art or poetry
Poor/rich
Posh or lower class accent
Wrong clothes.
Bullying lasted ave 2-6 years, some more, most bullied by child the
same age or older, 61% were bullied by member of same gender,
34% by both. Among men, 75% were physically bullied, 85% were
verbally bullied, 30% excluded or ostracized, women: 62%
physically, 93% verbally, 60% excluded or ostracized. 66% told
someone they were being bullied but this only helped the victim in
8% of cases. Bullying made men angry and frustrated, women felt
depressed, scared and vulnerable, however now all are
predominantly angry about the situation. 46% contemplated suicide
and 20% attempted. Bullying more likely to cause women to
struggle to trust people and worry about new situations and
potential success. Men more likely to feel uncommunicative and shy.
Bullying shown to significantly reduce self-esteem in adults, and
increase difficulty in making friends. 36% had been bullied later in
life, however 64% were not

Strengths:
Limitations: Women may be more likely to share emotional
information

BULLYING
Short-term effects

Olweus (1992):
o Ander
o Depression and higher rates of illness
o Lower grades than non-bullied peers
o Suicidal thoughts and feelings

239

Psychology HL Notes

Olweus (1992): Correlation between bullying and loe self

esteem and depression
Elliot and Kirkpatrick (1999): surveys 7000 UK students.
20% of hose who were bullied had attempted suicide
compared to 3% who were not bullied
Long-Term effects

Lingering feelings of anger and bitterness

Difficulty trusting people
Fear/avoidance of new social situations
Increased tendency to be a loner
Low self-esteem
Deville (2002): brain development of adolescent hamsters.
Stress reactions cortisol stress hormone
o Known that chronic oversecretion leads to cognitive
impairment in memory
However there are significant limitations to this research as applied
to humans.

240

Psychology HL Notes

Human Relationships Studies

Simons et al (1977)
Aim

To investigate whether close relatives are more likely to volunteer as kidney donors

Method

Questionnaire

Findings

86% of parents said yes, but only 47% of siblings said yes.

Conclusio
n

Strengths: Can be used to predict altruistic behaviour

Limitations: Self-report data, artificial, low ecological validity, does not completely
support kin selection theory
Additional Research:
Potential kidney recipients asked to rate their emotional closeness to all
possible donors before choice of donor made.
Recipients generally felt very close to 63% of all donors, but 42% of potential
non-donors
If sibling was the donor, they were more likely to be closer in age and of the
same sex
-

1. Batson et al (1981)
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate the empathy-altruism model.

Carol = student talked about her car accident and broken leg.
Students were given a letter asking them to meet with her and share their
lecture notes.
Condition 1: told to think about how carol was feeling.
Condition 2: told not to be concerned with her feelings.
4 groups: High empathy in Carols class, low empathy in Carols class, high
empathy not in Carols class, low empathy not in Carols class
Participants from the high empathy model were almost equally likely to help
Carol, whether she would be in their class or not.
Participants from the low empathy group were more likely to help if they
thought Carol would be in their class.
When participants had listened to the recording of Carol with empathy, they
were just as likely to want to help her, whether it was in their best interests or
not.
Strengths: Confirms the empathy-altruism model, has been consistently
replicated with the same results, deductive research approach only studies
the one specific theory, EV in the sense that this could happen, like a field
experiment in a natural setting
Limitations: Artificial situation artificially created scenario, interpretation of
results did not take personality factors into account, study only looked at short
term altruism, it is difficult to measure a persons level of empathy, Batsons
model does not explain why some people show more empathy than others.

241

Psychology HL Notes

2. Batson et al (1981)
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate participants motives to help when they had the opportunity to escape.

Participants:
Female students in an introductory psychology class at uni
Method:
Participants tested individually. Filled out questionnaire prior to experiment
about themselves.
Participants made to believe they were an observer in a test where another
student was being tested in the recall of digits.
Descriptions of the participant (Elaine) were manipulated so that real
participants could either identify with Elaine (high empathy) or not (low
empathy).
Participants watched Elaine over a close-circuit TV (actually pre-recorded).
After 2 trials she was given electric shocks her actions demonstrated they
were painful.
Participants asked if they would be willing to help Elaine by taking her
place.
All participants given placebo drug, but told misleading information
manipulating idea of feeling empathy for the person. 2 conditions:
Easy Escape Situation: Participants could either take Elaines
place or fill out a questionnaire
Difficult Escape Situation: Participants could either take Elaines
place, or watch her going through 8 more trials
Participants required to make a choice. This was the end of the experiment
and participants were debriefed.
High empathy condition: most participants agreed to help Elaine, regardless of
ease of escape.
Low empathy condition: Most participants withdrew in the easy escape
condition.
When it was difficult, some preferred to offer help this could support negative
state relief model.
Strengths: Clever manipulation of operationalized variables
Limitations: Demand characteristics, participants were psychology students
may have guessed the aim of the experiment, impossible to rule out whether
this demonstrates not true altruism but egoism, ETHICS, are they really
manipulating empathy? Artificiality would you ever be in this situation.

Whiting and Whiting (1979)

Aim

To compare prosocial behaviour in six cultures, as a result of child-rearing practices.

Method

Findings

Naturalistic observation.
Researcher observed children between ages of 3 and 11 in 6 different
countries (Kenya, Philippines, Japan, India, Mexico and USA) during daily
interactions with other people
Consistent differences in level of prosocial behaviour in studied cultures
Mexico and Philippines more prosocial than India, USA and Japan.
Most prosocial children = Kenyan (esp from traditional, rural areas), most
egotistic = USA (most complex and modern society).
Important difference: how much children participated in household chores and
caring for younger children most prosocial cultures tended to live together in
extended family groups, with great emphasis on role of females, who in turn
delegate responsibilities to their children

242

Psychology HL Notes

Conclusio
n

In cultures eg: USA where children are paid to do housework or dont do it at all,
prosocial behaviour levels = much lower.
The degree of modernization influences prosocial behaviour, as it influences
child-rearing practices. Cultural dimensions, ie: individualism and collectivism
also play a significant role.
Strengths: Cross-cultural validity, high EV (naturalistic observation)
Limitations: Limited generalizability results demonstrate there are a
number of factors specific to the particular area a child lives and the
environment in which they grow up, limited age range unclear whether
this behaviour continues into adulthood, or if the child moves elsewhere,
correlational data.

Levine (1990)
Aim
Method

To investigate helpfulness towards strangers cross-culturally.

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants: participants from 36 large cities in US and 23 large cities across

the world
Method: Independent field experiments in each city investigated helping
situations
Pedestrian drops pen without noticing
Pedestrian with leg brace drops magazines
Blind pedestrian with can waits at traffic light of assistance to cross
street
Providing someone with change when asked
Mailing a stamped addressed letter than appears to have been lost
In the US, people in small and medium sized cities in the South-East were the
most helpful
Research indicated the greatest predictor of helpfulness was population density
When replicated in 23 cities
People tended to be friendly in towns compare to big cities
Cities with a higher population density were less helpful
Cities with low purchasing power per citizen tended to be more helpful
than cities with high purchasing power per citizen
Helping rates were higher in cities with less stressed people and in
cultures that valued social responsibility
Overall helping rates, examples:
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 93.33
Copenhagen, Denmark 77.67
Shanghai, China 76.67
Stockholm, SWEDEN: 72
New York, USA 44.67

Cities have different culture of helping behaviour

Helping behaviour seems to be affected by a multitude of variables
The individualism-collectivism dimension is not a good predictor of helping
behaviour
Population density is the best predictor of helping behaviour
Evaluations
Helping norms of a city may vary during different time periods
There were many exceptions to the general rule
Helping strangers ma be risky in many cities (eg: scams)

243

Psychology HL Notes

There are many possible confounding variables in the field experiments

The experiment has high external validity
Other factors could be involved, however no data was collected on the
topic

a. Latan and Darley (1968)

Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences peoples helping

in an emergency situation.

72 students (59 female and 13 male) participated for course credit.

Asked to discuss king of personal problems new college students have in an
urban area.
Each sat in a booth with headphones and a microphone were told the
discussion took place through an in intercom to protect the anonymity of
the participants.
At one point, the other participant (confederate) staged a seizure.
IV = number of people the participant thought listened to the discussion,
DV = Time it took for the participant to react from the start of the fit to the
time they contacted the experimenter.
The number of bystanders had a significant impact on the participants
reactions. In the alone condition, 85% went to report seizure, only 31% reported
when they believed that there were 4 bystanders. Gender did not make a
difference. Students also completed questionnaire describing their reaction to
the experiment:
18/65 did not know what to do
26/65 did not know what was happening
20/65 thought it must be some sort of fake.
Factors influencing bystanderism in experiment: Ambiguity about the situation
and thinking other people may intervene
Strengths:
Limitations: Ethics distress and deception, participant bias (psychology
students who wanted course credit), artificial and low EV could only hear the
victim.

b. Latan and Darley (1968)

Aim

To investigate the pluralistic ignorance.

244

Psychology HL Notes

Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

Subjects sat in a room filling in a questionnaire, when smoke was pumped

into the room. Conditions: alone, or with others

Subjects left alone in the room reported smoke 75% of the time, subjects in
groups of 3 reported smoke
38% of the time, subjects in groups of 3 with 2 confederates reported smoke
10% of the time.
Behaviour of true subjects: as clouds of smoke filled room, they continued
working on their questionnaires, coughing, rubbing their eyes, and waving
fumes away from their faces, but did not report the problem.
Attributed the smoke to non-emergency situation come thought was air
conditioning vapor or truth gas
Multiple bystanders, especially if they are passive, can reduce aid by creating a
shared illusion that nothing is wrong. Therefore, it can be concluded that people
look to others to understand situations.
Strengths: EV in the sense that smoke is a realistic occurrence, supports
pluralistic ignorance,
Limitations: Low EV in that the other participants were confederates,
participants may have believed the gas to be part of the experiment, Ethics,
esp in individual condition situation may have caused trauma, lack of
consideration for cultural differences.

Piliavin et al (1969)
Aim
Method

Findings

The aim of this field experiment was to investigate the effect of various variables on
helping behaviour.
Field experiment
4 different factors: type of victim (drunk or ill), race of the victim (black or
white), presence of helping models (present or absent), the size of the
witnessing group
Teams of students worked with a victim, a model helper, and observers. The
IV was whether the victim was drunk or ill, and black or white
DV: frequency of help, speed of help, race of helper, sex of helper,
pavement out of the area, verbal comments
Situation: non-stop 7.5 minute journey in subway carriage
The group performed a scenario where the victim appeared dunk or ill
Participants were subway travellers who were observed when the victim
staged a collapse on the floor for a short time after the train left the station
had to stay on the ground until helped
Model helper required to intervene after 70 seconds if no one else did
Frequency of help: 93% helped spontaneously before the model, 60% of
which involved more than one helper. Help was so spontaneous the effect of the
model could not be measured
Diffusion of responsibility: none found
Type of victim: the ill victim more likely to receive help than the drunk victim.
100% help for the cane victim, but 81% for drunk victim.
Race: Tendency for same race help, especially in drunk condition
Gender: Men significantly more likely to help victim
Length of emergency: the longer the emergency continued without help
being given:
The less impact the model had on other bystanders
The more likely the bystanders were to leave the area
The more likely it was that observers would discuss their behaviour

245

Psychology HL Notes
Conclusio
n

Researcher did not find support for diffusion of responsibility. They argue that
this could be because the observers could clearly see the victim and decide
whether or not there was an emergency situation. Piliavin et al found no strong
relationship between the number of bystanders and speed of helping, which is
contrary to the theory of the unresponsive bystander.
Strengths: Higher EV than lab experiments low artificiality, has produced a
theoretical explanation of factors influencing bystanderism, culture is a factor
used black and white actors, gender also considered male and female actors,
rich data
Limitations: Ethics Distress to passers by, and members of the public who
helped, also no informed consent, methodological weaknesses conditions are
under less strict controls in field experiment, inconveniencing bystanders.

Fisher et al (2003)
Aim

To investigate the neural mechanisms associated with the attraction system.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants: 10 women, 7 men, 18-26, reported being in love for ave 7.5
months
Method: Filled out questionnaire to investigate how felt about relationship
Passionate Love Scale. Placed in fMRI scanner: 1) looked at photo of
partner, 2) distraction task counting backwards, 3) looked at photo of
neutral acquaintance. 6 repeats
Looking at lover = increased activity in dopamine rich brain areas linked with
reward, motivation, goal orientation (ventral tegmental area, caudate nucleus).
Suggests certain brain circuits dedicated to attraction and romantic love. Same
circuits associated with addiction therefore concluded romantic love =
addiction.
Strengths: Supports evolutionary theory and biological origins of
attraction, Experiment shows cause and effect
Limitations: Small sample, reductionist, does not take into account other
factors eg: cult..

Wedekind (1995)
The sweaty t-shirt experiment
Aim

To investigate mate preference based on genetic makeup in relation to immune system

function.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants: 94 students 50% male and female

Method:
Focus on MHC genes in immune system to protect against pathogens.
Men asked to sleep in same t-shirt for 2 nights and then keep in plastic
bag.
Not allowed to wear perfume or eat spicy food. Women asked to rate
how agreeable they found the smell of the shirts smelled 7 shirts: 1
control, 3 from men with similar immune system, 3 from dissimilar.
All women at mid point in menstrual cycle
Women preferred odors of men with dissimilar immune system.
Supports the evolutionary explanation of mate selection: search for genetic
make up which complements your own to increase health of potential children
Strengths: supports theory, large sample size, generalizability, controlled

246

Psychology HL Notes
what they ate to reduce impacts on their smell
Limitations: Reductionist does not take into account other factors in
attraction no physical contact

Buss (1989)
Demonstrates differences in the desirability of certain traits between genders and
cultures
To determine desirable characteristics in a mate from a number of different
Aim
backgrounds.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Asked to record age, gender, marital status, at what age they wanted to marry,
how big an age gap between selves and partner, how many children they want,
importance of characteristics eg: job, looks, chastity, etc, and most desirable
characteristics in partner eg: looks, wealth etc.
Gained 37 samples from 33 countries, using similar sampling techniques.
Good looks men prefer important in Bulgaria and Nigeria
Age all preferred male to be older
Financial prospects 36/37 women rated higher than men Netherlands and
Britain lower high in Indonesia and Nigeria
Ambition 34 female samples rated higher than men
Chastity Scandinavia = irrelevant important in China and Indonesia
Strengths: cross-cultural data, high ecological validity
Limitations: Relatively small sample per country difficult to generalize
Provides evidence for: Difference in attractive features between genders
and cultures

Anderson et al (1992)
Shows the effect of culture on mate selection, contradicting evolutionary theory (in
evolutionary theory all results would be the same)

Aim
Method
Findings

Conclusio
n

To study female body size preferences in 54 cultures

Questionnaire on female body size preferences (men responded) in 54 cultures.

Correlational data obtained. Cultures devises into groups according to reliability
of food sources.
Food Supply
Preferen
Very unreliable Moderately
Moderately
Very reliable
ce
unreliable
reliable
Heavy
71%
50%
39%
40%
Body
Moderat
29%
33%
39%
20%
e body
Slim
0%
17%
22%
40%
Body
Strengths: Provides contradicting evidence to evolutionary explanation
of mate selection, large sample scope generalizable, high ecological
validity
Limitations: Does not take into account other factors eg: face, other
body parts etc
Provides evidence for: inaccuracies in evolutionary theory influence of

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Psychology HL Notes
culture on perception of attractiveness

Markey and Markey (2007)

Aim

To determine whether romantic ideals, romantic attainment and relationship

experience were similar traits in partners.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Participants: Self-selected sample, 103 female, 66 male undergrad students,

single but interested in finding a romantic partner, ave age 19.01.
Method: Recruited through ads. Completed questionnaire to rate own
personality and that of romantic ideal. Filler questionnaires to disguise true
purpose of study.
All participants wanted a romantic partner similar to themselves.
People believe that similarity in a potential partner = most important, but ideal
partner = difficult to find
Follow up study: Found romantic couples who experienced high levels of
love and harmony were more likely to consist of one individual who was
dominant and one who was submissive. Indicates role of
complementarity
Strengths: large sample
Limitations: unequal sample, contrasting evidence in follow up study,
self-report data, low EV

Newcomb (1961)
Field study of attitude similarity and liking.
Aim
Method

Findings
Conclusio
n

To investigate if students friendship formations were influenced by attitudes and

values.

Participants: 17 male students

Hypothesis: people were attracted to each other would perceive themselves and
similar in attitude
Method: Field study. Students offered rent-free accommodation in return for
filling out questionnaire before arrival and several times during study.
Found students with similar attitudes became friends similarity in race and
socio-economic background also important.
Strengths: Supports theory hypothesis proven, field study increases
ecological validity
Limitations: Small sample size, reductionist, self-report data, presence of
incentive may have attempted to please researcher.

Festinger et al (1950)
The role of proximity in friendship patterns
Aim

To investigate formation of friendship patterns at Westgate Housing for student

couples.

248

Psychology HL Notes
Method

Field study. Researchers made observations and interviewed residents regularly.

Findings

Proximity or opportunities to bump into each other regularly increases chance of

friendship.
After few months, more than 10x more friendships in building, esp with ppl
living next door
Suggests physical proximity increases opportunities for interaction and
increases familiarity
Zajonc (1968): mere exposure effect enough to increase liking
Most attracted to people who are similar reassuring
Geographical proximity may still be factor internet and dating sites have lead
to increased importance of psychological proximity

Conclusio
n

Levine et al (1995)
Aim

To investigate the role of culture in perceptions of relationships.

Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

Asked young people in 11 countries if they would marry someone they didnt
love, but had all the qualities they desired.

Found more people in collectivist countries said yes, and Individualist cultures
more likely to say no. Examples:
USA = 4% said yes, Australia 5% said yes (individualist)
India 49% said yes, Pakistan 51% said yes (collectivist)
Strengths: cross-cultural validity, support role of culture in relationship, gender
validity.
Limitations: artificial situation, limited generalizability personal choice, selfreport.

Gottman (1973)
Aim

To determine the importance of communication in maintaining relationships

.

Method

79 couples videotaped observation.

Findings

Stable marriages correlated with more positive comments and unstable

relationships with greater negative than positive comments
19% unstable couples divorced within 4 years v 3% of stable couples
Suggests communication patterns is a leading factor in relationship breakdown
or survival
Methodology: Gottman based his evidence on observations, which he argues
provides richer and more reliable data than self-report measures typically used.

Bartholow (2006)
Aim

To compare the brain response of habitual players with those who do not play violent
games.

249

Psychology HL Notes
Method
Findings
Conclusio
n

Compared brain response of habitual players with those who do not play violent
games choosing to focus on the component of the event related brain
potential.
Found reduced brain response in those used to game violence and argued that
this study is the first to link violent game playing to brain processes.
Strengths: supports the role of violent video games in desensitizing people
Limitations: No causal links tenuous evidence

Cohen (1996)
North and South
Aim
Method

To test whether there was a difference in readiness to commit acts of violence between
individuals from the north or south of the US.

Participants: 83 uni students: 42 Northerners and 41 Southerners

Method:
Fill out questionnaire which they had to take to table at the end of a corridor.
As the participant returned seconds later and walked back down the hall
toward the experimental room, the confederate slammed a file drawer shut
on seeing the participant and bumped into the participant, calling the
participant an "asshole."
Two observers stationed in the hall ( one male one female) - Immediately
after the bumping incident, the observers rated the participant's emotional
reactions on 7-point scales.
After the participant returned to the room, judgment tasks began.
The first task was a word completion task, in which the participant was given
a string of letters (e.g ight or gu_) that he could complete either in a hostile

250

Psychology HL Notes
way (e.g., fight or gun) or a nonhostile way (e.g., light or gum).

Findings

Conclusio
n

Emotional Reactions
Northerners and southerners differed in how angry or amused they
appeared to be after the bump.
Observers rated northern participants as significantly more amused by the
bump than southern participants, and southern participants tended to be
more angry than northern participants.
Protective Hostility
The insult did not significantly affect either southerners, t(39) < i.2,p> .25,
or northerners
Strengths: used a range of methods (triangulation). Participants were thourally
debrief afterwards and asked to rate how angry the felt.
Limitations: results from the emotional reactions were judged by observers and
my have been influenced by researcher bias, whereas the more controlled
protective hostility showed no significant difference. Small sample size.

251

Psychology HL Notes

Sherif (1956)
Aim
Method

To study informal groups to observe natural and spontaneous developments of group

organization and attitudes.

Conclusio
n

Sample:
Boys aged 11-12 picked by a long and thorough procedure
interviews with family, teachers, school officials, and observation of
medical reports, personality tests and observation of them playing.
All healthy, socially well adjusted, above ave intelligence, from stable,
white, protestant, middle-class homes. Homogenous sample to prevent
possible conflict on basis or race or class. Boys did not know each other
Method: Field Exp. Participants unaware they were in experiment believed
were at a camp (researchers = camp staff)
Experiment carried out in regular camp games and activities
Recorded behaviour, sometimes using cameras and microphones
Part 1:
Observed development of group structure
Boys housed in large bunkhouse could choose own buddies
After few days, all split into 2 groups separated any best friends
Given challenges camp outs, hikes, athletics etc
Both groups divided p tasks and duties
Findings: Leaders emerged, each group developed own jargon, jokes,
secrets and ways of performing tasks. Maintained social control through
ridicule, threats, ostracism. Groups selected own names and symbols
The Eagles and The Rattlers
Investigating Social evaluations
Target practice no marks on board observing boys judged accuracy
Board really wired to show accuracy
Findings: Well-liked boys accuracy overestimated and vice versa
All boys asked to name friends in group those named most = highest
status, and those named least = lowest status
Findings: One group had 2 clear leaders, and other had a leader, and
some with intermediate status this group better at tasks.
Second part
Conflict introduced through games
Started well, and then rivals began name-calling etc
Turned on previous friends
Gave neg ratings to boys in other group
Raids etc between groups
Findings: Hypothesis proven when two groups have conflicting aims,
their members will become hostile to each other even though the
groups are composed of normal well adjusted individuals. Difficult to
bring groups together without violence.
Third Part
Subordinate goal established for both groups
Series of urgent natural situations eg: Interrupted water supply, truck
break down
Findings: New friendships formed groups actively seeking
opportunities mingle. Less negative ratings, and hostility disappearing.
Strengths:
field experiment (conducted in real life higher ecological validity),
rich data (not just ne set of quantitative data also used
observations to gather qualitative data),
methodological triangulation (various methods used),

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Psychology HL Notes
Limitations
some variables couldnt be controlled (couldnt control weather or
behaviour of staff),
use of qualitative data could lead to confirmation bias lack of
reflexivity used in interpretation,
use of deception (ethics),
Confounding variable (time spent together may have caused
friendships not just situation), sample bias boys only difficult to
generalize to general population {if used girls, there would have
been some natural tension and the establishment of in and out
groups based on gender},
Cultural bias (only one culture used American) {the use of one
culture would also prevent the formation of groups on the basis of
groups}

Charlton et al. (1999)

Saint Helena Study
Aim
Method

To investigate the impact of TV introduction on a remote community

Findings
Conclusio
n

Sample: School-age children on St.Helena, a small island in the Atlantic.

Study began 2 yrs before TV was connected to the island.
Researchers used questionnaires and parent/teacher reports to gather info
about childrens behaviour.
Behaviour in the playground was observed, specifically the level of aggression
displayed by children.
Researchers monitored how much TV watched, content analyzed this and also
monitored how much violence was watched.
Video cameras placed in classrooms and playgrounds to measure aggression.
No increase in antisocial behaviour.
Good behaviour from before maintained for 5 years of study
No significant increase in rate of behavioral problems.
The study suggests TV did not have any significant effect on childrens
behaviour.
Community control and surveillance from parents may have been a
contributing factor.
Strengths:
Natural experiments have greater realism than a lab exp. The
researcher does not set up the situation- it happens naturally.
Cameras used were DISCREET therefore the children acted naturally
because they did not know they were being watched.
Limitations:
Relying on parent/teacher reports means results may be biased.
Children may have acted more aggressively but the community did
not want to report this in order to stop a negative view of the island.
Playground violence could be stopped quickly as well.
Psychologists have reported that the programs watched were not the
same as mainland TV.
Small community allows parents to have a high level of control over
their children. The impact of TV may have been greater in a less

253

Psychology HL Notes
isolated place.

Bandura and Ross (1961)

Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models
Aim
Method

Findings

Conclusio
n

To investigate whether children who are passive witnesses to aggressive behaviour

displayed by an adult will imitate this behaviour when given an opportunity.

Sample: 36 boys and 36 girls between 37 - 69 mean age 52 months. One male adu
and one female adult = role models.
Independent Variable: three IVs for each of the conditions, there were three IVs
boys opposite-sex model, girls with same-sex model or girls with opposite sex model
Dependent variable: Whether imitated aggressive behaviour
Method:
Experiment Uses observation to collect quantitative data list of violent ac
and counted how many times participants did these
Three conditions control group, group exposed to aggressive model, group
exposed to passive model.
Children exposed to passive model subdivided by gender and gender of mode
exposed to.
Pretested for aggressiveness judged on 4 five point ranking scales physic
aggression, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects,
aggressive inhibition. Results used to group children into similar groups.
Children tested individually exp room set out on one side as play area with
articles selected for childs interests.
Other side = tinker toys, table, mallet and Bobo doll
Stage 1: Non-Aggressive condition male and female models for male and
female children model assembled tinker toys quietly ignored Bobo
Stage 1: Aggressive condition started assembling toys, then began attacking
Bobo physically and verbally experimenter returned and took child out aft
10 mins
Stage 2 mild aggression arousal child started playing with nice toys, and
then told were experimenters best toys and reserved for other children
Stage 3: variety of toys aggressive (crayons, bears) and non-aggressive
(mallet peg board, dart gun, bobo) stayed for 20 mins behaviour observed
through one-way mirror observations every 5 seconds 240 per child
Measured:
Imitation for physical and verbal aggression and also non-aggressive verbal
responses.
Incomplete imitations mallet aggression, sitting on bobo
Non imitations punching Bobo, other physical and verbal aggression,
aggressive gun play
Those exposed to aggressive model made more aggressive acts - Boys more
aggressive than girls
Boys in aggressive condition most aggressive with male model
Girls in aggressive condition more physically aggressive with male models, an
more verbally aggressive with female models
Children looked more favorably to male aggressive model how a male
expected to act
All results = opposite for when punching Bobo
We can learn aggressive behaviours by copying others, especially those
like us
Strengths: strong correlational evidence supporting social learning

254

Psychology HL Notes

theory aggressive behaviour can be learned

Limitations: Small number of children in each group, results could be
distorted if one group contained children who were normally quite
aggressive, rating scales for organizing groups children may have
been ranked differently by different people, aggressive female =
confusing didnt fit stereotype, aggressive male fitted stereotype,
ethics long term effects on children?, artificial situation, children wer
not blank slates already had pre-existing beliefs and stereotypes.

255

Psychology HL Notes

Qualitative Research Methodology

Theory and Practice in Qualitative Research
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data

Quantitative data is usually in the form of numbers

They are easy to summarize and use for statistical analysis
Qualitative data is gathered through direct interaction
Data consists of text
Not easy to analyse

Qualitative
Word/descriptive data
Rich detailed data

Quantitative
Numerical data
Ranked/categorization/reduce
d data
Reliable/generalizable (larger
sample)
Objective

High ecological validity

Subjective involvement
(inevitable so reflexivity
= important)
Process may be inductive
(generate a theory)
Multiple realities/truths

Process is deductive (test a

theory)
One reality/truth

Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative

approach to research

QR used to understand world as participants see it -> reality

changes with peoples perceptions -> linked to constructionist
(people each construct own reality no one reality) and
phenomenological approach (peoples subjective reality
important)
Focus on design and procedures that mimic everyday set up
-> rich data

Strengths
Rich data -> subjective
info for interpretation
Useful for complex and
sensitive issues
High EV -> real life
situations
Generates new ideas
and theories for real
life probs
Researchers and

Limitations
Large amount of data to
analyse
Time consuming esp: with
triangulation -> takes place over
long period
Difficult to generalize few
participants
Interpretation of data = subjective
-> reflexivity and credibility
checks reduce bias
Participant expectations ->
256

Psychology HL Notes
participants interact
for long time

reflexivity and credibility checks

reduce bias

257

Psychology HL Notes

To what extent can findings be generalised from

qualitative studies?
Generalizability the degree to which the findings can be
generalized from the study sample to the entire population key goal
of psychological research
Not often possible potentially under some conditions if
other studies confirm the findings
Few participants
Selection criteria for sample not representative
Need to understand subjective experience of participants
Transferability of data need to record demographics eg; urban,
rural, socio-economic diversity etc
Often not intended to be generalized one off
Lewis and Richie (2003) three forms of generalization
Statistical generalization -> generalizing findings to the general
population -> problems with generalizing findings to general
population
Representational
Generalization

Inferential
Theoretical
generalization or
Generalization
transferability
Findings from Findings from a study Theoretical concepts
developed in study can be
a study can be can be applied to
setting outside the
used to develop
applied to
study
inferences and further
populations
theory
Findings can be
outside the
transferred to similar Can inform further research
study
settings
and programs to address
Goal of data transferability
these problems (eg: social
analysis
support etc)
understand
Yin (1989) suggests
participants
generalization from a single
subjective
case study is dependent on
experience
methodology and richness of
the description.
Example:
Example: Results
Example: Theory and
Interview data
from a pilot study on theoretical concepts
from a study of
female victims of
developed on what might be
homeless people
domestic violence
effective problem solving in a
in city X and in
using support
particular area (eg:
city Z have similar services -> could be developing resilience in
findings
transferred to similar homeless adolescents could
settings eg: shelters help start shelter for them)

258

Psychology HL Notes

259

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research

Ethical Issue
Informed Consent

Protect participant
from harm

Anonymity and
confidentiality

Potential
exploitation of
participants

How to deal with it

Participants must understand what the
study will involve and volunteer to
participate
Should be able to understand info given
before during and after study
If informed consent cannot be given
(impacts research) ethics committee
must give consent
Covert Participant Observations Must
consider whether obtaining data is
justified -> esp if dangerous for
researcher or participants
Could research harm participant?
Clear and direct questions for sensitive topics
Observe participants for signs of discomfort or
stress
Protect participants from consequences of
participating
Follow-up research on participant wellbeing
Full anonymity in most cases full informed
consent if
otherwise
Research material destroyed and transcripts
anonymized
Use reflexivity and consult other researchers
when researching socially and psychologically
vulnerable participants
Consider whether findings are based on
deception and covert observation for sensitive
issues can be justified -> assess whether is
invasion of privacy

o Protection from physiological/psychological harm

o Confidentiality

260

Psychology HL Notes

Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to

qualitative research

Researchers aim to get a sample to get a sample that is

representative of the target population that they are interested in
Select participants who are particularly informative about
the research topic -> generalization not as important
The following 3 are not necessarily relevant for
qualitative studies:
Population all the cases in a group, from which samples
may be drawn for a study
Target population Group of all possible cases from which
it is hoped a sample can be taken
Random sample A sample that fairly represents a
population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
-> not necessarily appropriate for qualitative methods
Research objectives and characteristics of population of
interest influence choice of sampling method
Possible methods: purposive, snowball, convenience
Purposive Sampling:

Individual characteristics used as basis of selection ->

reflect diversity of sample population
No set number of participants -> continue to test until
have enough data for theory
Selection based on salient characteristics eg:
socioeconomic status, gender, age, attitudes, social roles, specific
experiences etc
Strengths
o Participants represent research topic -> selected
specifically based on relevant salient characteristics
o Relatively easy -> can be supplemented with more
participants during research
o Can increase ability to generalize to a wider
population
Weaknesses
o Can be biased sampling -> combat with objective
selection criteria
o Difficult to generalize from small purposive sample
Snowball sample

Participants already in study can help recruit other

participants for study
Used when difficult to recruit participants (eg: drug addicts
etc)
261

Psychology HL Notes

Strengths
o Cost-efficient and easy
o Useful in sensitive research -> participants not easily
accessible
Weaknesses
o May be biased -> participants know each other and
have same
o Ethical issues eg: anonymity and confidentiality
Opportunity/Convenience Sampling

Chosen on basis of availability

Those who accept are volunteers
No need to search for participants
Not recruited based on any population -> cant generalize
Strengths
o Easy and cost-efficient way to recruit
o Quick way to collect data
Weaknesses
o Likely to be biased
o Research likely to have low credibility and poor
information

262

Psychology HL Notes

Explain eff ects of participant expectations and

researcher bias in qualitative research

Reality co-constructed by researcher and participants

Participant expectation participant factors influencing research eg:

expectations of outcome, correct behaviour etc

Researcher bias researcher factors eg: beliefs or values which

could impact data & interpretation

Strauss and Corbin (1998) Bias in qualitative research is not only

inevitable but also desirable -> if researcher and participants both
actively involved in research, adds value

Potential effects of participant expectations

o Previous knowledge of research could impact behaviour ->
behave out of natural order
o May attempt to please researcher
o May not agree with researchers interpretation of data -> eg:
self-preservation
o Participants in qualitative research bring individual perceptions
or ideas -> influence research process and results
o Participants may behave how they believe they are expected to
behave
o May try to be consistent in answers -> previous statements
influence later ones

Potential effects of researcher bias

Influence of own ideas, beliefs, values and attitudes -> subjective

expectations

Researcher = primary instrument of research -> major influence ->

use reflexivity and be aware of subjectivity

May not pay enough attention to social process and participant

experience

If process takes long time, researcher may change attitude to

project and participants -> affect data

Could accidentally give unexpected answers

263

Psychology HL Notes

264

Psychology HL Notes

Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative

research

Credibility did the study measure what it was intended to

measure?
Should be possible to check how studies results obtained
Trustworthiness -> used to judge quality of research
Linked to participant expectations and researcher bias ->
changes in attitude to project and participants could affect
data -> role of researcher, potential influences, etc should
be taken into account -> reflexivity
Credibility depends on:
o Triangulation alternative methods of data collection,
which provide similar evidence
o Researcher reflexivity researcher explains how
individual bias can effect research
o Cross checking facts and discrepancies
o Results checked by other people
Decision Train document all decisions and data collected

Explain the effect of triangulation on the

credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research
Methodologica
l Triangulation
How

Use different
methods in the
same study

Effe
ct

Bias reduced
Credibility
increased
Takes
advantage of
strengths of
different
research
methods
Compensate
s for
methodologi
cal
limitations

Data
Triangulatio
n
Comparison
of data from
multiple
sources
-

Researcher
Triangulatio
n
Use more
than one
researcher to
collect and
analyse data
Bias
- Bias
reduced
reduced
Credibility - Credibility
Increased
increased
Provides
- Counteract
additional
researcher
sources to
bias
describe
interpretat
phenome
ions
non under
discussed
investigat
ion

265

Theory
Triangulation
Use several
perhaps
competing
theories to
analyse data.
- Bias reduced
- Credibility
increased
- Understandin
g of concept
more credible
- Could reveal
contradictions
in data
- Prevent
researcher
bias

Psychology HL Notes

Triangulation multiple procedures used to provide

evidence on a certain topic -> provides a true picture
o Based on assumption that comparing data obtained
from different methods or different researchers in
same setting = possible method of overcoming bias
o 4 types of triangulation methodological, data,
researcher, theory
Credibility evaluation of whether research findings
provide a credible, true interpretation of data
To remember ways of triangulating MethoD I T
o Methodological
o Data
o Investigator/Researcher
o Theory
Strengths of triangulation

Reduces experimenter bias

Increases validity of results
Gives a broader and complex causation model of
behaviour
Makes research process transparent
Increase understanding of phenomena multiple methods
Reduces likelihood of method-bound theories requires
multiple methods to produce results.
Reduce culture-bound theories theories based on
observations of one culture.
Limitations of Triangulation

Cost
Time
Researcher availability
Some areas do not adapt to different methods
Possible order effects in some forms
May result in different outcomes cannot rely on results.

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Psychology HL Notes

Explain reflexivity in qualitative research

Reflexivity = strategy used by qualitative researchers to explain how

subjectivity contributes to findings
o Reduce researcher bias from interpretations
o Researcher = instrument -> should be able to document
phenomena as experienced by those in investigation

Need credibility -> dependent on factors eg: training, experience,

status and presentation of self

Reflexivity - Information about both researcher and participants

considered & all possible effects on data

Requires self-awareness and critical reflection on process and

conclusions
o Personal reflexivity reflect on way in which values,
experiences, interests, beliefs, political commitment, aims in
life, and consider how research could impact participants
o Epistemological views on the world regarding knowledge
itself and how things work.

267

Psychology HL Notes

Interviews
Evaluate semi-constructed, focus group and narrative
interviews
Semi-constructed
-

Pre-determined questions are used

However, no set order or wording
Same information obtained, but with flexibility to obtain extra
information
Advantages
o Researcher can ask participant to elaborate
o Less biased by researchers perceptions
o Flexibility and structure
o Allows for analysis in variety of ways
Disadvantages
o May bring ecological validity into account
o Data analysis is time consuming
o Participants outside normal situation

Focus Groups
-

Group processes help people explore and clarify views

Aims to initiate group discussions
Participants supposed to react like they would outside a study
Advantages
o Quick, convenient way to collect data from many
participants
o Provides natural setting (high ecological validity)
o Useful for exploring knowledge and experiences
Disadvantages
o Not appropriate for all research questions (sensitive
issues)
o Presence of other participants may results in conformity
o Can be participant that dominates conversation

Narrative Interview
-

Based on assumption that people are storytellers

Sees how people impose order on their experiences
May be life-story or focus on particular event
Stories usually have a before, during event and end (looking
back)
Advantages
o Explores complexity of individual experiences and how
these relate to social contexts
o Provides in-depth understanding of how people
construct meaning in their lives

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Psychology HL Notes

o Can be used with all people everyday language and

talk freely
Disadvantages
o Transcribing data is difficult
o Analysing data is difficult

Discuss considerations involved before, during and

after an interview
-

Before
o Which sampling method should be used?
o Training of the interviewer to avoid bias etc.
o Choice of interviewer
o Interview guide base questions written
o How will data be recorded?
o How will data be transcribed?
o Briefing of participants must be prepared
During
o Establish a rapport with participants
o Effective use of interview guide
o Active listening technique
o Protection of participants
o Withdrawal from investigation
After
o Accurate analysis of data
o Unbiased analysis of data
o Searching for limitations within the study

Explain how researchers use inductive content

analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts
1.
2.
3.
-

Grounded theory
Finds specific categories in data
Descriptive labels are given to discrete instances in data
Low level categories emerge
High level categories emerge when lower levels are integrated
into meaningful units
Allows researcher to study social processes
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
Based on identification of themes
Analysis is not based on an existing theory
Analysis based on interpretation of participants experience
1. Reading and re-reading of transcript
a. To become familiar with each participants account
b. Notes produced about initial observations
2. Identification of emergent themes
a. Themes are picked that characterise each section
b. Emerging themes called raw data themes
3. Structuring emergent themes

269

Psychology HL Notes
a. List all emergent themes to see if they relate
b. Clusters are given labels
4. Summary table of structured themes
a. Only includes essential themes
b. Includes cluster labels, quotes and references to
extracts

Observations
Evaluate participant, non-participant and naturalistic,
covert and overt observations
Participant Observation
-

Where observer takes part in situation being studied while

undertaking research
Aims to gain intimate familiarity with area of interest through
personal involvement
Purpose to develop scientific understanding of the group
Advantages
o Combines emic and etic dimensions
o Provides detailed data that cannot be otherwise
obtained
o Good method to avoid researcher bias
(As researchers seek to understand how and why
social processes are the way they are)
o Provides holistic interpretation of a topic
Limitations
o Very demanding on the researcher
o Difficult to record data promptly and objectively
o Time-consuming
o Risk that researcher loses objectivity
o Deception may be involved

Non-participant Observation
-

Observer is not part of situation being studied

Advantages
o Obtains clear picture of social interactions
o Can observe natural behaviour
o Good to observe small group or individual interaction
o Gives access to natural settings
Limitations
o People may act differently when they are observed
o Deception may be involved
o Expensive and time-consuming

Naturalistic observation
-

Observations takes place in participants natural environment

270

Psychology HL Notes
-

Researchers avoid interfering with behaviour they are

observing
Advantages
o High ecological validity
o Can be used to collect data where it otherwise may be
impossible or unethical
Limitations
o People may react to being observed
o Demanding on the researcher only one may miss
some information
o Ethical considerations covert observation may be
unethical

Overt observation
-

The participants are aware they are being observed

Advantages
o More ethical than covert observation
o Data may be openly recorded
o Problems of blending in are avoided
Limitations
o Hawthorne affect
o Demand characteristic
o Influence of observation on behaviour

Covert observation
-

The participants are unaware they are being observed

Advantages
o Researcher may gain access to social groups that may
not permit study
o Avoidance of problems such as Hawthorne affect,
demand characteristics and changed behaviour due to
observation
Limitations
o Ethical issue of informed consent
o Deceit is used
o Stressful for the researcher to remain covert
o Harder to record data as must be hidden

Discuss ethical considerations involved in

setting up and carrying out an observation

Observational experiments
o Exploratory goals
o Descriptive goals
o Evaluation goals

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Psychology HL Notes
Before the experiment
Factors to be considered in early preparations
o Learn about topic
o Defocusing clearing mind of notions about the
research topic essential for credibility
o Decide exactly what to observe helps to reduce
researcher bias, and increase understanding of the
setting
o Understanding of any potential biases on the part of the
researcher
Researcher must select a site
o Site and group must provide richest data
o Unfamiliar site, esp for ethnography reduce
researcher expectations and increase credibility
o Must be safe and accessible
Decide on researcher role
o Continuum between objective and involved
o Participant Observer blend in with natural
environment to conduct covert or overt observations
o Non-participant observer conduct overt observations
and do not blend with natural environment
Ensure access to site
o Gatekeepers people with authority to give researcher
access to site
o Informants translators
o Both can introduce bias into observations or
interpretations
Gaining access to site for planning
o Access ladder (Neuman 2006)
o Gain access
o Gather public data
o Maybe pay first visit
o Establish and maintain good relationship with
participants.
Carrying out an observation

Building and maintaining rapport

o Being involved in the experiences and emotions
of participants
o Participant expectancy participants behaviour
changes during the experiment
Some get used to researchers presence
Freeze outs (Neuman) unwilling
participants
o Familiarity can reduce credibility of study

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Psychology HL Notes

Collecting quality data

o Thick descriptions
o Take extensive descriptive notes reduce
researcher bias in reconstructive memory
Take descriptive notes
o Notes should be able to be checked and rechecked increase credibility
o Jotted Notes taken in the field, often in
shorthand
o Direct observation notes taken as soon as
possible, without having been discussed with
others
o Inference notes for interpretations
o Analytical memos decisions about how to
proceed
o Maps and diagrams who, where etc prevents
important details from being overlooked
o Reflexive journal record personal biases and
feelings.
Use an appropriate sample
o Initial observations direct the rest of the study
After the observation

Conduct interviews with main participants discuss

data and interpretations, to give participants
opportunity to provide input on credibility
Check and recheck results with other researchers
Debrief participants

Other considerations

Deception
Confidentiality
Competence of the researcher researcher must know how
to conduct an observation ensure critically analyse all other
variables.
Reflexivity acknowledge bias, and any possible influences
of cultural etc schemas use reflexive journal to record
biases
Multiple perspectives of interpretations eg: participants
review your interpretation of the data.
Participant expectations and bias
Researcher expectations and bias
Sample

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Psychology HL Notes

Discuss how researchers analyse data

obtained in observational research
Data Analysis
IPA method Interpretative phonological Analysis
o Accepts responsibility of gaining access to
individuals world
o Aims to explore research question from
participants perspective
o Acknowledge that results are experimenters
interpretation
o Encourages reflexivity and examination of
researcher role
o Process of IPA
Read and re-read observational notes.
Reflect, comment and question create
first impressions
Identify and name specific themes that
emerge from notes label with psych
terms
Structure created for general themes
clusters naturally emerge
Create summary tables with supportive
quotes etc from notes.
o Limitations
Relies on language used to construct
rather than describe experience
subjective
Descriptive v explanatory focus on
describing individuals experience rather
than seeking causes
Grounded theory data categorized categories are
analytic or interpretative not descriptive. Similar to IPA,
but no pre-determined categories
o Creates higher order themes
o Designed to develop new theories from data
Differences between IPA and grounded theory:
o IPA developed by psychologists, but grounded
theory created by sociologists
o IPA involved reflexivity acknowledges
interpretation of data = subjective
o Grounded theory data not seen as open for
interpretation researcher merely reports data
Orange Text Book Notes

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Psychology HL Notes

Inductive methods eg: grounded theory

o The progressive identification and integration of
categories of meaning from data
o Create theory from identifying, refining and
integrating categories and themes
Key strategies in grounded theory:
o Thick Descriptions: lead to quality analysis
provide both qualitative and quantitative data
o Creation of categories: categories formed around
common observations usually low level of
abstraction. Continued data analysis produces
higher levels of abstraction analytic rather
than descriptive
o Constant comparative method: Consideration of
both similarities or differences among all
categories enables creation of new categories
and subcategories
o Negative Case Analysis: Researchers always
looking for cases that do not fit existing
categories may create new ones.
o Theoretical saturation: Data coded into new
categories use constant comparative method
until no new themes emerge

Data Collection (not sure where this goes)

Data recording choose appropriate type of recording

method
o Frequency grids Nominal data as a tally chart for a
variety of behaviours
Quick, easy and efficient
Little info provided by nominal data
o Rating Scales scores ordinal level data for behaviour
indicate degree this is shown
Provide more info on behaviour
Requires researchers opinion introduced
subjectivity
o Timing behaviour
High accuracy
Loss of descriptions of behaviour
Behavioral sampling methods
o Event sampling key behavioral events recorded
Limits behaviours observed reduced
chance behaviour in question will be
missed.

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Psychology HL Notes
Difficult to observe all incidents of key
behaviour over large areas may overlook
other behaviours
Time Sampling behaviour observed for discreet
periods of time
Reduced amount of time spent in
observation increase accuracy
Behaviour may be missed if random time
samples not taken across day
Point Sampling the behaviour of just one individual in
a group at a time is recorded.
Increase accuracy of observation and
number of behaviors recorded.
Miss behaviours important for
understanding an individual.
Mainly use qualitative notes as means of recording
data and information
o Hand written notes or coding system
o Recordings audio or video (sometimes hidden
camera)
o One way mirror in labs
o Covert may have to use hidden cams/recorders,
may also have to use later
Qualitative Data Analysis
o Gained from interviews, case studies,
experiments
o Describes how subjects behaved and spoke
transcripts, quotes or commentary
o Describes info lost in quantified analysis of
figures
o Interviews after experiment can reveal cause
of subjects behaviour and help inspire future
research
o Research method in own right
o Can also create in depth analysis about meaning
of behaviour, not just frequency
o Can be checked for reliability and validity, eg:
triangulation, repetition
o Subjective opinion and participant consultation
should be separated.

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Psychology HL Notes

Case Studies
Evaluate the use of case studies in research

Case Study an in depth investigation of human

experience called a case aims to describe,
understand, and sometimes explain psychological or
social phenomena from the perspective of the
participants
Useful for investigating sensitive topics poverty,
health, violence, etc, and also social processes in
groups

Strengths of case studies

Well-suited to investigating sensitive
and complex issues in areas not
otherwise studied
Useful for studying group processes
within a social group
Results from a case study can generate
entirely new knowledge challenges
preconceived notions and theories

Limitations of case studies

Researcher bias = problem
researchers beliefs and ideas could
influence data
Generalizations of findings from single,
or small number of case studies not
often possible
Risk of participant expectancy
researcher and participants interact for
long periods of time

Explain how a case study could be used to

investigate a problem in an organisation or group

Single studies can be used to identify a problem in a

particular group
Can suggest possible strategies to change the situation
Can also use field research to collect data:
o Observe participant understand situation from
perspective of participants
o Focus groups Members of group discuss how they
perceive situation in small groups
o Ask participant/s to keep written record of feelings etc
Multiple data sources for analysis
Findings can be used to implement change in the
environment etc

Discuss the extent to which findings can be

generalised from a single case study
Not always possible, but may be possible if:
o Inferential generalization findings applied to similar
settings
o Rich descriptions from case study suggest relevant
future actions

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Psychology HL Notes
o Theoretical generalization results of a single case
study can be generalized to existing theory -> if
patterns from individual case study repeated,
corresponding theory = relevant
-

Representational generalisation
o This may be limited due to the small sample size
o Case studies normally have sample sizes that are not
statically representative limits representational
generalisation
o However, evidence may be confirmed from other case
studies
o This increases representational generalisation
Inferential generalisation
o This may be possible if a rich description of
phenomenon and context is provided
o Referred to as transferability
Theoretical generalisation
o Yin 1994 can be generalised to existing theory
o This is increased if similar findings come from multiple
studies on same phenomenon

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Psychology HL Notes

Command Terms
Level one command terms
-

Define: give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept

or physical quantity
Describe: give a detailed account
Outline: Give a brief account or summary
State: give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation

Level two command terms

-

Analyse: break down in order to bring out essential elements

or structure
Apply: use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in

relation to a given problem or issue

Distinguish: make clear the differences between two or more

concepts or items
Explain: give a detailed account including reasons or causes

Level three command terms

-

Compare: give an account of the similarities between two (or

more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them

throughout
Compare & contrast: give an account of similarities and
differences between two (or more) items or situations,

referring to both (all) of them throughout

Contrast: give an account of the differences between two (or
more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them

throughout
Discuss: offer a considered and balanced review that includes
a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or
conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by

appropriate evidence
Evaluate: make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths

and limitations
Examine: consider an argument or concept in a way that

uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue

To what extent: consider the merits or otherwise of an
argument or concept. Opinions and conclusions should be

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Psychology HL Notes
presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence
and sound argument.

280