Table of Content

Chapter No 1
Chapter No 1........................................................................................................13
1.1

Location and Accessibility...................................................................14

1.2

Objective............................................................................................ 14

1.3

Methodology....................................................................................... 14

1.4

Preparation of Base Map.....................................................................14

1.5

Instruments........................................................................................ 14

Chapter No 2 Physiography...............................................................................14
2.1

Relief.................................................................................................. 14

2.2

Lakes and Valley.................................................................................14

2.3

History and Demography.....................................................................14

2.4

Culture............................................................................................... 14

2.5

Gateway to Soon Sakesar....................................................................14

2.6

Climate............................................................................................... 14

2.7

Tribes................................................................................................. 14

2.8

Population.......................................................................................... 14

2.9

Drainage............................................................................................. 14

2.10

Soil/ Alluvium...................................................................................... 14

2.11

Water and Vegetation..........................................................................14

2.12

Weathering......................................................................................... 14
11

2.13

Field Crops......................................................................................... 14

2.14

Fruit Crops......................................................................................... 14

2.15

River.................................................................................................. 14

2.16

Terraces............................................................................................. 14

Chapter No 3 previous Work.............................................................................14

3.1 Previous Investigations in Salt Range:.........................................................14
3.2 Previous Work.......................................................................................... 14
3.3 Work during 21st century.........................................................................14

Chapter No 4 Regional tectonics of Area.........................................................14

4.1. Trans Himalaya........................................................................................ 14
4.2 Higher Himalaya...................................................................................... 14
4.3 Lesser Himalaya....................................................................................... 14
4.4 Sub Himalaya........................................................................................... 14
4.5 Tectonic Settings of Salt Range...................................................................14
4.7 Central Salt Range...................................................................................14
4.8 Western Salt Range.................................................................................14

Chapter No 1

12

The Salt Range is a hill system in the Punjab province of Pakistan, making
the southernmost border of Himalayas, deriving its name from its extensive
deposits of rock salt. The range is approximately 186 miles (300 km) long from
east to west, and its width, in the central and eastern parts, is from 5 to 19 mile. It
rises to an average height of 750-900 m. Sakesar Peak is the highest peak. The
Khabeki, Sakesar and Kallar Kahar are some important lakes. The Salt Range
contains the great mines of Khewra, Warcha and Kalabagh, which yield vast
supplies of salt, gypsum and coal.
The Salt Range is essentially an East-West trending elongated narrow trough
bounded on the east by the River Jhelum and on the west by the River Indus.
Beyond the River Indus at Kalabagh, it takes a sharp turn to run almost in a
North-South direction. (Figure 1.2) The entire mountainous belt has, therefore,
previously been differentiated into the Cis-Indus Salt Range and Trans-Indus Salt
Range and now known as The Salt Range and Trans-Indus Surghar Range,
respectively. The Salt Range is one of the most important geological regions in
Pakistan. It is easily accessible and displays a wide variety of geological features
and paleontological remains. It has, therefore, been rightly called a field museum
of geology and paleontology. It represents an open book of geology with richly
fossiliferous stratified rocks. All the strata are excellently exposed due to lack of
vegetation. The quality of the exposure also provides excellent opportunities to
appreciate tectonic features in the field. The Salt Range is, therefore, of
international scientific and educational value, and is highly worthy of conservation
and preservation.
13

Fig
ure 1.1: Location map of study area.

Figure 1.2: Geological map of Salt Range (after Sameeni 2009)

1.1 Location and Accessibility

14

Salt Range is confined between latitude 32 18 to 33 06 and longitude

71 50 to 73 45. The area around the vicinity of the town Nowshehra of the
district Khushab is our study area, which is a part of the central Salt Range,
Northern Pakistan. The area is covered in Toposheet No. 43D/14 of the Survey of
Pakistan. The mapped area has sedimentary rocks ranging in age from
Cambrian to Recent.
The study area is easily accessible from Sargodha via Khushab Road.. It
is 110 Km from Sargodha and 280 Km from Lahore.
1.2 Objective
The main objectives of the field excursion are:
i).

Lithostructural mapping of the Sodhi Surraki, Jhalar,Khorra, Kufri,

Chamnaki and Manawah Central Salt Range, Pakistan.

ii).

Better understanding of the distribution of rock units and geological

structures (tectonic disturbance) of the area.

iii).

Understanding of the structural setup of the study area.

iv)

To construct the cross section of area and visualize the subsurface

geological image through surface geology.

V)

Study of the different sedimentary structures to predict the

environment of deposition.
1.3 Methodology
By using conventional mapping techniques and toposheets of the
Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP), base map of the study area is
prepared.
The pictures of different sedimentary structures are taken and the
contacts of different lithostratigraphic units are marked.
1.4 Preparation of Base Map
Tracing techniques are used to prepare the base map from the
topographic sheets of Geological Survey of Pakistan. The base map
includes the sheet of survey of Pakistan topographic sheet no. 43 D/14, of
1:50000 scale. The base map is enlarged 5 times, and the litho structural

15

mapping is done at the scale of 1:10,000. Latitude and Longitude of the

Base map are:
72 05 00 E to

72 14 00 E

32 30 00 N to

32 34 00 N

It was used to locate the particular area for fieldwork, exact

location, elevation, geomorphology of that area. It gives the sense to judge
the elevation or depression and steep slope or gentle slope from the
contours on it.
1.5 Instruments
During the thesis work, following instruments are used: Hand Lens
was used to observe texture, micro structures (such as veins)
and

inclusions

(such

as

fossils)

in

rock

specimen.

magnification of between 7 and 10 times is probably the most

useful.
G.P.S (Global Positioning System) was used to locate ourselves on the map. It is
based on

satellite system. It provides reliable positioning, navigation and

timing services on a continuous basis anywhere on or near the Earth, but its
working may be disturbed by the bad condition of weather.
i).

Measuring Tape was used for measurement of length and thickness

of different rock beds.

ii).

Digital Camera was used for the photography of topographical,

geological and geomorphological features, during field work.

v)

Hydrochloric Acid, 10% diluted, was used in-situ for the

vi)

of carbonate rocks on the base of effervescence.

Geologic Hammar for the collection of rock Speciman and Fossils.

16

Chapter No 2 Physiography
The Soon Valley is in the north west of Khushab District,Punjab, Pakistan. Its
largest settlement is the town of Naushera. The valley extends from the village
of Padhrar to Sakesar, the highest peak in the Salt Range. The valley is 35 miles
(56 km) long and has an average width of 9 miles (14 km). It covers a 300square-mile (780 km2) area. Soon Valley has much scenic beauty, with lakes,
waterfalls, jungle, natural pools and ponds. The valley has been settled since
ancient times, including by the Awan tribe, whose descendants still live in the
valley.
2.1 Relief
The peak of Mount Sakesar is at 5,010 feet (1,530 m) above sea level. It
was once the summer headquarters of the Deputy Commissioners of three
districts Attock, Mianwali and Sargodha. It is the only mountain in this part of the
17

Punjab which receives snowfall in winter. In the late 1950s the Pakistan Air
Force placed a radar station on Sarkesar to monitor airspace over north-eastern
Pakistan. Also on the mountain is a television transmission center with which
Pakistan Television relays its content to the surrounding area.

2.2

Lakes and Valley

Lake Uchhali is a picturesque salt water lake in the southern Salt

Range overlooked by mount Sakaser, the highest mountain in the Salt Range. Its
brackish water means that its waters are lifeless. Lake Khabikki is also a salt
water lake in the southern Salt Range. It is one kilometer wide and two
kilometres long. Khabikki is also the name of a neighbouring village. These lakes
attract thousands of migratory birds each year including rare white-headed ducks
(Oxyura leucocephala) from Central Asia.

18

Figure 2.1: General Physiography of the study area showing relief, soil and vegetation

19

Figure 2.2: General relief in study area.

2.3 History and Demography
In

997

CE, Sultan

Mahmud

Ghaznavi, took

over the Ghaznavid

dynasty empire established by his father, Sultan Sebuktegin. In 1005 he

conquered the Shahis in Kabul and followed it by conquests within the Punjab
region. The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire ruled the region. The
Punjab

region

became

predominantly Muslim due

to missionary Sufi saints

whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab.

The Janjua clan settled in the valley when Babur, the first Mughal emperor
passed

through

on

military

campaigns,

according

to

his

memoirs,

the Baburnama. The grave of Raja Tatar Khan Janjua is in Khutakka

(Ahmadabad), the centre of his rule. The remnants of his fort 'Akrand' still stand.
The Janjua were scattered after the attack of Hari Singh Bhangi in 1760 and their
descendants settled in Kattha, Jaswal, Dhak, Jauharabad and Shahpur.
The Awans of the Soon Valley were also amongst those the British
considered to be "martial race".The British recruited army heavily from Soon
20

Valley for service in the colonial army, and as such, the Awans of this area also
formed an important part of the British Indian Army, serving with distinction during
World Wars I and II. Of all the Muslim groups recruited by the British,
proportionally, the Awans produced the greatest number of recruits during the
First and Second World Wars. Contemporary historians Professor Ian Talbot and
Professor Tan Tai Yong have asserted that the Awans (amongst other tribes) are
viewed as a martial race by not only the British, but neighbouring tribes as well.
Awans occupy the highest ranks of the Pakistani Army. A village by the name of
Manawan (formerly Man Awan - The heart of the Awans) is also among the notable
historical villages of the valley.

2.4 Culture
Many inhabitants of the valley descend from tribes of Arab origin. Islamic
culture and traditions are the norm. Practices include arranged marriages
according to the Islamic traditions, where the wedding ceremony takes place at a
mosque. The Nikah is attended by close family members, relatives, and friends
of the bride and groom. Usually men and women are separated, either sitting in
separate rooms or with a purdah (curtain) separating them.
Luddi is a folk dance for celebratory occasions, when the music is often
played on the dhol drum and shehnai oboe.
2.5 Gateway to Soon Sakesar
The Government of Punjab constructed the road from Nurewala to
Naushehra in recognition of services rendered by the Awans of Soon Valley
during the First World War. Sir W.M. Hailey, the Governor of Punjab formally
opened the road on April 1, 1928 - as commemorated on plaques between
Khushab and Sakesar as the road enters the hills.
2.6 Climate

21

The climate of the area is sub-tropical continental. The mean maximum

and minimum monthly temperatures of the soon valley are given in Table 4.1.
40
35
30
25
Series 1

20

Column1
15
10
5
0
Jan

Feb

March

April

May

Jun

Table No 2.1: Average Min and Max Temprature Value of Soon Sakesar

2.7 Tribes
The main tribe of the area is the Awan tribe settled in the Soon valley with
Malik as sub cast is used by the locals, such as Majhial in Mardwal, Kroge in
Sabhral, Bazral , Chhatal in Ugali,Phatwal and Mianwaddal in Anga, Bazrals of
Shaker Kot and so on. In the valley Awan's are known by their sub castes. A
majority of the people are serving in the armed forces of Pakistan. Other
professions like education, business, transportation and agricultural are also
adopted by the locals.
2.8

Population
Population in the area is widespread on the outcrops and plain areas in

different villages in the study area such as Khoora, Kufri,Jhalar etc. The current
population of the area is around 110,000 and resides in 32 villages and 69 small
22

settlements. Naushera is the political and business centre of the valley The main
occupation of the people is agriculture and poltery. Some peoples are involved in
mines, in government jobs and in private sector. The literacy rate in Study area is
higher than the district average as well as the national average. The overall
literacy is 67%: which is 69% for males and 34% for females.
2.9 Drainage
The drainage is mostly dendritic to parallel and generally controlled by
lithology and structure. Surface runoff during rainy season is drained into
Uchhali, Khabeki and Jahlar Lakes by various streams and Nalas.These nalas
shed their coarser load at the foot hills in the form of boulders and pebbles while
fine material i.e. sand, silt and clay is carried to the depressions, providing rich
soil for cultivation.

.
2.10

Figure 4.3: Population in Naushehra Soon valley.

Soil/ Alluvium

23

Soil is present as thin cover in the low laying areas of project area. The
area consists of sedentary soil / residual soil that occurs at the hill tops and is
formed due to in-situ weathering. Transported soils are also present in the area in
valleys. These are the soils that are transported through different agents such as
streams and provide leveled soil patches for cultivation of different crops Alluvium
is filled in the synclinal depressions, which is carried and deposited physically by
water. This alluvium is the main source for cultivation.

Figure 2.4: Soil and Alluvium in Study Area.

2.11

Water and Vegetation

Rainfall, Nalas and few springs are the main source of water in the area.

At most of the places small ponds developed by the rain water are used for
human and animal consumption, while drinking water mainly comes from the
springs, wells and water supply tanks. The general flow of nalas and some
streams in the area is from north to south. Under ground fractures in the
limestone serve as water channel and storage in some areas.
24

Thick vegetation cover and dense forests conceal the geology at certain
parts of the project area. Rock exposures are rich in vegetation. The slopes have
shrubs and bushes, which are used as grazing grounds. Small trees are
scattered all over the area. Small self growing bushes well flourish during the
rainy season. Vegetation shows a relationship with lithology and in some
instances it helps in distinguishing between different lithologies on the basis of
vegetation, e.g. Nammal Formation and Sakesar Limestone, which are hard to
distinguish in this are but both shows differentiation in vegetation. The names of
various Herbs,Shurbs and trees in the study area are:
Olea cuspidate (Kaoo)

Acacia modesta (Phulai)

Acacia arabica (Kiker)

Caparisdicidua (Kundair)

Dodonea viscose (Snutha)

Ipomea viscose (Bhaikar)

Grunda

Saghar

Dhaman

Gogair

2.12

Weathering
There are different styles of weathering present in our study area

depending upon the lithology and relief. Karren structure (solution weathering in
Sakesar Limestone), spheroidal weathering in Kamlial Formation are present.
2.13

Field Crops
The field crops of the study area include Wheat, Chickpea and Lentil etc.

detail is given described below in table 2.1.

5800 kg/ha
Wheat

Chickpea

Suitable for barani areas, tolerant to rust and other

diseases.

5800 kg/ha

-do-

3000 kg/ha

High yielding, bold-seeded and disease tolerant.

25

Lentil

1400 kg/ha
Tolerant to disease and high yielding.

Table 2.2: Field crops of the study area.

2.14

Fruit Crops
Major Fruit crops of the area include Peaches, Plum, Apricot,

Almond, Fig and Loquat.

2.15

River
The main river flow in the CentralSalt Range is the Jhelum River, and all

the other nalas flowing in the area falls in it. . Many waterfalls are also present in
the study area Like Kufri waterfall etc.
2.16

Terraces
A terrace is a step-like landform that borders a shoreline or land scape.

Terraces are remnants of former channel of stream that now has succeeded in
cutting its way down to lower level. It is topographic surface that marks former
valley floor level.
These are in the shape of staire, usually form due to hetrogenity present in
rock bodies.Due to hetrogenity the more soluble materials are washed away and
competent are lefted and the remaining shape is like staire cases called terraces.

26

Figure 2.5: Structural Terraces in Study area.

27

Chapter No 3 previous Work

The name Salt Range was first time used by Stuart Elphisnton a British envoy to the
court of Kabul. He traveled from 1808-1815 across this province and noted the mining of
salt from the salt deposits of salt range. The recorded history of geological research
dates back to the middle of the 19 th century when the first geological survey was
undertaken by LaMessurier (1844) for antimony and lead in Baluchistan.

3.1 Previous Investigations in Salt Range:

In the past Salt Range as attracted many geologists from all over the world. They
studied Cambrian stratigraphy, the Permian-Triassic boundary, and lower Tertiary
foraminiferal biostratigraphy in the Salt Range. In the proceeding chapter we will briefly
discuss previous work on Salt Range in 19th, 20th and 21st century respectively.

3.2 Previous Work

Salt Range had been under extensive geological studies for last two centuries.

Detail of contributions made by different investigators is discussed in the

following session :
Davidson (1852) and Fleming (1853) gave the first preliminary notes on the
geology of Salt Range. Theobold (1854) discussed the Permian sequence and
Productus Limestone, Salt Range. Waagen (1872, 1895), Wynne (1873, 1877, 1879,
1886), Wynne, (1875) extensively studied the Salt Range and Trans Indus Salt Range
and gave a remarkable account on the stratigarphy, paleontology and geology by
publishing three memoirs. Noetling and Fritz (1893-1900) gave there contribution as
Field investigations in Salt Range. Tschernysehew (1902) worked on age and correlation
of the Productus Limestone in Salt Range.
Gee (1944, 1945, 1947. 1980, 1983, 1989), The age of the Saline Series of the
Punjab and of Kohat, Pakistan and Pakistan Salt Range series geological maps, 1:
50,000 6 sheets. Tectonic problems of Sub-Himalayan region of Pakistan and
Overview of the geology and structural of the Salt Range with observations on related
areas of Northern Pakistan. Gee, McDougall, and Khan (1990), worked on Strike slip
faulting in a foreland fold and thrust belt (The Kalabagh fault and Westen Salt Range,
Pakistan).

28

Lehner (1945) report the age of the Punjab Saline Series, Pakistan. Wadia
(1957) and Gansser (1964), worked on Geology of the Himalaya. Kummel and Teichert
(1966) mark the Relation between Permian and Triassic Formations in the Salt Range
and Trans Indus Ranges, West Pakistan.

Balme (1970) study the Palynology of

Permian and Triassic strata in the Salt Range and Surghar Range, West Pakistan.
Kummel and Teichert (1970) discussed the Stratigraphy and Paleontology of PermianTriassic boundary beds, Salt Range and Trans Indus Ranges, West Pakistan. Crawford
(1974) worked on The Salt Range, the Kashmir Syntaxis and Pamir Arc. Chapple
(1978) work on Mechanics of thin skinned fold and thrust belts. Johnson, Opdyke and
Tahirkheli (1979) worked on Magnetic reversal stratigraphy and sedimentary tectonic
history of upper Siwaliks Group, Eastern Salt Range and south western Kashmir.
Dahlen, Suppe and Devis (1983), work on Mechanics of Fold and Thrust Belts and
Accretionary wedges. Yeats, Khan, and Akhtar (1984) study the Late Quaternary
deformation of Salt Range of Pakistan. Coward and Butler (1985) work as Thrust
tectonics and the deep structure of the Pakistan Himalaya Geology. Lillie and Yousuf
(1986) gave Modern analogs for some mid crustal reflections observed beneath
collisional mountain belts. Malincomeo and Adams (1986) study Lithospheric under
thrusting in the western Himalaya inferred from gravity data. Johnson, Raynold and
Burbank (1986) work on Late Cenozoic tectonics and sedimentation in the
Northwestern Himalaya Foredeep. Duroy (1986) study the Subsurface densities and
lithospheric flexure of the Himalayan foreland of Pakistan. Jaume (1986) work on the
The mechanics of Salt Range-Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. Leathers (1987) construct
Balanced structural cross section of the Western Salt Range and Potwar Plateau,
Pakistan.

Lillie, Johnson, Zamin, Yousuf and Yeats (1987) work on Structural

development within the Himalayan foreland fold and thrust belt of Pakistan. Pennock
(1987) and Baker (1988) construct Balanced structural cross-section of the Eastern
Potwar Plateau and Central Salt Range and Potwar Plateau of Pakistan.
Ashraf (1969) worked on The Bauxite deposits of the Salt Range. Akhtar (1972),
Fatmi (1973) mark Lithostratigraphic units of Salt Range and Lithostratigraphic units of
Kohat Potwar Province, Indus Basin. Aslam (1973) work on Lithostructural mapping of
Nurewal-Kathwai area of Salt range with special emphasis on gravity tectonics. Gardezi
(1974) Study of the Gravitational Structures of the Central Salt Range, Pakistan. Shah
(1977) published the Memoir of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Vol. 12. Ahsan, Khan
and Sohail (1981-83) gave there contribution as Lithostratigraphic mapping and
29

biostratigraphic study of Burikhel-Bandakra area. Kazmi and Rana (1982) construct

Tectonic map of Pakistan, scale 1: 2000, 000, 1st edition. Khan, Ahmed, Raza and
Kemal (1986) study the Geology of petroleum in Kohat Potwar depression. Baig and
Lawrence (1988) study the Evidence for Late Precambrian to Early Cambrian orogeny
in Northwest Himalaya. Chaudhary, Ghazanfar and Qayyum (1992) study the Tectonic
Subdivision of Northwest Himalaya. Arif, Butt and Ghazanfar (2002) work on Mapping
of Galliat area and Environment of Deposition, Digenetic changes and Development of
Porosity in Early Carbonate in the Salt Range and Surghar Range. Ghazi (2002, 2004)
studies the Microfacies analysis of the Lower Eocene Sakesar Limestone in the
Nilawahan Gorge and Sedimentology of the Kamlial Formation from Khokhar Bala,
Central Salt Range, Pakistan. Shakeel (2005) study the Geology of Nilawahan area
and Sedimentology of Lower Permian Warchha Sandstone. Javed, Ashraf, Nasir,
Farooq, Arif, Siddique, Sohail, and Javed (2006) work on Lithostructural mapping of
Pail, Khabbaki and Bhilomar area and Sedimentology of Sakesar Limestone. Khokhar,
Inayat and Rehman (2006) work on Lithostructural mapping of Rakh Karangal-Lehri
Shahnawaz area of the Eastern Salt Range. Baitu, Deo, Atiq, and Wahab (2007) work
on Lithostructural mapping of Uchali-Mardwal area and Microfacies of Nammal
Formation, Soan Sakesar Valley District Khushab. Butt, Ehsan and Gohar (2008) work
on Lithostructural mapping of Tobar, Pidh and Khewra and adjoining areas with
Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of Cambrian sequence, Eastern Salt Range.
Saqab, Murtaza and Khan (2009) work on Lithostructural mapping of Khewra, Choa
Saidan Shah and adjoining areas with Sedimentology of Khewra Sandstone, Jutana
Formation and Baghanwala Formation, Eastern Salt Range.
i.e. sub, lower and higher Himalayas of northwestern Himalaya were the main emphasis.
Burbank (1993)
Muldar, T.J. and Burbank in 1993 did work on the impact of uplift pattern of fluvial
deposition, an example of SaltRange, NW Himalayan Foreland, and Pakistan.
A brief summary of work in 20th century is:
i).

Pilgrim, G.E. (1910, 1911, 1913, 1926).

ii).

Pinfold, E.S. (1918, 1938).

30

iii).

Gee, E.R (1944, 1945, 1947), The age of the saline series of Punjab and
the Kohat, Pakistan.

iv).

Lehner, E. (1945), The age of saline series Pakistan.

v).

Gansser, A. (1964), Geology of Himalaya.

vi).

Kummel, B., Teichert, C. (1966), Relation between Permian and Triassic

Formations in the Salt Range and Trans Indus Ranges, Western
Pakistan.

vii).

Balme, B.E. (1970), Palynology of Permian-Triassic strata of SaltRange

and Surghar range, Western Pakistan.

viii).

Kummel, B., Teichert, C. (1970) Stratigraphy and paleontology of

Permian-Triassic boundery beds, Salt Range and Trans Indus Ranges,
Western Pakistan.

ix).

Crawfold, A., R., (1974),The Salt Range, The Kashmir Syntaxis and
Pamir arc.

x).

Chappell, W.M. (1978), Mechanics of thin skin fold and thrust belt.

xi).

Gee, E. R. (1980), Pakistan Salt Range series, Geological Maps.

1:50,000, 6 sheets.

xii).

Yeats, R. S., Khan, S.H.

and Akhter, M. (1984), Late Quaternary

deformation of Salt Range of Pakistan.

xiii).

Fatmi, A.M., Akhter, M., Alam, G.S. Hussain, I. (1984) Guide book of
Geology of Salt Range, Pakistan.

xiv).

Burbank, D.W. and Beek, R.A. (1999) Early Pliocene uplift of Salt Range,
Pakistan.

xv).

M. Ashraf (1969), Bauxite deposits of Salt Range, Pakistan.

xvi).

Mohammad Akhter (1972), Lithostratigraphic units of the Salt Range,

Pakistan.

xvii).

Gardezi, A.H. (1974), Study of Gravitational Structure of Central salt

Range, Pakistan.
a. Work on the stratigraphy, paleontology continued till early 1930s, when E.
R. Gee mapped the whole of the SaltRange at the scale of 1:50,000.

xviii).

Work on the economic minerals of SaltRange continues to be recorded

periodically over the years. Noteworthy among them are Asrarullah
(1962), Alam and Asrarullah (1973-1975), Khan (1971), Cheema (1974),
Hassan (1975) and Ashraf et. al., (1976).
31

3.3 Work during 21st century

A brief summary of work on Salt Range during21stcentury is given as below:
Arif, F., Butt, F., and Ghafar (2002)
Mapping of Galliat area and environment of deposition, digenetic changes and
development of porosity in Earl Carbonate in Salt Range and Surghar range.
Ghazi, S. (2002)

Sedimentology of the Kamlial Formation from Khokhar Bala, Central Salt

Range, Pakistan.
Ghazi, S. (2004)
Microfacies and foraminiferal assemblage of the lower Eocene
Nammal Formation, Nilawahan Gorge, Central Salt Range, Pakistan.
Shakeel, A. (2005)
Geology of Nilawahan area and Sedimentology of the Lower Permian Warcha
Sandstone.
Ahmed, N. and Haq I.U.(2006)
Lithostructural Mapping of part of the Central Salt Range with special emphasis
on Sedimentology and Petrography of Nagri Formation.
Khokhar, W.K.,Inayat, F. and Rehman, S.U.(2006)
Lithostructural Mapping of Rakh Karangal-Lehri Shahnawaz Area of the Eastern
Salt Range.

32

Baitu, Deo, Atiq and Wahab(2006)

Lithostructural mapping of Uchali-Mardwalarea and microfacies of Nammal fornation,
Soan Sakesar valley District Khushab

33

Chapter No 4 Regional tectonics of Area

The Himalayan ranges of South Asia are a dilemma due to their complex geology
in modern plate tectonic theory. Northwest Himalayas (Brad et al., 1976: Ghazanfar et
al., 1991) of Pakistan constitute Northwestern and Western extremity of about 2800 Km
area. A large super continent Pangaea (Searle, 1991) existed till the end of Proterozoic
era (Piper, 1982). Breakup of super continent Pangaea started in Carboniferous to Early
Permian (Searle, 1991) and it result super continent divide in two parts, Gondwanaland
(Suess, 1885) in South and Laurasia in North and a new ocean Neo Tethys was evolved
(Searle, 1991: Powell, 1979). Among the Gondwana continents, India started to move
rapidly northwest relative to Australia and Antarctica during Late Cretaceous (Figure 2.1)
and finally collided with Kohistan Island arc at 67+2 Ma (Chaudhry et al., 1994; Valdiya,
2002) and the Kohistan Island Arc with southern margin of Eurasia (Powell, 1979) at 85
Ma prior to this collision (Searle, 1991). This ongoing convergence caused the
development of Himalayas along the northwestern margin of Indian Plate (Spencer,
1993).
The tectonic elements of NW Himalayas (Figure 2.2) include from North to South
as Asian Plate (Brad et al., 1976: Ghazanfar et al., 1991), Main Karakoram Thrust, MKT
(Ghazanfar, 1993), Kohistan Island Arc Complex (Brad et al., 1976: Ghazanfar et al.,
1991; Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Trelor et al., 1989; Chaudhry et al., 1984), Indus suture or
MMT (Ashraf et al., 1991; Tahirkheli et al., 1979) and Indian Plate margin (Chaudhry and
Ghazanfar, 1987; Ghazanfar, 1993).
With the demarcation of basement of Indian plate and boundary faults, now it is
possible to divide NW Himalayas into four tectonic units of Gansser (1964) as in Eastern
and Central Himalayas. NW Himalayas are enumerated from north to south as Trans
Himalaya or Tethyan Himalaya, Higher Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya.

34

35

Figure 4.1: Indias northward flight and collision with Eurasia (Modified after Powell,
1979)

36

Figure 4.2: Tectonic elements of NW Himalayas.

4.1. Trans Himalaya

Trans Himalaya or Tibetan-Tethyan Himalaya occur north of Higher Himalaya and
consists of Proterozoic to Eocene siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks
interbedded with Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanic rocks resting over Pre-Cambrian
higher Himalayan basement with tectonized unconformity (Baud et al., 1984; Garzanti et
al., 1986, 1987). Tethyan sequence has developed as continental margin shelf deposit
on the northern edge of Indian plate which occurs as low grade Meta sediments
(Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999). The Tethyan Himalayas are limited to north by Indus
Tsangpo Suture Zone in NW Himalaya and this zone also acts as the northernmost
boundary of the Indian plate. Indus suture or MMT demarcate boundary between Indian
Plate and Kohistan Island Arc and comprised of dismembered ophiolites (Tahirkheli et
al., 1979). MMT is the true extension of Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone which occurs at 65
Ma (Spencer, 1993; Chaudhry et al., 1994; Smith et al., 1994). Until very recently the
Tibetan-Tethys zone of Himalaya was considered absent in the Pakistan. Mapping in
Kaghan and Swat however, have indicated that the Tibetan-Tethys zone of Himalaya is
indeed present in Pakistan, though much attenuated and discontinuous (Chaudhry and
Ghazanfar, 1987; Chaudhry et al., 1992, 1993, Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1999)

4.2 Higher Himalaya

With the delineation of Main Central Thrust or MCT (Chaudhry et al., 1997b;
Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1986, 1990; Chaudhry et al., 1994a, 1994b), now it is possible
to establish the different tectono stratigraphic regions of Himalaya, such as Higher
Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and Sub Himalaya in Pakistan. Higher Himalayas are limited
by MMT in north and MCT in south. MCT is intracontinental thrust which demarcates the
boundery between the Lesser and Higher Himalayas. It is north dipping, generally 5 to
20 Km thick low to high angle shear zone associated with mylonization, strong stretching
lineation and strong foliation. It is also marked by inverse metamorphism and sudden
jump in metamorphic grade from greenschist to upper amphibolite facies with different
tectonic style on either side of the shear zone. This ductile shear zone develops in the
turbidite of Kaghan as well as Malakand area. (Brunel, 1986; Valdiya, 1984; Ghazanfar
37

and Chaudhry, 1986). In Pakistan, the Higher Himalayas in transverse division to the
Nanga Parba-Haramosh massif (Yeats and Lawerence).It extends from Bajaur on the
Pakistan Afghanistan border in the west to the Neelum valley of Kashmir in the east.
Higher Himalaya comprised of Proterozoic to Late Proterozoic basement and
Phanerozoic to Mesozoic cover in Pakistan (Ghazanfar, 1993; Chaudhry and Ghazanfar,
1987). Basement rocks represent the oldest exposed rocks of Pakistan and composed of
lower autochthonous to Para-autochthonous granitoid-migmatite complex, pelitepsamites with turbidites and associated minor quartzite and marble horizons. Basement
is overlained by cover sequence which is composed of calc-pelites and marbles with
some garnetiferous calc-pelites, amphibolites and pelites (Ghazanfar, 1993; Chaudhry
and Ghazanfar, 1987; Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1985; Chaudhry et al., 1994a, 1997;
Ghazanfar et al., 1983, 1999a). Basement and cover sequence rocks are grouped in
different areas of Higher Himalaya. Kel Group, Purbi Nar Group and Pacha Group
constitutes the basement rock in Neelum Valley, western Kashmir, Upper Kaghan Valley
and Swat area respectively and Sharda Group, Burawai Group and Alpuri group
represent

cover

sequence

respectively.

The

rocks

of

Higher

Himalaya

are

metamorphosed to upper amphibolites facies and kyanite-silliminite grades just north of

Batal area in Naran area of Kaghan (Ghazanfar et al., 1983, 1999a; Ghazanfar and
Chaudhry, 1985, 1987; Chaudhry et al., 1994a, 1997; Chaudhry and Ashraf, 1986).

4.3 Lesser Himalaya

Lesser Himalaya is confined between MCT and MBT in north and south
respectively. MBT is hairpin-shaped system of faults that can be followed around the
Hazara Kashmir syntaxis. It truncates the Murree Formation on the east, north and west.
MBT formed due to compressional deformation. In Pakistan, Lesser Himalaya extends in
Lower Neelum Valley, Lower Kaghan Valley, Hazara area and Swat area across the
Indus River. Lesser Himalaya has biotite-garnet grade rocks. (Chaudhry et al., 1997a).
The Lesser Himalayas are in transverse division to the Hill Ranges (including Margala,
Kala Chitta, Attock, Kohat Hills and Safed Koh), Plio-Pleistocene basins (Peshawar and
Campbellpur basin) and the Lower Kohistan (Yeats and Lawerence). Lesser Himalayas
are divisible into two distinct units, Northern metamorphic Zone and Southern
Sedimentary Zone, and Panjal fault marks boundary between them (Ghazanfar, 1993;
38

Ghazanfar et al., 1999a). Northern Metamorphic Zone represents a terrain of meta

pelite-psamite sequence which are intruded by Cambrian granites and some younger
ones, and overlained by younger rocks including slates, phyllites, meta conglomerates,
graphitic schist, limestone, marble, agglomeratic schist and basic volcanics of Kashmir
basin and Peshawar basin. This Meta pelite-psamite sequence is designated as
Kundalshahi Group in Neelum Valley, Kaghan Group in Kaghan Valley and Tanawal
Formation in Hazara area (Chaudhry et al., 1992; Ghazanfar and Chaudhry, 1985;
Chaudhry and Ghazanfar, 1987; Ghazanfar et al., 1983). Kundalshahi Group is intruded
by Jura granite of Cambrian age in southern parts and younger Neelum granite in north
(Ghazanfar et al., 1983). Southern Sedimentary zone is characterized by the Pir Panjal
ranges in east and Attock Hazara Fold and Thrust Belt, AHFTB, in west of Hazara
Kashmir Syntaxis and south of Kashmir basin and Peshawar basin (Ghazanfar et al.,
1999a). AHFTB is possible continuation of parautochthonous folded belt (Wadia, 1931)
or Panjal Imbricate zone or Pir Panjal range of Kashmir.

4.4 Sub Himalaya

Murree Fault or Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Salt Range Thrust (HFT) act
as northern and southern boundaries of sub-Himalaya. Salt Range Thrust (SRT) /
Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) or the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) runs along western
margin of Salt Range between Jhelum and Indus River. It is low angle fault or Sub
horizontal fault and throw of the fault is good enough to expose pre-cambrian strata (Salt
range Formation). The Himalayan foot hills form the Sub-Himalayan zone from the
Punjab to Assam. These hills are comprised of a narrow belt of folded Neogene Murree
and Siwalik red colored molasse type sediments. The Sub Himalayas of Pakistan in the
longitudnal sense can be subdivided into Azad Kashmir Zone in the east and the Punjab
Zone or Punjab foreland in the west. In a transverse sense the Punjab foreland can be
subdivided into North Potwar or Rawalpindi Zone (a fold and thrust belt culminating in
the Khair-e-Murat structure represents and intensity of deformation increases
northward), The Soan Zone (comprising a broad syncline under the plateau in the east
and Kohat Basin in the west), The upthrusted inlier of salt Range and Trans Indus Range
and The only slightly deformed Punjab Plateform further to south (Ghazanfar and
Chaudhry, 1999). Simply to say, Sub Himalayas subdivision includes Potwar Plateau,
39

Kohat Plateau and Salt Range and Trans Indus Salt Ranges (Yeats and Lawerence).
The Salt Range Fold belt gives way northward in the Potwar plateau to a broad syncline,
the axis of which is followed by Soan River. This syncline is asymmetric and verges
south further north, the intensity of folding increases, and north dipping thrust fault
appeared (Pinfold, 1980; Gill, 1953), culminating in the Kala Chitta and Margalla Hills
along the nothern margin of Potwar plateau. West of Potwar plateau, Eocene through
Siwaliks strata are involved in complex fold and thrust belt in which Eocene salt occupies
the core of many of the anticlines (DeJong and Qayum, 1981). The Kohat plateau
structure differs from that of Potwar plateau largely because of this higher salt
detachment horizon in Kohat area (Yeats and Lawerence, 1984).

4.5 Tectonic Settings of Salt Range

Salt Range and Trans-Indus Salt Range represent the surface expression of up
thrusting of a decollement in which basement is not involved and decollement exists in
Cambrian to Eocambrian evaporites (Seeber and Armbuster, 1981; Crawford, 1974).
After the MBT zone under the Kala Chitta Range to the north was locked some 2 Ma
ago, compression was transferred to the plateform sequence to the south of MBT, as the
result of which Salt Range rises to surface. Salt Ranges rises as 180 km (roughly ENEWSW trending) long range at the southern edge of Potwar Plateau, making an abrupt
escarpment against the Punjab plains in south. Its width is 150 km. Strata in the Salt
Range dip northwards into the Potwar Basin (Sameeni, 1997). The surrounding areas of
the Salt Range are: Northwards Main Boundary Thrust, Southward Salt Range thrust,
Eastward Jhelum Fault and Westward Kalabagh Fault.

40

Figure 4.3: Position of Salt Range with respect to surrounding areas

41

Because the Salt Range Formation is easily eroded, horsts form deep gorges, in
which some of the classic stratigraphic section of Salt Range is found (Khewra,
Nilawahan and Warchha gorges) (Yeats and Lawrence, 1984). Salt Range is thinskinned fold-and-thrust belt (Lillie et al., 1987; Butler et al., 1987 and Baker, 1987). The
allochthonous nature of the Salt Range, with a detachment in the Eocambrian Salt
Range Formation, was recognized by many earlier workers (e. g., Wynne, 1878; Wadia,
1945 a, 1945 b, 1957; Gee, 1945, 1947, 1980; Voskresenskiy, 1978). The Salt Range is
interpreted as a fault-bend fold although the shape of this anticline differs from the faultbend fold because of its lack of a frontal, forward-dipping limb and the ductile behavior of
salt at the base of the thrust sheet. But the northern flank of the Salt Range is an eroded
monocline that flattens northward into the southern limb of the Soan syncline. This
monocline is the surface expression of a footwall ramp, identified by reflection profiles as
an east-west basement normal fault with an offset of 1 km down-to-the north (Baker et
al., 1988). An anomalous thickness of salt has accumulated beneath the hanging wall of
the Salt Range. The deformational style of the Salt Range is typically marked by broad
synclines and long, narrow anticlines. The Salt Range changes deformation style along
its irregular ENE-WSW trend.
Longitudinally, Salt Range is further subdivided into Eastern, Central and
Western Salt Range from east to west. The Salt Range thrust is strongly emergent in its
central and western parts, whereas in the east it is entirely a buried thrust (terminology of
Morley, 1986) and folding predominates (Lillie et al., 1987). Davis & Engelder (1985)
suggested that the difference in the structural style between east and west is the result of
eastward thinning of the evaporites.

Figure4.4: Generalized cross section of western Potwar and Salt Range (after Jaum & Lillie,
1988, Gee, 1989)
42

4.6 Eastern Salt Range

The surface geology in the eastern part of Salt Range is marked by the two NESW oriented back thrusts (Gee, 1980) within the roof sequence. The northern back thrust
is quite persistent, extends further in the northeast direction, and is called the Dil Jaba
fault. Dil Jabba fault, in general, brings Salt Range Formation and, at places, Chinji and
Murree Formations over the Nagri Formation. The southern back thrust has been named
the Chail fault. It is a local fault and dies out in both NE and SW directions. S-shaped
structures, Jogi Tilla and Chambal ridge, mark the eastern termination of the Salt Range
Thrust and are the surface expression of the transition zone from fault bend fold to fault
propagation fold geometry. Palinspastic restoration shows that a minimum of about 17
km of shortening has occurred in eastern salt range (Qayyum, 1991).
4.7 Central Salt Range
In the Central Salt Range, deformation within the roof sequence is minor. This
sequence is cut by numerous normal faults with very minor stratigraphic throw. It has
been very gently folded into broad synclines. Sharp, small anticlines that connect two
successive broad synclines are cored by salt. These anticlines are generally bounded by
minor normal faults. Palinspastic restoration results in a total shortening of 27 km in the
central Salt Range. A concealed duplex structure is newly recognized. It was evolved
along a decollement with two ramps and extends more than 40 km along strike.

4.8 Western Salt Range

The Salt Range thrust has a broad lobe shape in the west, where it has been
truncated by the right lateral Kalabagh fault (Gee, 1980; Leathers, 1987; McDougall and
Khan, 1990). The undeformed section becomes gently to intensively deformed as the
thrust front approaches its present position in the south. Unlike the central Salt Range,
the roof sequence is frequently folded and faulted, particularly in its southern part where
it is marked by numerous forward and backward verging thrust and normal faults.
Palinspastic restoration indicates that approximately 32 km of total minimum crustal
shortening has occurred (Qayyum, 1991). In the western Salt Range, the Salt Range
Formation forms diapirs which are localized along high-angle faults including the right

43

lateral tear fault. The largest of these diapirs is found at Kalabagh on the Indus River
(Yeats and Lawerence).

44