COLLEGE OF NURSING

Standard Curriculum
Diploma in Post Basic Specialization in Nursing
Title
Hours

1202 Physics For Nurses

30 Hours Theory ; 30

Credits

Laboratory
3 Credits

Course description
This course is designed to provide the Post RN students with educational
experiments in basic physics requires for the better understanding of the
principles of nursing , selected topics essentials for nursing will be included
. A small laboratory component is included to provide opportunities for
practical hands on science work and to emphasis the interdependency of
nursing with pure science.
CORSE OBJECTIVES: At the end of this course the students will be able to:

Explain the concepts and principles of physics essential for the practice of

nursing
Demonstrate the knowledge of scientific process skills, such as observing,

inferring, classifying, measuring, communication and predicting.

Show an appreciation of role played by science in the understanding
natural phenomenon and their role in nursing.
TEACHING / LEARNING STRATEGIES:
Lectures, discussion, tutorials, group discussions, assignments and self
study
COURSE EXPECTATIONS

Attendance in class 85%

Satisfactory completion of the work
Completion of the assignments and tests on dates due
Evaluation criteria
Laboratory
Midterm

20%
30%

examination
Final examination

50%

COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

UNIT II

Definition of physics
Importance of physics
MEASUREMENT

UNIT III

measurement and its importance

Concepts of fundamental and derived units
British system and its three fundamental units
S.I system and its Seven fundamental units
Prefixes
Advantages of S.I units
Inert-conversion of S.I. Units
DEFINITION OF MOTION AND REST

UNIT IV

Types of motion ,i.e. curvilinear and rectilinear

Definitions of units of speed and velocity
Newtons laws of motion
Definitions of force ,acceleration, acceleration due to gravity and their units
Friction and its types
Advantages and disadvantages of friction
Measures to decrease friction
Application of friction in nursing and daily life
GRAVITY AND STABILITY

UNIT V

Newtons laws of gravity

Definition of centre of gravity
Determination of CG of regular and irregular objects
Application of gravity in nursing and daily life
Definition of stability and equilibrium
Definition of moment and torque
Laws of moment and its application
WORK ,POWER AND ENERGY

UNIT VI

Energy and its different kinds

Kinetic energy and potential energy
Energy, work and power and their S. I Units
Machines and their functions
Six simple machines : liver pulley ,screw, wheel and axle , inclined plane
and wedge
Definition of efficiency ,input, output ,effort, resistance and mechanical
advantage
Clinical implications of machines, traction and lifting etc.
HEAT
Definition of heat and its S.I Units
Definition of temperature
Difference between heat and temperature
Measures of temperature in terms of Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales and their
inter-conversion

Change of state of solids, liquids and gases and their applications

Transfer of heat i.e. conduction, convection and radiation and its
applications

UNIT
VII

PRESUURE

UNIT
VIII

SOUND AND LIGHT

UNIT
IX

Definition of pressure and its S.I Units

Importance of pressure in nursing
Pressure in hydrostatic fluids
Pascals law and its application
Atmospheric pressure and its application
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Negative and positive pressure
Gas laws and their applications
o Boyles, law
o Charles law
o Gay Lussac law

Wave nature of sound and light

Selected properties of light
Selected properties of sound
Ultrasound
ELECTRICITY

Nature of electricity
Units of electrical measurement such as ampere and volt
Precautions in the use of electricity in the hospital setting

PHYSICS Laboratory:
Measurements: How to measure the length, mass volume of simple everyday objects in S.I

Units.
Pressure
REFERENCES:

Flitter , H.H (1989).Physics in Nursing. St. Louis: C.V Mosby

Lankford, T.R (1984). Integrated Sciences for Health Students. Virginia: Reston Co.
Hinword .B (1993). A Text book of Science for the Health Professionals . London:Chapman and
Mall.

UNIT NO. 1
PHYSICS
It is the branch of science, which deals with the study of properties of matter,
energy and their mutual relationship.
There are two main divisions of physics which are:
a. Classical physics: motion and energy, mechanics, force and
motion, heat, sound, electricity, magnetism and light.
b. Modern physics: atomic, molecular and electron physics, nuclear
physics, relativity, origin of universe, astrophysics.
Following are the branches of Physics:
Mechanics: It is the study of motion and the physical affect which influence motion.
Heat & Thermodynamics: It is the study of thermal energy possessed by molecules.
Sound: It is the study of physical aspects of audible sound energy.
Light: It is the study of physical aspects of visible light.
Electromagnetism: It is the study of electromagnetism phenomena and mutual relationship
between them.
Atomic and molecular physics: It is the study of atoms and molecules of material things.
Nuclear Physics: It is study of isolated nuclei of the atoms.
Plasma Physics: Matter becomes gas on very high temperature. This is called plasma. The
study of properties of matter is this state is called plasma physics.
Solid State Physics: It is the study of properties of matter in solid form is called solid state
physics. It has three branches
i) Astrophysics is the study of heavenly bodies.
ii) Geophysics is the study of internal structure of earth.
iii) Biophysics is the study of biological sciences on the basis of physics.
Study of Physics
As the other branches of science, scientific skills are necessary in the
process of undertaking research and analysis in physics.
Research or Experiments are done systematically and step by step based on
scientific method.
Scientific method
Identifying Problem ---- Making Hypothesis -----Planning investigation
------Identifying and controlling variables ----conducting experiment
----collecting data ----recording data----making conclusions---writing reports.
Careers in Physics (examples)
1. Engineering
2. Computer Science
3. Industry

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Communication
Electronics
Medicine X ray
Environmental Science
Basic Research

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICS IN NURSING

The study of physics enables the nurses

To understand the relationship of different properties of matter and energy.

To understand the basic fundamental units of measurement, necessary for
the accuracy of fluids and medicines during nursing practice.
It helps to understand the mechanism of friction and its effects on
patients.
The nurses:
Will be able to understand the measures to decrease friction.
Will be able to understand the use of different machines in daily life and
patient care.
Will be able to understand the gravity and it effects on different positions
of patients during procedures.
Will be able to understand the Gas laws and their effects in respiration
Will be able to understand the nature of electricity and its uses and
precautions during procedures.
It helps to understand the nature of waves and sound and their frequency
and uses in daily life.

UNIT NO. 02
MEASUREMENT
Why do we need a standardized system of measurement?
Scientific community is global.
An international language of measurement allows a scientist to
share, interpret, and compare experimental findings with other scientists,
regardless of nationality or language barriers.
There are several systems of units, each containing units for
properties such as length, volume, weight, and time.
By the 1700s, every country used its own system of weights and measures.
Only the England had three different systems just within its own borders.
The English /British System of Units
In the English system the units are defined in an arbitrary way.
Length

Area

12 inches

= 1 foot

144 square
inches

3 feet

= 1 yard

9 square feet

220 yards

= 1 furlong

4,840 square
yards

8 furlongs

= 1 mile

640 acres

5,280 feet
1,760 yards
Volume
1,728 cubic
inches

= 1 mile
= 1 mile

1 square mile
36 sections
Capacity (Dry)
16 fluid ounces/2
cup
2 pints /32
ounces
8 quarts
4 pecks
Capacity
(Liquid)
4 gills

27 cubic feet

= 1 cubic foot
= 1 cubic
yard

Mass
437.5 grains

= 1 ounce

16 ounces

= 1 pound

14 pounds

= 1 stone
= 1 hundred
weight

100 pounds

2 pints

= 1 square
foot
= 1 square
yard
= 1 acre
= 1 square
mile
= 1 section
= 1 township
= 1 pint
= 1 quart
= 1 peck
= 1 bushel

= 1 pint
= 1 quart

20 hundred
= 1 ton
4 quarts
weights
Apothecaries' Measures
Troy Weights
= 1 fluid
60 minims
24 grains
dram
= 1 fluid
8 fluid drams
20 pennyweights
ounce
16 fluid
= 1 pint
ounces
Apothecaries' Weights
20 grains
= 1 scruple
16 ounces
3 scruples
= 1 dram
2000 lb
8 drams
= 1 ounce
Time: second (s), minute (min), hour (h), day (d),
year (y)
60 s = 1 min
24 h = 1 d
60 min = 1 h
3651/4 d = 1 y

= 1 gallon
=1
pennyweight
= 1 ounce

= I lb
= 1 ton

Metric System & SI

The SI stands for "System International. There are 3 fundamental SI
units for LENGTH, MASS, and TIME.
The first standardized system of measurement: the Metric system
o Developed in France in 1791
o Named based on French word for measure
o based on the decimal (powers of 10)
System International de,Unites (International System of Units)
o Modernized version of the Metric System
o Abbreviated by the letters SI.
o Established in 1960, at the 11th General Conference on Weights and
Measures.
o Units, definitions, and symbols were revised and simplified.
Components of the SI System
The SI system of measurement has 3 parts:
o base units
o derived units
o prefixes
Unit: measure of the quantity that is defined to be exactly 1
Prefix: modifier that allows us to express multiples or fractions of a base
unit
As we progress through the course, we will introduce different base units
and derived units.
National Bureau of Standards
International Bureau of Weight and Measures in Paris
Physical quantity: A quantity that can be measured by instrument, clearly
defined and has proper units is called physical quantity.
Physical quantities are classified as fundamental and derived quantities
Fundamental units

The physical quantity which does not depend on any other physical
quantity is called a fundamental physical quantity such as length; mass and
time are called fundamental units
System of units: There are three systems of units.
Name of
system

Fundamental
unit of
Length
Foot
Centimetre
Meter

Mass
Time
F.P.S.
Pound
Second
C.G.S.
Gram
Second
M.K.S.
Kilogra
Second
(S.I.)
m
The base units:
A unit of measurement that can be determined by taking one
measurement without having to combine with any other measurement
Length, mass, and temperature are examples of base units.
The Seven Base SI
Unit
Symbol
UnitsQuantity
Length
meter
m
Mass
kilogra
kg
m
Temperature
Kelvin
K
Time
second
s
Amount of Substance
mole
mol
Luminous Intensity
candela
cd
Electric current
ampere
A

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

DEFINITIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

Meter: Meter is defined as "The distance between the two marks on a
Platinum-Iridium bar kept at 0OC in the International Bureau of Weight and
Measures in Paris."
The currently accepted definition of meter is the length of path travelled
by light in vacuum in 1/299,792,458th second.
Kilogram: Kilogram is the fundamental unit of mass. It is defined as the
mass of a specific cylinder of platinum - iridium kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris.
Second: Second is the fundamental unit of time. It is defined as 86,400th
part of a mean solar day.
Second is accurately measured by an atomic clock. A second is
defined in terms of the time period of Cs-133 atoms.
i.e." one second is equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of vibrations of
Cs-133 atoms."
60 seconds = one minute
3600 seconds = one hour
Coulomb: Coulomb is the fundamental unit of charge. It is defined as the
charge required to obtain 9109 newton of force between two equal
charges separated at a distance of one meter in vacuum.
Candela: Candela is the fundamental unit of luminous intensity. It is
defined as luminous intensity observed from a source of monochromatic

(vi)
(vii)

light of frequency 540x1012 Hz, that has an intensity of 1/683 watt per
steradian.
Kelvin: Kelvin is the fundamental unit of temperature. It has value of zero
where the molecular activity of gases cease.
Mole: Mole is the fundamental unit of quantity of matter. It is defined as
amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary particle
as there are in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 (C-12)
DERIVED UNITS
The units that can be obtained from fundamental units are called derived
units.
Example
Acceleration = velocity/Time = V/S = (m/s)/s = m/s2 = ms-2
Derived SI Units (examples)
Quantity

unit

Volume
Density

cubic meter
kilograms per cubic
meter
meter per second
kg m/ s2
Joule (kg m2/s2)
Pascal (kg/(ms2)

Speed
Newton
Energy
Pressure

Symbo
l
m3
kg/m3
m/s
N
J
Pa

Prefix /Scientific Notation:

In Science the very large and very small units are expressed in
numerical figures on the base of 10. In this way we can read, write and
calculate very easily these very large and very small figures.
It is a modifier that allows us to express multiples or fractions of a base unit.
In example we write that
1 metric ton weight = 1000 Kg
or 1000000 grams
But we can express these as
1 metric ton = 1.0x103 Kg
or 1.0 x 106 grams
Number expressed as:
o Product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10
5.63 x 104, meaning
5.63 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
or 5.63 x 10,000
o ALWAYS has only ONE nonzero digit to the left of the decimal
point
o ONLY significant numbers are used in the first number
o First number can be positive or negative

o Power of 10 can be positive or negative

When to Use Scientific Notation
Astronomically Large Numbers
o mass of planets, distance between stars
Infinite Small Numbers
o size of atoms, protons, electrons
Powers of 10
Positive Exponents

Negative Exponents
1

10 101 0.1

10 10
1

1
10 2 101 101 100
0.01

10 10 10 100
2

1
10 3 101 101 101 1000
0.001

10 10 10 10 1000
3

10 4 10 10 10 10 10,000

10 4 101 101 101 101 10,1000 0.0001

Exponent of Zero Means 1

100 = 1
SI Unit Prefixes: Positive exponents
Name Symb Factor
ol
yotta

10

24

zetta

10

21

exa

1018

peta

1015

tera

1012

giga

109

mega

106

kilo

103

hecto

102

deca

da

10 1

Negative exponents

Name
decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoAtto
zepto
yocto

Symb
ol
d
c
m

n
p
f
a
z
y

Facto
r
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
1018
1021
1024

SI Unit Prefixes for Length

Nam
e
gigamet
er
megam
eter
kilomet
er
decimet
er
centime
ter
millimet
er
microm
eter
nanome
ter
picomet
er

Sym
bol

Facto
r

Gm

109

Mm

106

km

103

dm

10-1

cm

10-2

mm

10-3

10-6

nm

10-9

pm

10-12

ADVANTAGES OF S.I.Units:
In international System the units are defined in length, mass, volume
and time which are standardized and accepted in all scientific researches. In
health sector this system is used to prescribe the medication, dosage,
parenteral fluid volume maintenance, basal metabolic index calculations,
percentages of blood configuration and measurements of vital signs, human
bodys mass, fluids and different organs volumes and capacity, is measured
in S.I. Units. All the books related to medical and scientific research explain
their research results in S.I.Units and these are internationally accepted all
over the world to scientific researching and consumers community.
Some conversions of units of length, mass and volume are:
Length
Volume
Centimeter 0.032808 foot=0.3937
Gallon
4 quart = 8 pints=
inch=0.01 meter
3.7853 litres
Foot
12 inch- 0.3048 meter
Litre
1000 milliliters =
Inch
1/12 foot=1/36 yard
Milliliter
0.001 litre= 1
=25.40005millimeters
milliliter
meter
39.37
Pint
quart =16 fluid
inch=1.093611yards=3.290833
ounce =0.473167
feet
litre
Millimeter
0.03937 inch=0.001 meter
quart
2 pints =32 fluid
ounce = 0.946333
litre

yard
weight
Kilogram
Milligram
pound

3 feet=36 inch= 0.91440183

meter
1000 grams= 2.2046223
pounds
0.001 gram
16 ounce = 453.5924 grams

UNIT NO.03
WHAT IS MOTION?
Motion is a change in position of an object with respect to time.
When a body is continuously changing its position with respect to the
surroundings, then we say that the body is in motion.
What are the different types of motion?
Linear motion: when a body moves either in a straight line or along a
curved path, then we say that it is executing linear motion.
1. When a body moves in a straight line then the linear motion is
called rectilinear motion.
E.g. an athlete running a 100 meter race along a straight track is said
to be a linear motion or rectilinear motion.
2. When a body moves along a curved path then the linear motion is
called curvilinear motion.
e.g., a planet revolving around its parent star
Other types of motion are:
Rotatory motion: A body is said to be in rotatory motion when it stays
at one place and turns round and round about an axis.
Example: a rotating fan, a spinning top, the earth.
Oscillatory motion: a body is said to be in oscillatory motion when it
swings to and fro about a mean position.
Example: the pendulum of a clock, the swing etc.
What is the physics relating to motion called?
Mechanics: it is an important branch of physics and deals with the
effect of force on bodies.
It is further divided into two parts
1. Dynamics: In dynamics we discuss the motion of bodies under
the action of forces.

2. Kinematics: it deals with the study of motion of bodies without

any reference to the cause of motion.

FORCE
Force is an action /agent that can change motion of a body.
Force is an action /agent that can change state of rest of a body.
A force is what we call a push or a pull, or any action that has the
ability to change an objects motion.
Forces can be used to increase the speed of an object, decrease the
speed of an object, or change the direction in which an object is
moving.
Centripetal force is the inward force exerted on an object to keep it
moving in a curved path.
Centrifugal force is the outward force exerted on the object that makes it
want to fly off into space
Inertia
Inertia is a term used to measure the ability of an object to resist a change
in its state of motion.
An object with a lot of inertia takes a lot of force to start or stop; an object
with a small amount of inertia requires a small amount of force to start or
stop.
The word inertia comes from the Latin word inertus, which can be
translated to mean lazy.
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws which provide
relationships between the forces acting on a body and the motion of
the body.

1st Law An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will remain
in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2nd Law Force equals mass times acceleration.
3rd Law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
1st Law of Motion (law of inertia)
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity: whether
in motion or motionless.
Once air borne, unless acted on by an unbalanced force (gravity and air
fluid friction), it would never stop!
Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, this golf ball would sit on the tee
forever.
Why then, do we observe everyday objects in motion slowing down and
becoming motionless seemingly without an outside force?
Its a force we sometimes cannot see Friction.
Objects on earth, unlike the frictionless space the moon travels
through, are under the influence of friction.
Friction

There are four main types of friction:

o Sliding friction: ice skating
o Rolling friction: bowling
o Fluid friction (air or liquid): air or water resistance
o Static friction: initial friction when moving an object
Slide a book across a table and watch it slide to a rest position. The book
comes to a rest because of the presence of a force - that force being the
force of friction - which brings the book to a rest position.
In the absence of a force of friction, the book would continue in motion
with the same speed and direction - forever! (Or at least to the end of
the table top.)
Newton's Second Law
Three forms of the second law:
Use
If you want to
find
A= F/m
The
acceleration(a)
F= m/a
The net force(F)
M=F/a
The mass(m)

And you know

The net force(F)and the mass(m)
Acceleration(a) and the mass(m)
The acceleration(a) and the net
force(F)

Newtons 2nd law

The net force of an object is equal to the product of its mass and
acceleration, or F=ma.
When mass is in kilograms and acceleration is in m/s/s, the unit of force is
in newtons (N).
One Newton is equal to the force required to accelerate one kilogram of
mass at one meter/second/second.
How much force is needed to accelerate a 1400 kilogram car 2
meters per second/per second?
Write the formula
F=mxa
Fill in given numbers and units
F = 1400 kg x 2 meters per second/second
Solve for the unknown
2800 kg-meters/second/second or 2800 N
Net Force
N
10
20
20
20

Mass
Kilograms
2
2
5
1

Acceleration
m/s/s
5 m/s/s
10 m/s/s
5 m/s/s
m/s/s
10 m/s/s

Newtons 2nd Law proves that different masses accelerate to the earth at
the same rate, but with different forces.
We know that objects with different masses accelerate to the ground at the
same rate.
However, because of the 2nd Law we know that they dont hit the ground with
the same force.
M= 10 Kg

a=

F
m

M= 1 Kg

a=

F
m

a=

9.8 N
1 kg

A=9.8 m/s2
a=

98 N
10 kg

A=9.8 m/s2
F = ma
98 N = 10 kg x 9.8 m/s/s

F = ma
9.8 N = 1 kg x 9.8
m/s/s

Newton's third Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

According to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they
exert forces upon each other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a
downward force on the chair and the chair exerts an upward force on your body.
There are two forces resulting from this interaction - a force on the chair and a
force on your body. These two forces are called action and reaction forces.
Newtons 3rd Law in Nature
Consider the propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push
water backwards. In turn, the water reacts by pushing the fish forwards,
propelling the fish through the water.
The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the
direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the
force on the fish (forwards).

Flying gracefully through the air, birds depend on Newtons third law of
motion. As the birds push down on the air with their wings, the air pushes their
wings up and gives them lift.
Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by use of its wings. The wings
of a bird push air downwards. In turn, the air reacts by pushing the bird
upwards.
The size of the force on the air equals the size of the force on the bird; the
direction of the force on the air (downwards) is opposite the direction of the
force on the bird (upwards).
Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for birds to fly.
Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with
wheels which spin backwards. As the wheels spin backwards, they grip the
road and push the road backwards.
The reaction of a rocket is an application of the third law of motion. Various
fuels are burned in the engine, producing hot gases.
The hot gases push against the inside tube of the rocket and escape out the
bottom of the tube. As the gases move downward, the rocket moves in the
opposite direction.

SPEED, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Introduction
Kinematics is the science of describing the motion of objects using words,
diagrams, graphs, and equations.
The goal of kinematics is to develop mental models to describe the motion of realworld objects.
The motion of objects can be described by words.
Even a person without a background in physics has a collection of words, which
can be used to describe moving objects. For example, going faster, stopped,

slowing down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for
describing the motion of objects.
In physics, we use these words as the language of kinematics.
1. Distance and Displacement
2. Speed and Velocity
3. Acceleration
These words which are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into
two categories.
The quantity is either a vector or scalar.
1. Scalars are quantities which are described by a magnitude only.
2. Vectors are quantities which are described by both a magnitude and a
direction.

Distance: length between two points in a straight line or length moved through a
definite path.
Distance refers to the total length of travel irrespective of the
direction of the motion.
Displacement: Distance moved in a definite direction (vector quantity).
Displacement refers to the distance moved in a particular
direction. It is the object's overall change in position.
In physics, the word position refers to the location of an object at one instant.
A position is always specified relative to an origin.
The net change in position relative to the origin is called displacement.

Distance
Distance refers to the total length
of travel irrespective of the
direction of the motion.
It is a scalar quantity.
SI unit: metre (m)
Other common units: kilometre
(km), centimetre (cm)

Displacement
Displacement refers to the distance
moved in a particular direction.
It is the object's overall change in
position.
It is a vector quantity.
SI unit: metre (m)
Other common units: kilometre (km),
centimetre (cm)

Example 1
A student walks 4 m East, 2 m South, 4 m West, and finally 2 m North.
Total distance = 12 m
During the course of his motion, the total length of travel is 12 m.
Total displacement = 0 m
When he is finished walking, there is no change in his position.
The 4 m east is canceled by the 4 m west; and the 2 m south is canceled by
the 2 m north.

SPEED
Definition: Rate at which an object moves

Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving.

It is the rate at which a distance is covered
Units of speed could be: km/h, m/s, mi/h, ft/s
In physics we use units of m/s for speed
distance
Speed
time

s = d/t
Instantaneous Speed
Instantaneous speed is speed at
any instant in time.

A speedometer measures speed in

real time (the instantaneous
speed).

Constant speed - speed that doesnt change

Average Speed
Average speed is the average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a
total distance/total time ratio
The average speed of the entire journey can be calculated:
Total distance travelle d
Average Speed
Total time taken
VELOCITY
Velocity is the distance travelled in a specific direction.
Velocity is defined as speed in a given direction or rate of change of position
(displacement over time). v = x/t
Velocity refers to both the speed and direction of motion of an object (a vector
quantity).
Negative velocity means the object is moving in the opposite direction
Motion at constant velocity means that both the speed and direction of an
object do not change.
In a car, we can change the velocity three ways: gas pedal to speed up, brake
to slow down or steering wheel to change direction
Speed
Velocity
Speed is the rate of change of
Velocity is the distance travelled in a specific
distance.
direction.
speed has no direction
It is also defined as the rate of change of
It is a scalar quantity.
displacement.
It is a vector quantity.
distance
Speed
Change in displaceme nt in a direction
time
Velicoty
time taken

Speed refers to how

quickly an object moves (a
scalar quantity).
(it is a scalar quantity

Velocity is defined as speed in a given

direction or rate of change of position
(displacement over time). v = x/t
Velocity refers to both the speed and
direction of motion of an object (a vector
quantity).
Velocity at any instant is simply the speed
with a direction.

An object is moving in a circle at a constant speed of 10 m s-1.

We say that it has a constant speed but its velocity is not constant.
WHY
The direction of the object keeps changing.
Acceleration

For its velocity to change, an object must accelerate.

An object accelerates whenever its speed or direction or both change.

Acceleration may be positive (increasing speed) or negative (decreasing

speed).

Units: m/s/s or km/s/s

Acceleration is a measure of how quickly the velocity changes: a = Dv/t

change of velocity
accelerati on
time interval
a = (Vf Vi) t

or

where Vf = Final velocity and

Vi =

initial velocity

v-u
t

a
where a = acceleration, v =final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = time.
Acceleration at constant speed

An object moving in a circle at constant speed is always accelerating

(changing direction).
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY, G
Newton told us that every object with mass attracts every other object with
mass and the size of the attraction depends on the mass of each object and
the distance between the objects
We dont feel the attraction of most objects because their mass is small
relative to the Earth which has a huge mass.
The Earth pulls so that objects experience an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
This acceleration is given a special letter, g. and it is = 9.8 m/s2
So during each second an object is in free fall, its velocity increases by 9.8
m/s. If the object experiences air resistance its velocity wont increase as fast
because air resistance will slow it down.

The unit of FORCE is in Newton (N).

The ACCELERATION due to gravity is given a special letter, g. and it is =
9.8 m/s2
Units of speed could be: km/h, m/s, mi/h, ft/s

Unit of Distance: SI unit: metre (m) Other common units: kilometre (km),
metres,centimetre (cm)
Unit of Displacement: SI unit: metre (m) Other common units: kilometre
(km), centimetre (cm)
Unit of Acceleration: SI unit: m/s2

Friction
Friction is a force between two surfaces that are sliding, or trying to slide across one
another, for example when you try to push a toy car along the floor.
When a body slides over the surface of another body, an opposing force is set
up between them to resist the motion. The force which opposes the motion
is called friction OR Force of Friction.

Force of friction tends to decelerate a body and always acts in the opposite
direction of motion.
Friction always works in the direction opposite from the direction the object is
moving, or trying to move. It always slows a moving object down.
The amount of friction depends on the materials from which the two surfaces
are made. The rougher the surface, the more friction is produced. For
example, you would have to push a book harder to get it moving on a carpet
than you would on a wooden floor. This is because there is more friction
between the carpet and the book than there is between the wood and the
book.
Friction also produces heat. For example, if you rub your hands together
quickly, they get warmer.
Friction is a Force that always pushes against an object when it touches another
object
Cause of Friction: the microscopic roughness between surfaceslike two gears
locking together.
High friction (lots of friction) will slow something down
Low friction (not much friction) will keep things moving
Types of friction
Static
Sliding
Rolling
Fluid
Static
Friction that acts on something that is not moving
Piano is held in place by static friction
Static friction keeps you in your seat
No heat is generated.
Dry friction: occurs when non smooth (non ideal) surfaces of two solids are in
contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide.
Static Friction Static > Kinetic energy
Kinetic Friction So it takes more force to start moving an object

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sliding
Force resulting when pushing or pulling an object over a surface.
Moving daypushing a box across the floor
Heat can result
Rolling
Contact is reduced because of rollers or wheels or ball bearings.
Skate boards have ball bearings in the wheels.
A cart has wheels.
Less heat and wear will result.
Rolling Friction (< sliding)
wheels and ball bearings
Fluid friction
Resistance from a liquid or air.
Walking or swimming through water
Olympic bike riders

Characteristics of Sliding Friction

Friction acts parallel to the surface and opposite of the motion!
Friction depends on the type of materials in contact!
Sliding friction is always less than starting (static) friction!
Friction is independent of the surface area in contact!
Friction depends upon the Normal Force!
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.
1. It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When we
move on ice, it
becomes difficult to walk due to low friction of ice.
2. We can not fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is friction which
holds the nail.
3. A horse can not pull a cart unless friction furnishes him a secure Foothold.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it also has
some disadvantages like:
1. The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in various parts of
machines. In this way some useful energy is wasted as heat energy.
2. Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.
3. It opposes the motion.
4. Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.
5. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel which is a money
loss.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
there are a number of methods to reduce friction in which some are discussed
here.
USE OF LUBRICANTS:
The parts of machines which are moving over one another must be properly
lubricated by using oils and lubricants of suitable viscosity.
1. USE OF GREASE:
Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine reduces the friction.
USE OF BALL BEARING:
2. In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by rolling friction
by using ball bearings.

3. DESIGN MODIFICATION:
Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving objects. The
front of vehicles and airplanes made oblong to minimize friction.
APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION IN NURSING AND DAILY LIFE
Whenever friction occurs between two contacting surfaces, the friction occurs.
Friction is undesirable but it is beneficial in many situations.
Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are handicap.
It is becomes difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When we
move on ice, it becomes difficult to walk due to low friction of ice. It is friction
which holds the nail in the wood or wall. A horse cannot pull a cart unless
friction furnishes him a secure Foothold.
The friction normally produced by the soles of the shoes over the rough
surface of the street, eases to walk, run or jogging, if the resistance is
lessened, the pedestrians can easily slip about.
The ability to grasp objects in hands is due to the friction provided by the
ridges of the fingers and hands.
It is difficult to walk over plain and slippery flours for the staff in hospitals so
the floors are designed with somewhat frictional properties.
Without friction we cannot burn a stick over match.
UNIT NO.04
GRAVITY AND STABILITY
GRAVIRY
There is a power of gravity pertaining to all bodies in the universe,
proportional to the several quantities of matter which they contain.
The force acts in the direction of the line connecting the centers of their
masses.
Gravity is defined as the force which gives freely falling objects on or near the
surface of the earth with acceleration.
On the earth its value is 9.8m/sec2.
Every object in our universe attracts the other object with certain fore
towards its center.
Any two objects attract each other with a gravitational force, proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
The force acts in the direction of the line connecting the centers of the masses
This force of attraction is known as gravitational force and the phenomenon is
called gravitation.
This is gravitational force which is responsible for the uniformity or regularity
in our daily astronomical life.
The whole system of the universe is in order only due to this force. Due to
gravitation, the system of our universe is working uniformly and smoothly. The
planets around the earth or around the sun move in an orderly motion due to
gravitation.
NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION
In order to explain the gravitational force between two bodies, Newton formulated
in 1667 a fundamental law known after his name i.e. "NEWTON'S LAW OF
GRAVITATION".
Newtons law of gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts the
other object with a force and the gravitational force of attraction between two

bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses. F

m x
1

m2 ------- (1)
(1)
The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
F 1/d2 --------- (2)

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
Combining (1) and (2)
F m m /d2
1

F = G m1m2/d2
F=G

m1 m2
d2

Where G = universal gravitational

constant
Value of G:
Henry Cavendishs experiment
determined the proportionality constant
G in 1798.
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2

The change in gravitational force with

distance follows the inverse square law

Change of Gravitational Force with

Distance
Law of universal gravitation is known as
an inverse square law.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Center of gravity of a body is a point where total weight of the body is
concentrated.
The center of a body is that point in the body through which the resultant
forces due to the earths attraction posses and through which the whole
weight of the body always acts.
Every body posses a center of gravity and this is irrespective of the body. It is
not necessary that the center of gravity should be within the body, but it may
also be situated in space outside the body. Example: center of gravity of a ring
is at the center, which is in the space.
Near the surface of the earth, the force of gravity is the same on all parts of
the body. This means that the center of gravity and center of mass of an
object are the same location.
It is Balance point of the body.
Point about which the body rotates while free in the air.
Point of the body where we can consider all of the weight of the body to
act.

A uniform stick

There are numerous particles in the stick that each have a mass. Gravity acts
on all of these masses producing forces which act at a distance from the center
of gravity. Because these forces act at a distance, they produce a torque. The
point where all these torques balance out is the center of gravity.
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT REGULAR OBJECTS:
There are three different axes about which an object will naturally spin.
The point at which the three axes intersect is called the center of gravity or
center of mass.
Rectangle
Center of gravity of a rectangular is at the point of intersection of its
diagonals
Circle
Center of gravity of a circle is at its center.
Square
Center of gravity of square is at the point of intersection of its diagonals.
Regular bar
The center of gravity of a regular bar is at its geometrical center.
Triangle
The center of gravity of a triangle is at the point of intersection of its
medians.
Cylinder
The center of gravity of a cylinder is at the axis of cylinder.

CENTER OF GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT IRREGULAR OBJECTS:

There are three different axes

about which an object will
naturally spin.

The point at which the three axes

intersect is called the center of
mass.

If an object is irregularly shaped, the

center of mass can be found by
spinning the object and finding the
intersection of the three spin axes.

There is not always material at an

objects center of mass.

FINDING THE CENTER OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULARLY SHAPED

OBJECT
The center of gravity of an irregularly shaped object
can be found by suspending it from two or more
points.
For very tall objects, such as skyscrapers, the
acceleration due to gravity may be slightly different
at points throughout the object.

APPLICATION OF GRAVITY IN DAILY LIFE AND NURSING

The force of gravity is so much the part of our daily life that it is difficult to
comprehend its absence.
Without gravity there would be no pressure in liquids, and therefore no irrigations,
intravenous infusions, or blood transfusion would be possible.
Circulation of the blood depends on gravity.
The blood pressure in the blood vessels of head and neck is slightly less than the
lower extremities.
Changing in positions of body alignments, alter the blood pressure in different
parts of the body.
In a fainting spell, the brain is temporarily deprived of blood. But when the person
feels faint the same effect may be accomplished by lowering the head.
The effects of gravity are visible in the blanching of the upraised hand and in the
reddening and venous distension of the other hand.
Gravity exercises are sometimes prescribed for patients with circulatory disorders
of the lower extremities.
These exercises consist of alternately swinging the legs over the side of the bed.
The change in position aids in improving circulation of the blood.
An electrically driven oscillating bed may be used in the treatment of circulatory
disorders .
Postural drainage is a treatment in which the patient lies on his abdomen across
the bed with his chest and head hanging down over the side of the bed. It utilizes
the gravity to affect drainage from the lungs.
Patients are placed pre operative and postoperative in a special positions due to
gravity.
After operation on the throat or mouth the patients head is usually lowered and
placed to one side so that the mucus and fluids will drain out of the mouth by
gravity.
Brain surgery is frequently done in sitting or semi-sitting position to lessen the
danger of hemorrhage.
After thoracic surgery the patient is placed in semi sitting position to increase
drainage from the thorax through the drainage tube by gravity.
A diagnostic test ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate is done on the base of gravity

The blood is mixes with sodium citrate or sodium oxalate and then it is kept in a
log thin glass tube. The weak RBCs sediment fastly and it is the sign of presence of
a chronic disease and if these RBCs sediment slowly and up to normal limit .it
shows absence of such disease.

Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
In other words if the linear and angular acceleration of a body are zero, the
body is said to be in equilibrium.
Or we can say that when two or more forces act on a body such that their
resultant or combining effect on the body is Zero and the body retains its state
of rest or of uniform motion then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Example: A book lying on the table, suspended bodies, all stationary bodies ,
jump by using parachute.
Types of equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two
categories:
1. Static equilibrium.
2. Dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium
If the combined effect of all the forces acting on a body is zero and the body is in
the state of rest then its equilibrium is termed as static equilibrium. For
example: All stationary bodies
Dynamic equilibrium
When a body is in state of uniform motion and the resultant of all the forces
acting upon it is zero then it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. For
example: Jump by using parachute.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
There are two conditions of equilibrium are as follows
First condition of equilibrium:
The first condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
To maintain the transitional equilibrium in a body the vector sum of all the forces
acting on the body is equal to zero
In other words we can say that to maintain equilibrium the sum of all the forces
acting along X-axis is zero and the sum of all the forces acting along Y-axis is
zero.
Second condition of equilibrium
The second condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
A body will be in rotational equilibrium when the algebraic sum of clock wise
torque and anti clock wise torque is zero. In other words it can be stated that a
body will be in rotational equilibrium if vector sum of all the torque acting on the
body is zero.
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
There are three states of equilibrium:

1. Stable
equilibrium

2. Unstable
equilibrium

3. Neutral
equilibrium

 Stable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies below point of suspension or support,
the body is said to be in STABLE EQUILIBRIUM. For example a book lying on a
table is in stable equilibrium.
Explanation: A book lying on a horizontal surface is an example of stable
equilibrium. If the book is lifted from one edge and then allowed to fall, it will
come back to its original position.
Other examples of stable equilibrium are bodies lying on the floor such as chair,
table etc.
1. Reason of stability
When the book is lifted its center of gravity is

raised . The line of action of weight passes

through the base of the book. A torque due to
weight of the book brings it back to the original
position.

2. Unstable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies above the
point of suspension or support, the body is said to
be in unstable equilibrium Example pencil
standing on its point or a stick in vertically standing
position.
Explanation:
If thin rod standing vertically is slightly disturbed
from its position it will not come back to its original
position. This type of equilibrium is called
unstable equilibrium, other example of unstable
equilibrium are vertically standing cylinder and
funnel etc.

Reason of
instability

When the rod is slightly disturbed its center of gravity is lowered . The line of
action of its weight lies outside the base of rod. The torque due to weight of the
rod toppled it down.
3. Neutral equilibrium

When the center of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support,
the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium. Example: rolling ball.

Explanation If a ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will neither come back to its
original nor it will roll forward rather it will remain at rest. This type of equilibrium
is called neutral equilibrium.

Reason of neutral equilibrium


If the ball is rolled, its center of
gravity is neither raised nor
lowered. This means that its center
of gravity is at the same height as
before.

Placement of the Center of Gravity in Humans

The location of the CG of a human being in the normal standing position varies
with body build, age, and sex
Males CG is ~57% of standing height
In quiet standing, the CG can be considered to be almost directly over the
center of pressure
Center of pressure is the point at which the force vector for ground reaction
force is applied
Females CG is ~ 55% of standing height

Adjusting the Center of Gravity

Humans spend most of their time adjusting their positions to the type of
equilibrium best suited to the task and environment
Factors Affecting Stability
The ability to maintain ones balance under unfavorable circumstance is
recognized as one of the basic motor skills
The following factors affecting the stability of a performers equilibrium state
should make analysis easier
may suggest means for improvement
Horizontal Center of Gravity
There are different types of support systems in order to maintain equilibrium
and stability
Size of the base of Support
CG must remain within the base of support in order to maintain stable and in
equilibrium
Easier with larger base of support
Shape of the base of Support
Base of Support
Both feet and hands a quadruped
Babies crawl, roll and sprawl in their form of locomotion
Children and adults biped
Seniors quadruped with the help of a walker
Age and fitness specific
Vertical Center of Gravity
Height and location of Center of Gravity along a vertical line (y axis)
Height of the Center of Gravity
Height of Center of Gravity (CG)

Height of CG changes with body position along the vertical line

As CG moves closer to base of support more angular displacement can occur
before it goes beyond the base of support
Relationship of the Line of Gravity to the Base of Support
To maintain equilibrium, line of gravity must remain within its base of support
Mass of the Body
Only a factor when motion or an external force is involved
Amount of force needed to effect a change in motion is proportional to the mass
being moved
The greater the mass, the greater the stability
Friction
Friction is related to the size of the base of support
It has greater influence when body is in motion or being acted on by an external
force
Inadequate friction makes it more difficult to maintain equilibrium
Segmental Alignment
The human body consists of a series of segments placed one above the other,
the problem of retaining equilibrium is a multiple one
When segments are aligned in a single vertical line, there is less likely hood of
strain to joints and muscles
When one segment gets out of line, another segment must compensate for it

Visual and Psychological Factors

The effect of crossing a swirling river on a foot bridge is a detriment to ones
equilibrium
Even if the supporting surface is adequate
The sense of balance may be disturbed, extraordinary stimuli
Compensation: fix eyes on a stationary spot above or beyond the danger area
Seems to facilitate neuromuscular control by reducing the disturbing stimuli
Physiological Factors
Semicircular canals can affect equilibrium
Colds, viruses, and other problems can affect the inner ear may also
interfere with balance
Any disturbance of the general physical condition is likely to affect the sense of
balance

TORQUE
Torque, moment or moment of force (see the terminology below), is the
tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a
force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object.
Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as
a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench

connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or

tightens the nut or bolt.
The symbol for torque is typically , the Greek letter tau. When it is called
moment, it is commonly denoted M.
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied, the
length of the lever arm connecting the axis to the point of force application, and
the angle between the force vector and the lever arm. In symbols:

Torque
A torque is an action that causes objects to rotate.
Torque is not the same thing as force.
For rotational motion, the torque is what is most directly related to the motion,
not the force.
Motion in which an entire

object moves is called

translation.

Motion in which an object

spins is called rotation.
The point or line about
which an object turns is its
center of rotation.

An object can rotate and

translate.

Torque is created when the line of

action of a force does not pass through
the center of rotation.
The line of action is an imaginary line
that follows the direction of a force and
passes though its point of application.

To get the maximum torque, the force

should be applied in a direction that
creates the greatest lever arm.
The lever arm is the perpendicular

distance between the line of action of

the force and the center of rotation

Balancing torques

0.5 m

Left torque = 10 N x 1 m = 10 N m
Right torque = 20 N x 0.5 m = 10 N m
By using the formula
F 1X d1 = F2X d2
MOMENTUM- LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

MOMENTUM
Quantity of motion of a body is referred to as "MOMENTUM".

Definition
Momentum of a moving body defined as :
"the product of mass and velocity of a body is called MOMENTUM."
Mathematically
Momentum = mass x velocity

It is a vector quantity. Momentum is always directed in the direction of velocity.

The unit of momentum is in S.I system kg .m/s or NS.

Momentum depends upon mass and velocity of body.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM.

The law of conservation of momentum states that:

"When some bodies constituting an isolated system act upon one another, the
total momentum of the system remains constant."
OR

"The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting bodies remains

constant." OR
"Total momentum of an isolated system before collision is always equal to total
momentum after collision."

Consider an isolated system of two bodies 'A' and 'B' as shown. The masses of
bodies are ma and mb

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION

Consider two bodies of mass m1 and m2 moving initially with velocities u1 and u2.

Total momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2

Let after collision their velocities become v1 and v2.

Total momentum after collision = m1v1 + m2v2

According to the law of conservation of momentum
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

UNIT NO.05
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

ENERGY
Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work.
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work.

If an object or organism does work (exerts a force over a distance to move

an object) the object or organism uses energy.

Nature of Energy
o Because of the direct connection between energy and work, energy is measured
in the same unit as work: joules (J).
o In addition to using energy to do work, objects gain energy because work is
being done on them.

USES OF ENERGY
Ability to do work or cause change
Produces Warmth
Produces Light
Produces Sound
Produces Movement
Produces Growth
Powers Technology

Forms/ States of Energy

There are two main states of energy in many forms:
1. Kinetic Energy
2. Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy :Energy of Motion

The energy of a moving object is called kinetic energy.
Everything you see moving about has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an
object in this case is given by the relation:
K.E = (1/2)mv2

m=mass of the object

V=velocity of the object

For an object of mass m, moving with velocity of magnitude v, this energy can
be calculated from the formula
o The faster an object moves, the more kinetic energy it has.
o The greater the mass of a moving object, the more kinetic energy it has.
o Kinetic energy depends on both mass and velocity.

Potential Energy: stored energy

o Substances like wood, coal, oil, and gasoline have stored energy as Potential
energy because of their chemistry they can burn

o Stored energy is potential energy ,it can be changed into Kinetic Energy
o Also Kinetic Energy can be changed into Potential Energy
Potential energy exists whenever an object which has mass has a position within
a force field. The most everyday example of this is the position of objects in the
earth's gravitational field. The potential energy of an object in this case is given by
the relation:

PE = mgh

PE = Energy (in Joules)

m = mass (in kilograms)

g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2)

h = height above earth's surface (in meters)

Gravitational Potential Energy
o Potential energy that is dependent on height is called gravitational potential
energy.
o Energy that is stored due to being stretched or compressed is called elastic
potential energy.
o A waterfall, a suspension bridge, and a falling snowflake all have gravitational
potential energy.
o The bigger they are the harder they fall is not just a saying. Its true. Objects
with more mass have greater G.P.E.
o The formula to find G.P.E. is

G.P.E. = Weight X Height.

The seven types of energy

1. Chemical - gasoline, food
2. Light flash light,
3. Heat burner on a stove,
4. Nuclear - sun,
5. Mechanical - car,
6. Sound music on the radio,
7. Electrical lightning

Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. This
form of potential energy, related to the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.
It is stored in food, fuels and batteries, and is released as other forms of energy
during chemical reactions.
Fossil fuels and biomass store chemical energy. Products that contain chemical
energy include: TNT, baking soda, and a match. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas,
propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
o
Chemical Energy is required to bond atoms together.
o
And when bonds are broken, energy is released.
The chemical bonds in a matchstick store energy that is transformed into
thermal energy when the match is struck

Electromagnetic Energy
energy that travels in waves; have electrical and magnetic properties

Light, Magnetism, X-Rays, Radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolent and infrared

radiation,
o It is a type of Kinetic energy.
o Power lines carry electromagnetic energy into your home in the form of
electricity.
o Light is a form of electromagnetic energy.
o Each color of light (VIBGYOR) represents a different amount of electromagnetic
energy.
o Electromagnetic Energy is also carried by X-rays, radio waves, and laser light.
o High power rays are harmful to human and animals

Light is the movement of photons

o Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation.
o Light travels in straight lines.
o Light travels in transverse waves.
o Light transmits ENERGY.
o Our Sun (a star) is a light source, just like a filament lamp or a firefly.
o Violet colour of light has the most energy.
Radiant energy
It is also called electromagnetic energy. Radiant energy is the movement of
photons. All life on earth is dependent on radiant energy from the sun. Examples of
radiant energy include radio waves (AM, FM, TV), microwaves, X-rays, and solar
radiation. Active solar energy uses photovoltaic panels and light to turn radiant
energy into chemical energy.
The chloroplast of plants converts CO2 and Water using solar radiation as energy
to form glucose for plant growth.
Magnetic energy is the attraction of objects made of iron. Medical equipment,
compass, refrigerator magnets are all examples of magnetic energy. Any type of
energy source that uses a generator in the process to make electricity uses
magnetic energy.
Heat /Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the internal energy in substances-the vibration and
movement of atoms and molecules within substance. Thermal energy is created in
the movement of atoms. Boiling water, burning wood, and rubbing your hands
together really fast are all examples of heat energy. Geothermal and passive solar
are sources of heat energy, but biomass (a type of chemical energy) can be burned
to produce heat energy.
o The internal motion of the atoms is called heat energy, because moving
particles produce heat.
o Heat energy can be produced by friction.
o Heat Energy is a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in
temperature
o Heat energy causes changes in temperature and phase of any form of matter.
o The heat energy of an object determines how active its atoms are.

 A hot object is one whose atoms and molecules are excited and show rapid
movement.
A cooler object's molecules and atoms will show less movement
Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is the Energy of the moving parts a machine. Also refers to
movements in humans
Mechanical energy is also the total amount of kinetic and potential energy in a
system. Wind-up toys, grandfather clocks, and pogo sticks are examples of
mechanical energy. Wind power uses mechanical energy to help create
electricity.
Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Mechanical energy
o When work is done to an object, it acquires energy. The energy it acquires is
known as mechanical energy.
o When you kick a football, you give mechanical energy to the football to make it
move.
When you throw a balling ball, you give it energy. When that bowling ball hits
the pins, some of the energy is transferred to the pins (transfer of momentum).
Sound Energy
Sounds are caused by vibrations and travels in longitudinal waves.
Sound transmits energy.
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in the form of longitudinal
/ compression waves.
Sound is the movement of molecules in the air that produces vibrations.
Alarms, music, speech, ultrasound medical equipment all use sound energy. VCR
tapes change sound energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy records the
sound using magnetic tape. Speakers read the magnetic tape and change it back
into sound.
The louder the sound, the more energy it transmits.
The quieter the sound, the less energy

Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is caused by the movement of electrons. Lightning in clouds
and static electricity are examples of electrical energy that occur naturally. Science
hasn't found a way to use natural forms of electrical energy, like lightning. Instead,
we use different energy sources to create electrical energy by using generators and
turbines.
o Easily transported through power lines and converted into other forms of energy
o It is the type of kinetic energy.
Electricity is so useful because it is such a convenient way to transfer energy to
a desired location or to a desired device.
The generation or use of electric power over a period of time expressed in
kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (NM) or gigawatt-hours (GWh).

Nuclear energy

 Nuclear energy is the most concentrated form of energy.

Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear energy is
unusual in that it can give off energy in the form of light or heat, but it is the
change in the atom's makeup that produces the energy.
When atomic nuclei join together it is known as nuclear fusion. When atomic
nuclei are split apart it is known as nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission powers nuclear power station and atomic weapons. Submarines,
power plants, and smoke detectors all use nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants
use uranium, a radioactive element, to create electricity.
Nuclear fusion powers the Sun and other stars.
The suns energy is produced from a nuclear fusion reaction in which hydrogen
nuclei fuse to form helium nuclei.
1 Kg of Uranium produces energy through nuclear fission equal to the burning
of 25 lac Kgs of Coal in an atomic reactor.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Energy is always changing from one kind to another. The total energy of an
object never changes.
Potential energy + Kinetic energy = Total energy
Total energy Kinetic energy = Potential energy
Total energy - Potential energy = Kinetic energy
Energy will always transfer from high to low.
No energy transfer is 100% efficient.
o Energy can be changed from one form to another. Changes in the form of
energy are called energy conversions.
o All forms of energy can be converted into other forms.
The suns energy through solar cells can be converted directly into electricity.
Green plants convert the suns energy (electromagnetic) into starches and
sugars (chemical energy).
In an electric motor, electromagnetic energy is converted to mechanical
energy.
In a battery, chemical energy is converted into electromagnetic energy.
The mechanical energy of a waterfall is converted to electrical energy in a
generator.
In an automobile engine, fuel is burned to convert chemical energy into heat
energy. The heat energy is then changed into mechanical energy.

WORK
Work is the transfer of energy through motion. In order for work to take place, a
force must be exerted through a distance.
The amount of work done depends on two things: the amount of force exerted
and the distance over which the force is applied. There are two factors to keep in
mind when deciding when work is being done: something has to move and the

motion must be in the direction of the applied force. Work can be calculated by
using the following formula:

Work=force x distance ,
W= F X S
W= work done, F = force applied, S = displacement in the direction of force.
SI unit for work = Joule (J), other unit = Nm
When work is done to an object, energy is transferred to the object.
Work is not done when:
The object is stationary and not moving
No force is applied on the object in the direction of displacement.
The direction of motion of the object is perpendicular to that of the applied force.
Kinetic energy or work done is given by:
Mv2
M = mass, v = velocity
Unit: Joule /kgm2s-2
Efficiency
Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is
transformed into useful energy.
Efficiency = (useful Energy output / Energy input ) X 100%
Efficiency = (Useful power output / Power input) X 100%
Unit is given in percentage.
You must know the importance of maximising the efficiency of device.
Power, Energy and Efficiency
POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
The SI unit of power is watt (w).
1 watt is defined as the power required to perform 1 joule of work in 1 second.
Power depends on the time taken and the work done .
People or engine with high power rating can get the work done in short time.
For a force F which produces a constant velocity, V,or a stationary object , the
power generated is:

P= Fv

Proof:
Power= Work / Time

= (Force x Displacement) / Time

=Force x ( Displacement/ Time)

= Force x velocity

P= Fv

MACHINES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Ancient people invented simple machines that would help them overcome
resistive forces and allow them to do the desired work against those forces easily.
Simple machines are useful because they can make a physical job easier by
changing the magnitude or the direction of the force exerted to do work.
All of the simple machines can be used for thousands of jobs. The reason why
these machines are so special is because they make difficult tasks much easier.
e.g. Have you ever tried to unscrew a nut, bolt, or screw from
something with your bare hands and discovered that it was just
too tight to loosen even if you had a good grip?

Simple machines are machines with few or no moving parts.

A machine is a device that helps make work easier to perform by accomplishing
one or more of the following functions:
transferring
transferring a force from one place to another,
another

changing the direction of a force,

increasing the magnitude of a force, or

Increasing the distance or speed of a force.

Simple Machines can be put together in different ways to make complex
machinery
Simple machines are important to us in our daily life.
They help us do work.
They make our lives easier.

Mechanical Advantage
It is useful to think about a machine in terms of the input force (the force you
apply) and the outputforce (force which is applied to the task).
When a machine takes a small input force and increases the magnitude of the
output force, a mechanical advantage has been produced.
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force divided by input force. If the
output force is bigger than the input force, a machine has a mechanical
advantage greater than one.
If a machine increases an input force of 10 pounds to an output force of 100
pounds, the machine has a mechanical advantage (MA) of 10.
In machines that increase distance instead of force, the MA is the ratio of the
output distance and input distance.
MA = output/input
No machine can increase both the magnitude and the distance of a force at the
same time.

WORK INPUT AND OUTPUT

Work input is the amount of work done on a machine.
o Input force x input distance

Work output is the amount of work done by a machine.

o Output force x output distance

EFFICIENCY
Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is
transformed into useful energy.
The comparison of work input to work output is called efficiency.
Input Force x Distance = Output Force x Distance
No machine has 100 percent efficiency because some output force is lost due to
friction.
Efficiency = (useful Energy output / Energy input ) X 100%
Efficiency = (Useful power output / Power input) X 100%
Unit is given in percentage.
You must know the importance of maximizing the efficiency of device.
Power, Energy and Efficiency
EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES
1. Machines are devices that make our work easier.
2. Machines require energy to work. This energy is called the input.
3. Machines transform this input into other forms of energy to perform useful
works.
4. However, the useful work obtained is not equal to the input as there is energy
loss In this process. This loss is mainly due to work done against frictional
forces and takes the forms of heat.
5. So, a machine is not perfect because the work done by the effort or input
energy is not wholly used to overcome the load.

THE 6 SIMPLE MACHINES

1.
Lever
2.
Inclined Plane
3.
Wedge
4.
Screw
5.
Wheel and Axle
6.
Pulley

1. THE LEVER
A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum.
The bar may be either straight or curved.
In use, a lever has both an effort (or applied) force and a load (resistant
force).

2. The 3 Classes of Levers


The class of a lever is determined by the location of the effort force and the load
relative to the fulcrum.
The mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of the length of the lever on
the applied force side of the fulcrum to the length of the lever on the resistance
force side of the fulcrum.

First Class Lever

In a first-class lever the fulcrum is located in the middle and at some point
between the effort and resistance forces.
Common examples of first-class levers include crowbars, scissors, pliers, tin
snips and seesaws.
A first-class lever always changes the direction of force (i.e. a downward
effort force on the lever results in an upward movement of the resistance
force).

Second class lever

the fulcrum is at the end, with the load in the middle

e.g. oxygen cylinder trolley,

Third Class Levers
In a third class lever the fulcrum is again at the end, but the effort is in the
middle

Forceps used in wards

3.
INCLINED PLANE
An inclined plane is an even sloping surface that is higher on one end.
The inclined plane makes it easier to move a weight from a lower to higher
elevation.
A sloping surface, such as a ramp. An inclined plane can be used to alter the
effort and distance involved in doing work, such as lifting loads. The trade-off is
that an object must be moved a longer distance than if it was lifted straight up,
but less force is needed.
You can use this machine to move an object to a lower or higher place. Inclined
planes make the work of moving things easier. You would need less energy and
force to move objects with an inclined plane.

The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is equal to the length of

the slope divided by the height of the inclined plane.

While the inclined plane produces a mechanical advantage, it does so by

increasing the distance through which the force must move.

A wagon trail on a steep hill will often traverse back and forth to reduce the
slope experienced by a team pulling a heavily loaded wagon.
This same technique is used today in modern freeways which travel winding
paths through steep mountain passes.
4.
WEDGE
The wedge is a modification of the inclined plane. Wedges are used as either
separating or holding devices.
A wedge can either be composed of one or two inclined planes. A double wedge
can be thought of as two inclined planes joined together with their sloping
surfaces outward.
Two inclined planes joined back to back.

Wedges are used to split things.

A wedge is a simple machine used to push
objects apart.
An ax is a wedge that splits wood.

Wedge Mechanical Advantage

The mechanical advantage of a wedge can be found by dividing the length of
either slope (S) by the thickness (T) of the big end.
As an example, assume that the length of the slope is 10 inches and the
thickness is 4 inches.
The mechanical advantage is equal to 10/4 or 2 1/2. As with the inclined plane,
the mechanical advantage gained by using a wedge requires a corresponding
increase in distance.

5.

SCREW

A screw is a simple machine used to hold objects together.

A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a shaft or cylinder.
The inclined plane allows the screw to move itself when rotated.
The screw is also a modified version of the inclined plane.
While this may be somewhat difficult to visualize, it may help to think of the
threads of the screw as a type of circular ramp (or inclined plane).

The mechanical advantage of a screw can be calculated by dividing the

number of turns per inch.
5.
Wheel and Axle
A wheel and axle is a simple machine made of a rod attached to the center of a
wheel.
The axle is a rod that goes through the wheel which allows the wheel to turn
Gears are a form of wheels and

axles
You probably have seen a wheel
and axle on scooters, cars, roller
skates, and wagons.

When either the wheel or axle turns, the other part also turns. One full
revolution of either part causes one full revolution of the other part.
The wrench and screw driver are examples of a wheel and axle, where the screw
or bolt is the axle and the handle is the wheel. The tool makes the job easier by
changing the amount of the force you exert.
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is the ratio of the radius of the
wheel to the radius of the axle.
If the radius of the wheel is five times larger than the radius of the axle.
Therefore, the mechanical advantage is 5:1 or 5.

6.
PULLEY
A pulley is a simple machine with a wheel and axle with a groove around the
outside with a rope.
A pulley needs a rope, chain or belt around the groove to make it do work
The rope fits around the edge of the wheel.
You can use a pulley to move a load up, down or sideways.

A pulley consists of a grooved

wheel that turns freely in a

frame called a block.
A pulley can be used to
simply change the direction of
a force or to gain a mechanical
advantage, depending on how
the pulley is arranged.
A pulley is said to be a fixed
pulley if it does not rise or fall
with the load being moved. A
fixed pulley changes the
direction of a force; however,
it does not create a
mechanical advantage.
A moveable pulley rises and
falls with the load that is being
moved. A single moveable
pulley creates a mechanical
advantage; however, it does
not change the direction of a
force.
The mechanical advantage of
a moveable pulley is equal to
the number of ropes that
support the moveable pulley.

Effort: The force applied to move a load using a simple machine.

Resistance: The weight or load that is moved using a simple machine.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MACHINES TRACTION AND LIFTING

Machines are widely used in our daily life .in nursing hundreds of
procedures are carried out through simple and compound machines.

During care of patients we use different types of instruments like

forceps, scissors and trolleys.

In many articles used in wards, mostly made up of more than one

simple machine, patients wheel chair, stretchers, beds

We shift the patients in many situations through ramps because the

shifting of patients is very difficult through stairs.

In surgical tray the chisels, cutting tools and cutting needles are the
examples of the wedge.

The patients are surgically operated with specific instruments which

are the examples of simple machines.

The screw drivers are utilized in daily life; it is the example of a wheel
and axle.

The complicated fractures are fixed using plates which are fixed with
nuts and screws

Oxygen supplying apparatus and ventilators are made up of more

than one simple machine.

Orthopedic patients with lower extremities fractures are helped to

maintain posture with pulleys and weight as supportive traction.

The needle of the syringe is made as the shape of a wedge.

Some advanced hospitals use lifts to shift the patients from bed to
stretchers and also from one unit to other units.

UNIT NO. 06
HEAT

HEAT
HEAT is the internal energy in substances. It is the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substance. Thermal energy is created in the
movement of atoms. Boiling water, burning wood, and rubbing your hands together
really fast are all examples of heat energy. Geothermal and passive solar are
sources of heat energy, but biomass (a type of chemical energy) can be burned to
produce heat energy.
The internal motion of the atoms is called heat energy, because moving
particles produce heat.
It is a measure of the internal energy that has been absorbed or transferred
from another object.
Heat Energy is a form of energy that is transferred or absorbed by a difference
in temperature.
Heat is energy that flows from a higher-temperature object to a lowertemperature object because of the difference in temperatures.
Heat energy causes changes in temperature and phase of any form of matter.
The heat energy of an object determines how active its atoms are.
o Two related processes with heat
o Heating = increasing internal energy
o Cooling = decreasing internal energy

A hot object is one, whose atoms and molecules are excited and show rapid
movement.

A cooler object's molecules and atoms will show less movement

SI Unit of Heat: joule (J)

Specific Heat amount of heat needed to raise ONE gram of a material ONE
degree Celsius.
The LOWER a materials specific heat the MORE its temperature rises when
energy is added.

Heating methods

1. Temperature difference: Energy always moves from higher temperature

regions to lower temperature regions
2. Energy-form conversion: Transfer of heat by doing work

Metric units
calorie (cal) - energy needed to raise temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree
Celsius
kilocalorie (kcal, Calorie, Cal) - energy needed to raise temperature of 1 kg of
water 1 degree Celsius

English system Unit

British thermal unit (BTU) - energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of
water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
Heat is a form of energy, and it is measured in joules. It takes about 4.18 joules
or one calorie of heat to change 1 gram of water by 1 Celsius degree.

A unit of heat common in the U.S. is the calorie, which is defined as the
amount of heat energy needed to change the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1
Celsius degree (the relationship between calories and joules is that 1 calorie = 4.18
joules).
Heat is pure energy. It does work. It can cause masses to move.
Heat can also be transferred or absorbed.
Heat can travel from one place to another by 3 ways.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

CALORIMETRY

A calorimeter is the experimental

apparatus used in a technique known as
calorimetry.
The kind of heat transfer that occurs
within a thermos of iced tea also occurs
within a calorimeter.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature, the degree of hotness or coldness of an object, is proportional
to the average (NOT total) kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules making it up.
Temperature is expressed quantitatively by a number that corresponds to the
degree of hotness on some chosen scale.
The scale most often used world-wide is the Celsius thermometer, where a zero
(0) is assigned to the temperature at which water freezes, and 100 is assigned to
the temperature at which water boils (at standard atmospheric pressure).

Common Temperature Scales

 A number of different temperature scales have been devised, two popular

choices being the Celsius (formerly, centigrade) and Fahrenheit scales.
On the Celsius scale, an ice point of 0 C (0 degrees Celsius) and a steam point
of 100 C were selected. On the Fahrenheit scale, an ice point of 32 F (32 degrees
Fahrenheit) and a steam point of 212 F were chosen. The Celsius scale is used
worldwide, while the Fahrenheit scale is used mostly to measure body temperature.
The temperature of the human body is about 37 C and 98.6 in Fahrenheit scale.

The Kelvin Temperature Scale

Kelvin temperature scale was introduced by the Scottish physicist William

Thompson (Lord Kelvin, 18241907), and in his honor each degree on the scale is
called a Kelvin (K). By international agreement, the symbol K is not written with a
degree sign (), nor is the word degrees used when quoting temperatures. For
example, a temperature of 300 K (not 300 K) is read as three hundred Kelvins,
not three hundred degrees Kelvin. The Kelvin is the SI base unit for temperature.
Kelvin is another way of measuring temperature. It is the SI base unit for
temperature.

Scientists use Kelvin to explain the behavior of

gases.
Absolute Zero is measured in Kelvin
which is the coldest possible temperature
Each thermometer has a sensor a material
which is affected by changes in the
environment (such as temperature)
The sensor produces a signal (information
about temperature, such as an electrical
current) which affects a responder (a pointer,
light or other mechanism that uses the signal
in some way)
In contrast to high temperatures, there is a
definite limit at the opposite end of the scale,
called absolute zero.
Temperature is based upon kinetic energy of molecules. The colder something is,
the slower the molecules. Eventually, the molecules will slow down SO much, they
will essentially stop moving (they will be out of energy, and so they cant get any
colder).
The absolute temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale. Absolute zero is 0 K. The
melting point of ice is 273 K, and the boiling point of water is 373 K. There are no
negative numbers on the Kelvin scale.

CONVERSION FORMULAS

o Celsius to Fahrenheit

o Fahrenheit to Celsius

o Celsius to Kelvin

9
F= C+ 32
5

5
C= ( F32 )
9

K = C+
273

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

HEAT
The total energy of all the
particles in a material.

Heat is energy, it can do work.

Heat can travel.

Heat is the amount of thermal
energy in an object because of
its moving molecules.

To responses of matter to heat,

Heat goes mostly into internal
kinetic energy
If heat goes into the system,
means heat is added in a
system, it increases kinetic
energy of its molecules
if heat leaves the system,
means heat is removed from a
system, it decreases kinetic
energy of its molecules
Heat is measured with an
instrument called a calorimeter.
Heat is pure energy. It does
work. It can cause masses to
move
Heat is measured in Joules,
Calories and BTU

TEMPERATURE
A measure of the average
energy of the particles in a
material.
Temperature is a man-made,
arbitrary scale indicating which
direction heat is flowing
Temperature can not travel.
Temperature is a measure of
thermal energy or how fast
molecules are moving in an
object.
To responses of matter to heat
temperature increase within a
given phase
If heat goes into the system,
temperature rises

If the heat leaves the system,

temperature declines.

Temperature is measured with

a thermometer.
Temperature can change as
heat is added or removed. But
temperature is a man made
scale.

There are three heat units

other than the joule in common
use
One kilocalorie (1 kcal)
one calorie (1 cal)
The British thermal unit (Btu)

Temperature is measured in
degree centigrade, Fahrenheit
and in Kelvin.
There are 3 thermometers, 3
temperature scales. Centigrade
or Celsius, Fahrenheit and in
Kelvin

Change of state of solid, liquid and gases

When heat is applied to the objects or substances or removed

from them, the physical state of the matter can change. If heat is applied to
the ice (SOLID STATE) the ice turns into water (liquid) and when water is
heated up to 100 C the water changes into vapors (gaseous) state. In the
same way when heat is removed from the different states, the states also
change in the same way. This change in states of matter with application and
removal of heat is very beneficial in daily life .Thousands of items are made
from metals for daily uses through melting and condensing the metals. We
prepare many items for daily uses which are converted from one state to the
other states. In example we use water in liquid state for drinking, washing
and bathing, but the same water is converted into ice to cool the water for
drinking and we also use steam for boiling, and sterilization of instruments in
O T. The steam is also used to move a turbine to produce electricity in power
houses.

We use hot water bottles and iced packs for patients nursing care in
hospitals.

Heat can travel from one place to another by 3 ways.

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction:
Heat can travel by conduction. One object can cause cooler objects to heat up.
Heat ALWAYS and ONLY travels from HOT to COLD. So via conduction, a hotter
object can transfer the energy to a cooler object.
It happens by contact. One object touches another and the energy of the hotter
causes the molecules of the cooler to begin to move faster, that is they have
more energy and thus the temperature goes up. Consider a metal spoon in a
pan of hot soup. The handle would eventually get hot even though only the bowl
of the spoon is in the soup so the atoms of hotter collide with atoms of cooler
and transfer their energy.
Conduction is the way heat travels through solids.
e.g. we boil water ,cook foods prepare tea or coffee etc.
Convection:

The second way that heat travels from one place to another is via convection.
Heat travels through fluids this way.
Let us define a fluid
A fluid is anything that flows. Liquids flow. But so do gasesair masses flow in
currents, air flows.
When liquids and gases are heated, gain more energy then they become less
dense. The molecules move faster and farther apart. Same mass in larger
volume. As a result of less density hot liquids and gases rise.
Removing energy from liquids and gases cools substances. The atoms and
molecules have less energy, move slower, cannot escape gravity easily or for as
long and so they tend to fall together and sink.
Fall together means the molecules and atoms get closer to one another. That
is the sample becomes denser. The mass is the same but the volume is smaller.
Because the molecules are more dense and because of that it sinks. Colder
gases or liquids sink.
e.g. the heat is transferred or removed through this way to cool up or heat up
the rooms.
Radiation:
It is the way heat can travel through a vacuum, through empty space.
Heat travels through nothing on something called an electromagnetic wave.
Radiation is the way heat can travel through a vacuum, through empty space.
Heat travels through nothing on something called an electromagnetic wave.
This is how heat reaches us from the sun.
Radiation, waves, shouldnt be confused with harmful radiation that is waves of
energy produced when the nucleus of an atom falls apart and radioactivity is
released.
This is just heat moving through space in something called an electromagnetic
wave.
Matter can react to EMR in two ways. The heat waves can be absorbed. The
energy is taken in molecules start to move faster and the temperature goes up.
E.g. The solar light reaches to us as radiation from sun on the earth. We use
different phototropic instruments in patients care especially in physiotherapy.

Some terms and definitions:

A property that changes with temperature is called a thermometric property.
The thermocouple is a thermometer used extensively in scientific laboratories. It
consists of thin wires of different metals, welded together at the ends to form two
junctions.
Thermometer: Mechanical or electrical device for measuring temperature. Early
thermometer was invented by Galileo.
Scale: A series of equally measured sections that are marked and numbered for
use in measurement.
Celsius Scale: Most commonly used unit of temperature is called a degree. Based
on the boiling and freezing points of water.

Boiling Point: The temperature at which water boils. 100 C at sea level.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which water freezes. 0 C at sea level.

UNIT NO. 7

PRESSURE

Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which that force is
distributed. In other words, pressure is force per unit area applied in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of an object.
Pressure is the effect of a force applied to a surface. Pressure is the amount of
force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is p.
Pressure acts in all directions at a point inside a gas. At the surface of a gas, the
pressure force acts perpendicular (at right angle) to the surface.

The S I Unit of pressure (the newton per square metre) is called the pascal
(Pa) named after the seventeenth-century theologian and scientist Blaise Pascal. A
pressure of 1 Pa is small; it approximately equals the pressure exerted by a dollar bill
resting flat on a table. Science types more often use kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).
1 atm= 1.01325 105 pascals or 101325 pascals = 14.69595 lbs / in2
=1.01325 bar = 760 torr

=1033 gr/cm2

Presently or formerly popular pressure units include the following:

atmosphere (atm)
manometric units:
o centimeter, inch, and millimeter of mercury (torr)


Pressure units

o Height of equivalent column of water, including millimeter (mm H2O),

centimeter (cm H2O), meter, inch, and foot of water
customary units:
o kip, ton-force (short), ton-force (long), pound-force, ounce-force, and ),
poundal per square inch
o ton-force (short), and ton-force (long) per square inch
fsw (feet sea water) used in Under water diving, particularly in connection with
diving pressure exposure and decompression
non-SI metric units:
o bar, decibar, millibar
msw (metres sea water), used in Underwater diving, particularly in
connection with diving pressure exposure and decompression
o kilogram-force, or kilopond, per square centimeter (technical atmosphere)
o gram-force and tonne-force (metric ton-force) per square centimeter
o barye(dyne)per square centimeter)
o kilogram-force and tonne-force per square meter
o sthene per square meter (pieze)

PRESSURE UNITS
pasc
bar Technical
Stan
tor
Poun
al
atmosphere
dard
r
d per
atmo
squar
sphe
e inch
re
Pa
bar
at
atm
Tor
psi
r
1
105
1.019
9.869
7.5
1.450
2
N/m
710
210
006
377
5
6
1
104
03
5
6
10
10
1.019
0.986
750
14.50
dyn/c
7
92
.06
377
2
m
0.980665
0.980
1
0.967
735
14.22
105
665
kp/c
8411
.55
334
2
m
92
1.01
1.013
1.033


14.69
325
25
2
760
595
5
10
133.
1.333
1.359
1.315
1
1.933
3224
224
551
789
mm
678
3
3
3
10
10
10
Hg
102
6.89
6.894
7.030
6.804
51.
1
48
810
691
610
714
lb/in2
2
2
103
02
93
FLUID PRESSURE
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within a fluid, such as water or air
Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:
1. an open condition, called "open channel flow"
the ocean, or

 swimming pool, or
The atmosphere.
2. a closed condition, called closed conduits
water line, or
Gas line.

Pressure in open conditions usually can be approximated as the pressure

in "static" or non-moving conditions (even in the ocean where there are waves and
currents), because the motions create only negligible changes in the pressure. Such
conditions conform with principles of fluid statics.

The pressure at any given point of a non-moving (static) fluid is called the
hydrostatic pressure.

Closed bodies of fluid are either "static", when the fluid is not moving, or
"dynamic", when the fluid can move as in either a pipe or by compressing an air gap
in a closed container. The pressure in closed conditions conforms with the principles of
fluid dynamics.

Examples include the pressure in eye ball,s is.. mm Hg and in spinal

column fluid is .mmHg
Liquid pressure
When a person swims under the water, water pressure is felt acting on the
person's eardrums. The deeper that person swims, the greater the pressure. The
pressure felt is due to the weight of the water above the person. As someone
swims deeper, there is more water above you and therefore greater pressure.
The pressure a liquid exerts depends on its depth.
Liquid pressure also depends on the density of the liquid. If someone was
submerged in a liquid more dense than water, the pressure would be
correspondingly greater. The pressure due to a liquid in liquid columns of
constant density or at a depth within a substance is represented by the
following formula:

P =gh
where:

P is liquid pressure

g is gravity at the surface of overlaying material

is density of liquid

h is height of liquid column or depth within a substance

Another way of saying this same formula is the following:
P = weight density X depth
The average water pressure acting against a dam depends on the average
depth of the water and not on the volume of water held back.

Pascal, s Law

The law that deals with pressure in fluids at rest is named for the French
philosopher Pascal (1623-1662). The law states that an increase in pressure
applied to any part of a fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to all
parts of the fluid. Pascal, s Law applies to confined fluids in the body, such as the
cerebral fluids, enclosed in the subarachnoid space, the urine enclosed in the
urinary bladder, the fluid enclosed in the cavities of the eyes and the amniotic fluid
surrounding the fetus. Applications other than those in the human body are found
in the operation of the hydraulic jack and brake, hydraulically operated sterilizer
lids, the air or water mattress and the air ring.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
1. Existence of Atmospheric pressure
According to the kinetic theory of gases, gases consist of molecules which are far
apart and in random motion at high speeds.
The gas molecules possess mass and experience the gravitational pull. The result
is that gases have weight.
The atmosphere is a thick layer of air that surrounds the Earth.
The atmosphere exerts a pressure called atmospheric pressure which is caused by
the weight of the thick layer of air above the Earth's surface.
Atmospheric pressure acts on every object on the surface of the earth.
Activity to show the existence of Atmospheric Pressure
Boil an empty tin half-filled with water. Cap the tin. Let it cool under running tap
water.....the tin will get crumpled as the water cools down. As the steam
condenses, the pressure inside the metal tin decreases, the external
atmospheric pressure which is Higher, crushes the tin.

Mercury Barometer
The instrument used for
measuring atmospheric pressure
is called barometer.
It is used in meteorological
department to predict change in
weather. Low pressure on
barometer, predicts about the
storm or rain and a constant
high pressure indicates fair
weather.
Barometers used for this
purpose may be either mercury
or aneroid barometer.
Because the pressure changes
with change in altitude, the
height of any top hill or
mountain may be measured

with change in barometer

reading. In aircrafts the altitude
is measured with the apparatus
called altimeters, are aneroid
barometers.

1. A mercury barometer consists of a thick-walled glass tube, which is closed at

one end.
2. The tube is completely filled with mercury and inverted several times to remove
air bubbles. The tube is then completely filled again with mercury.
3. After all air has been removed, the open end of the glass tube is inverted into a
container of mercury.

4. The mercury column drops until it reaches a height of about 76cm above the
lower surface. The space between the top of the mercury and the end of the
tube should contain no air; it is a complete vacuum.
5. The column of mercury in the tube is supported by the atmospheric pressure
and its height depends on the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure.
6. Since the atmospheric pressure at sea level can support a vertical column of
mercury 76 cm or 760 mm high, we can, for convenience, express mm Hg as a
unit of pressure. 1 Standard atmospheric pressure (1 P atm) = 76 cm Hg or 760
mm Hg (also known as one atmosphere).

POSITIVE PRESSURE AND

NEGATIVE PRESSURE

The term positive pressure and negative pressure are not used in classical
physics; they are used clinically in reference to pressure above and below that of
the normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg.

Positive Pressure

When pressure is kept more than atmospheric pressure, it is known as

positive pressure .the examples include pressure in tyres of the vehicles i.e, 32 psi
while atm pressure is 14.7 psi.

In an inflated balloon pressure is more than atm pressure. If the pressure

goes equal to atm pressure the balloon will deflate.

Negative pressures
Pressures are, in general, positive; there are several situations in which negative
pressures may be encountered:
When dealing in relative (gauge) pressures. For instance, an absolute pressure
of 80 kPa may be described as a gauge pressure of 21 kPa (i.e., 21 kPa below
an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa).
Negative pressure exists in the transpiration pull of plants, and is used to
suction water even higher than the ten meters that it rises in a pure vacuum.
Water sealed suction apparatus creates pressure in the system below than the
atmospheric pressure.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

The basic assumption for the kinetic theory of gas is as follows:
Gas is composed of molecules.
Gas molecules are continuously in random and independent motion in all
directions at high and different speed.
The motion of gas molecules abides by all of the Newton Laws of Motion.
All collisions between the gas molecules (i.e. one with another) and the walls of
the container are assumed to be perfectly elastic. Therefore, momentum and
kinetic energy are conserved during collision.
The volume of the molecules can be conserved compared to the volume
occupied by the gas.
The force amongst the gas molecules can be neglected except during collision.

The time period of a collision can be neglected when compared with the time
interval between two collisions.
Understanding the Gas Laws:
Gas theory can be explained by way of the kinetic energy.
When gas molecules collide with the walls of the container and bounce back, a
change in momentum occurs in a split second.
The end result of the above momentum is that the walls of the container
experience a force.
Pressure is defined as the force that acts on a unit surface area. Therefore, all
surfaces that are knocked by air will experience a pressure.
This pressure is called gas pressure.
One molecule at a slow speed wont affect but pressure is exerted if all the
molecules are moving at a high speed at the same time to the wall of the
container. It exerts pressure.

Understanding Pressure
1. Pressure on an area, A is the normal force, F, which is being applied
perpendicularly to the area.
2. Pressure on an area, A is expressed as the normal force, F per unit area, A.
P = (F/A)
3. The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal, Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (meter square).
4. Pressure is increased:
If the force, F applied to a given area, A
is increased.
If a given force, F is applied to a smaller area, A
5. If a balloon is pressed against by a finger, the balloon will only change its shape
a bit. If the balloon is pushed against by a needle with the same force, the
balloon will burst. This is because a finger has a larger surface area (A) than a
needle. Hence, the needle exerts much pressure than the finger and perforates
through the surface of the balloon and making a hole and freeing the air inside
the balloon.

GAS PRESSURE
FO RCE
PRESSURE=

AREA

Pressure is a scalar quantity. It

has magnitude but no
direction

Pressure force acts

perpendicular to enclosing
surface

Factors Affecting Air or Gas Pressure

a. Pressure increases when the density of gas increases.

b. Pressure increases when temperature increases due to increase of kinetic

energy of molecules.

UNIVERSAL GAS LAW

Pressure in a gas is determined by the number of molecules in a container

and their speed. The number of their molecules will depend upon the mass and the
volume of the molecules the speed will depend upon the temperature.
In equation we can express it as
PV= MRT
WHERE
P= pressure
V=volume
M=mass of the gas
T=temperature
R=constant
All three Gas Laws are connected to obtain a Universal Gas Law which is given
by PV/T = a constant.
That constant is known as the Universal Gas Constant.
PIVI P 2 V 2
=

T1
T2

This equation represents general gas law which is combination of several

gas laws.. These laws known as Boyles Law, Charles' Law and Gay- Lussac laws

Boyle's Law: Irish scientist Robert Boyle states that when the temperature of a
gas is kept constant the volume varies inversely to the pressure exerted upon it.

Or it is stated as that at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas can

change with the change in pressure exerted upon it.

The volume of a given quantity of a gas varies inversely as the pressure at a

constant temperature
1
V

P
As the pressure increases, the volume decreases
As the pressure decreases, the volume increases
This law explains the mechanism of breathing and artificial respiration and the
functioning of the respirator.
Two other relationships are named for Jacques Charles (1746-1823) a French
scientist and his contemporary compatriot Joseph Louis Gay- Lussac (1778-1850) ,
who worked on gases after Boyle.
One relationship states that when the pressure of a gas is kept constant the
volume is proportional to the absolute temperature

V t
where pressure of a gas is
kept constant

 Or
If the pressure is constant, the volume can change with change in temperature
V= Kt
The second relationship states that when the volume of the gas is kept constant
the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature.

P t
where volume of the gas is
kept constant

OR
If the volume is constant, the pressure can change with change in temperature
P= kT

* Fluids and gases move from higher pressure to low pressure

* Gases are shifted in condensed form, their pressure decreases due to

very low temperature but a great mass in less volume e.g, oxygen for hospitals use

THE IMPORTANCE OF PRESSURE APPLICATION IN NURSING

This is a general law of gases that the gases move from higher pressure to lower
regions of pressure.

The change in weather environment depends in the change of atmospheric

pressure. If the atmospheric pressure of a region on the earth fall, it means that
this region can go under a rain, storm or a cyclone, but if the atmospheric
pressure remain constant normal it means that the weather is going as normal.

The other important point is to understand the gaseous exchange in lungs. John
Dalton stated that the pressure of each gas in a mixture is proportional to its
percentage in the mixture. For example if a sample of air at 760 mmHg contains

20.96% oxygen. The partial pressure of the oxygen is equal to 1/5 of 760 or
159.3 mm Hg. This law is known as the Daltons law of partial pressure.

Henrys law states that when the temperature of a gas remains constant, the
quantity of a gas that goes into a solution in any given liquid is proportional to
the partial pressure of the gas. So we can describe the exchange of gases in
human body as under.

The partial pressure exerted by the oxygen is as follows

20.96
760=159.3 mm Hg
100
The partial pressure exerted by the carbon dioxide is as follows
0.04
760=0.3 mm Hg
100

Partial pressure expressed in mm Hg during internal & external respiration

UNIT NO.08
SOUND AND LIGHT

OVERVIEW:
Sound, water and light travel in waves. All three have troughs and crests.
Sound is a disturbance of air waves with pitch. Water waves travel in a circle
away from the source of disturbance. Light waves travel in a straight line unless
they meet an obstacle.

Sound
Sounds are created by Moving molecule in the medium ( Solid, Liquid and
Gases)
Sounds are measured by Frequency, Wavelength, Speed, and Amplitude.
Sounds can combine by interference
Sounds can be changed by the Acoustics of the Area or the speed of the source
(Doppler Effect)
Sounds are used in many devices.

Sound Waves
1 Sound has both frequency (that we hear directly) and wavelength
(demonstrated by simple experiments).
2 The speed of sound is frequency times wavelength.
3 In a rigid solid such as ivory which resembles a petrous bone, in its properties,
sound travels at 3000 m/sec. in air free water at 10. C the velocity of sound is
1400 m/sec, where in air at 20C IS 343 m/sec. there is an increase in velocity of
sound about 0.6 m/sec for each degree rise in temperature centigrade
4 Resonance happens with sound.
5 Sound can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed and also shows evidence of
interference and diffraction.
6 A sound wave is a wave of alternating high-pressure and low-pressure regions of
air.

Humans are generally capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz and

20,000KHz. Sounds with frequencies above the range of human hearing are
called ultrasound. Sounds with frequencies below the range of human hearing
are called infrasound.

TERMS RELATED TO WAVES

Frequency = cycles per second. Hz per sec
Velocity of sound= speed per second in medium
Wavelength= it is a distance between the corresponding portions of two waves
or the distance travelled in one period
Intensity = it depends on the amount of energy with which the sound wave
strikes the tympanic membrane. It is defined as the energy flow across a unit
area in a unit time. The greater the energy of the sound, the greater the
intensity. As the sound wave spreads from the source, the intensity diminishes.

Pitch= the pitch of the sound is related to the frequency of the sound wave.
The greater the frequency the higher the pitch,

The frequency of a sound wave is called its pitch. High frequency sounds are
said to be "high pitched" or just "high"; low frequency sounds are said to be "low
pitched" or just "low".

Amplitude = the extreme displacement of a wave on either side of the position

of equilibrium is known as amplitude.

Diffraction= sound spreads in all directions

Refraction= the light travels in a straight pathway and can change its direction
in change of medium but not diffract like sound.

We hear frequencies of sound as having different pitch.

A low frequency sound has a low pitch, like the rumble of a big truck.
A high-frequency sound has a high pitch, like a whistle or siren.
In speech, women have higher fundamental frequencies than men.

Loudness
Every increase of 20 dB, means the pressure wave is 10 times greater in
amplitude.
Every increase of 20 dB, means the pressure wave is 10 times greater in
amplitude.
Logarithmic
Linear scale
scale
Decibels (dB)
Amplitude
0
1
20
10
40
100
60
1000
80
10000
100
100000
120
1000000
Sensitivity of the ear
How we hear the loudness of sound is affected by the frequency of the sound as
well as by the amplitude.
The human ear is most sensitive to sounds between 300 and 3,000 Hz.
The ear is less sensitive to sounds outside this range.
Most of the frequencies that make up speech are between 300 and 3,000 Hz.
How sound is created
The human voice is a complex sound that starts in the larynx, a small structure
at the top of your windpipe.
The sound that starts in the larynx is changed by passing through openings in
the throat and mouth.
Different sounds are made by changing both the vibrations in the larynx and the
shape of the openings.
An average human voice has a range of frequencies between 87 and 1060
cycles per second.
The speed of sound
In a rigid solid such as ivory which resembles a petrous bone, in its properties,
sound travels at 3000 m/sec. in air free water at 10C the velocity of sound is
1400 m/sec, where in air at 20C is 343 m/sec. there is an increase in velocity of
sound about 0.6 m/sec for each degree rise in temperature centigrade
The speed of sound in air is 343 meters per second (660 miles per hour) at one
atmosphere of pressure and room temperature (20C).
An object is subsonic when it is moving slower than sound.

We use the term supersonic to describe motion at speeds faster than the speed
of sound.
A shock wave forms where the wave fronts pile up.
The pressure change across the shock wave is what causes a very loud sound
known as a sonic boom.

Standing waves and resonance

Spaces enclosed by boundaries can create resonance with sound waves.
The closed end of a pipe is a closed boundary.
An open boundary makes an antinode in the standing wave.
Sounds of different frequencies are made by standing waves.
A particular sound is selected by designing the length of a vibrating system to
be resonant at the desired frequency.
Sound waves and boundaries
Like other waves, sound waves

can be reflected by surfaces

and refracted as they pass
from one material to another.
Sound waves reflect from hard
surfaces.
Soft materials can absorb
sound waves.

Recording sound
1. A common way to record sound starts with a microphone. A microphone
transforms a sound wave into an electrical signal with the same pattern of
oscillation.
2. A single frequency by itself does not have much meaning. The meaning comes
from patterns in many frequencies together.

A sonogram is a special kind of

graph that shows how loud
sound is at different frequencies.

Every persons sonogram is

different, even when saying the
same word.

Music
The pitch of a sound is how high or low we hear its frequency. Though pitch and
frequency usually mean the same thing, the way we hear a pitch can be
affected by the sounds we heard before and after.
Rhythm is a regular time pattern in a sound.
Music is a combination of sound and rhythm that we find pleasant.
Most of the music you listen to is created from a pattern of frequencies called a
musical scale.
Consonance, dissonance, and beats
Harmony is the study of how sounds work together to create effects desired by
the composer.
When we hear more than one frequency of sound and the combination sounds
good, we call it consonance.
When the combination sounds bad or unsettling, we call it dissonance.

Consonance and dissonance are related to beats.

When frequencies are far enough apart that there are no beats, we get
consonance.
When frequencies are too close together, we hear beats that are the cause of
dissonance.
Beats occur when two frequencies are close, but not exactly the same.

What Is an Ultrasound?

Ultrasound is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to

view internal organs and produce images of the human body. In the
Ultrasound we mainly use ultrasound frequencies of 1, 2 and 3 MHz.

The human ear cannot hear the sound waves used in an ultrasound.
Ultrasound is: Noninvasive procedure, which means it does not penetrate
the skin or body openings, and Diagnostic, which means it is used to
determine what disease or condition is present The technical term for
ultrasound imaging is sonography. Ultrasound technology was originally
developed as sonar to track submarines during World War I. It was first used
medically in the 1950s and is considered very safe. The original ultrasound
scanners produced still images, but modern scanners produce moving
pictures, which are easier to interpret.

How does

Ultrasound work?

Ultrasound imaging uses the principles of sonar developed for ships at sea.
As sound passes through the body it produces echoes, which can identify
distance, size and shape of objects inside.
During the ultrasound examination, a machine called a transducer is used to view the
target organ and produce pictures for study. The transducer emits sound and detects
the returning echoes when it is placed on or over the body part being studied.
When the emitted sound encounters a border between two tissues that conduct sound
differently, some of the sound waves bounce back to the transducer, creating an echo.
The echoes are analyzed by a computer in the ultrasound machine and transformed
into moving pictures of the organ or tissue being examined.
Ultrasound waves pass easily through fluids and soft tissues, making the procedure
especially useful for examining fluid-filled organs such as the uterus in pregnancy, as
well as the gallbladder, and soft organs like the liver.
Ultrasound waves are unable to penetrate bone or gas, so ultrasound is of limited use
for examining regions surrounded by bone, or areas that contain gas or air. Even so,
ultrasound has been used to examine most parts of the body.

Transducer
A device that converts one form of energy to another

The hand-held portion of the ultrasound imaging machine, which sends sound
waves into the body, and records echoes produced by the waves.
Piezoelectric crystal: a crystal that produces (+) and (-) electrical charges
when it contracts or expands
1 Crystal of quartz, barium titanate, lead zirconate, or titanate housed
within transducer
Reverse (indirect) piezoelectric effect: occurs when an alternating current
is passed through a crystal resulting in contraction & expansion of the
crystal
1 ultrasound is produced through the reverse piezoelectric effect

2 Vibration of crystal results in high-frequency sound waves

Fresnal zone (near field) area of the ultrasound beam on the transducer
used for therapeutic purposes

The benefits and limitations of ultrasound

Ultrasound is a noninvasive imaging technique. It is a painless
procedure.
Ultrasound is widely available, low cost and easy to
use.
Because it does not use radiation, the side effects of
radiation are not an issue. So, ultrasound is the
preferred technique for monitoring pregnant women
and their unborn children.
Real-time images are generated by ultrasound, so it is
a good tool for guiding invasive procedures like
needle biopsies.
Ultrasound can display the movement and actual
function of the body's organs and blood vessels.
There are no known harmful effects of standard
ultrasound imaging.
The main limitation of ultrasound imaging is that it
does not reflect clearly from bone or air. Therefore,
other imaging techniques are preferred for areas such
as the lungs and the bones.

LIGHT

 Light is a type of radiation; it is a type of wave that travels through space.

Light waves are fundamentally different from many other waves that travel only
through material media (sound or water waves).
Light waves require NO material medium to travel from place to place.
The wave speed of all types of light in a vacuum is called the speed of light, c

c = 300,000 km/sec

Wave speed = frequency x wavelength

Speed of light (radio waves) = c = 3x 108m/sec

Distance = speed x time

x103 Hz (AM radio frequencies)

x106 Hz (FM radio frequencies)

Creating Electromagnetic Waves
All matter is made up of atoms.
Atoms are, in turn, made up of smaller particles: protons, electrons, and
neutrons.
Two of the elementary particles that make up atoms possess a property
described as
electrical charge.
The charges on each are equal and opposite.
electron: - charge
proton: + charge
Electrical force:
is a universal force (every charged particle affects every other charged particle)

may be attractive or repulsive force

is always directed along the line connecting two charges
depends on the product of the two charges
depends on the distance between the two charges squared (obeys the inverse
square rule)
Today, physicists describe electric forces in terms of an electrical field produced
by the presence of electrical charge.
An electric field extends outward in all directions from any positively charged
particle.
If a charged particle moves, its electric field changes.
The resulting disturbance travels through space as a wave.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
If an electric field changes with time (lets say the source charge wiggles), then
a magnetic field is created, coupled to the time-variant electric field.
Magnetic fields influence behavior of magnetized objects.
Earths magnetic field causes compass needles to point N
bar magnets and electromagnets
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electric and magnetic fields do not exist as independent entities.

They are different aspects of a single phenomenon:

Electromagnetism (EMR)

Together, they constitute an electromagnetic wave that carries energy and

information from one part of the universe to another.

FREQUENCY AND ENERGY

Light waves carry energy (E) across space.

Light is created by the motion of charged particles.
Matter is made up of atoms, which are in turn made up of charged particles.
Motions of these charged particles create light.
Not just the light we detect with our eyes, but at all wavelengths (or
frequencies).
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Properties of Light:
Reflection
Refraction
Dispersion
Diffraction
Interference
Reflection and Refraction
An isolated light beam travels in a straight line.
Light can change directions under certain conditions:
Reflection from a surface, E.G. mirrors, objects
Refraction (or bending of a ray of light) as the ray travels from one transparent
medium to another.
A fish in water tank
light through a piece of glass
Dispersion:
Electromagnetic waves interact with the charged particles in matter and travel more
slowly in transparent media than in a vacuum.
The change in speed of the light wave causes the wave to refract.
Since the speed of an EM wave in a medium changes with wavelength, the amount of
refraction depends on the wavelength.
This effect is called dispersion.

Visible Light
Prism will separate light into its components
Composed of 7 hues (Roy G. Biv), known as its spectrum
Red (~ 700 nm or 7000 )
Orange ,Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (~ 400 nm or 4000 )
Color determined by its frequency (or, equivalently, its wavelength)

Visible Spectrum

R
e
d

O
r
a
n
g
e
Y
e
l
l
o
w

G
r

e
e
Diffraction
n
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes through a hole or around an obstacle.
If light consists of parallel rays, they would travel through a small pinhole and make a
small, bright spot on a nearby screen.

B
l
u

SHARP- EDGED
SHADPW

FUZZY SHADOW

Effect cannot be explained by ray model of light.

Diffraction of Waves
Actually observe a spot larger than the pinhole and varying in brightness.
The pinhole somehow affects the light that passes through it.
Diffraction is proportional to the ratio of wavelength to width of gap.

The longer the wavelength and/or the smaller the gap, the greater the angle through
which the wave is diffracted.

Fuzzy spectrum

V
i
o
l
e
t

Interference and Superposition

What happens if two waves run into each other?
Waves can interact and combine with each other, resulting in a composite form.
Interference is the interaction of the two waves.
reinforcing interaction = constructive interference
canceling interaction = destructive interference
Superposition is the method used to model the composite form of the resulting wave.
Interference of Waves

Interference: ability of two or more

waves to reinforce or cancel each other.
Constructive

interference occurs

when two wave

motions reinforce each

other, resulting in a

wave of greater

amplitude.

Destructive interference
occurs when two waves
exactly cancel, so that no
net motion remains.

UNIT NO. 9

ELECTRICITY
Matter is made up of atoms
Atoms are made of nucleons (called protons and neutrons) and electrons
Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a
negative charge and can move freely.
The charges of protons and electrons are equal and opposite
Electrons move in and out of fixed pathways around the nucleus
Changing the number of electrons in a particular type of atom creates an ion of
that atom
Electrons in the outer rings or shells of atoms are bound more loosely to the
nucleus
Such electrons tend to break free from the nucleus and wander around amongst
other nearby atoms. Such electrons are called free electrons
Electrons can move from atom to atom. When an electron moves to a different
atom, it causes another electron to have to move. When electrons move quickly
from one atom to another electrons creates an electric current and it is called
flow of electrons or electricity.
A charge is a measure of the extra positive or negative particles that an object
has.
Two kinds: positive and negative (terms coined by Benjamin Franklin)
Movement of the electrons physically from one place to another is slow. Transfer
of the energy from one electron to another happens fast.
Materials with large numbers of free electrons are called electrical conductors.
They conduct electrical current.

ELECTRICITY

Electrons can move from atom to atom. When an electron moves to a

different atom, it causes another electron to have to move. When electrons
move quickly from one atom to another is it called Electricity

It is all about electrons, which are the fundamental cause of electricity

The electricity is divided into two categories

Natural electricity
Artificial or human generated electricity

Natural electricity

It consists of Static Electricity and lightening in clouds (thunder storms

electricity)

Some animals also have the ability to produce an electric shock

Static Electricity
Static electricity is the charge that stays on an object.
It involves electrons that are moved from one place to another, usually by rubbing
or brushing
When you rub a glass rod with silk, the charge that is left on the glass was called
positive. If you rub a hard rubber rod with silk, the charge left on the rod was called
negative.

Lightening in clouds (thunder storms electricity)

The electric current is produced in between the different layers of clouds due to
friction in air and vapors

This current is produced in a large amount (from some Megawatts to gaga watts)
but it is unable to utilize for human needs.

Artificial or human generated electricity

The electricity is produced all over the world for human utilization.
Basically it consists of two types
Direct current: it is utilized mostly in vehicles to produce capacitors ignition and
battery charging .it provides low current on slow rate.rpm
Alternate current: for home, offices and industrial use. it provides high voltage
current on fast rate.rpm i.e 50 to 60 Hz per second
The flow of electricity is somewhat analogous to the flow of water. The
electromotive force (Voltage) is comparable to the pressure exerted by a pump.
The current (ampere) which gives the number of electron passing a given point in a
unit of time it is 6.25x1018 electrons per second at a given point.
The resistance (ohm) is due to the nature of the conductor and its length and cross
section area is comparable to the friction between the water molecules and the
walls of the tube through which the water flows.
Electron flow takes place only when there is a difference between the parts of the
circuit.
Watt is the product of volts and amperes .in example
Electric power = Volts x amperes
3600 = 100 volts x 36 amperes
Electric energy is the product of electric power and time . The common unit of
electric energy are the watt-hour and kilo watt hour.

Current/ Electricity

It involves the flow of electrons in a conductor

The steady flow of electricity is called an electric current/ Electricity. A current

will move along a wire or a path called a circuit.
Circuit means to go around.
Current = Conduction
Circuits: a wire or a path through which electric current flows is called a circuit.
It consists of two types series circuit is & series circuit

A series circuit is a circuit that has only one path for the current.
A parallel circuit has more than one path for current to travel.
Lights in our homes are wired in parallel circuits.
Conductor
Conductors
A conductor is a material that current can pass through easily ,e.g. metals and
humans are both conductors.
Electrolytes:Both negative and positive charges can move .e.g solution of
H2SO4 in a battery
Semiconductors
In-between conductors and insulators in their ability to conduct electricity
Conductivity can be greatly enhanced by adding small amounts of other
elements

Insulators do not allow electricity to flow through easily. Rubber, glass, and
plastic are all good insulators.
An insulator is a material that current cannot pass through it easily, like plastic.
Resistor
A resistor is a material that resists, but doesnt stop the flow of current.

Electric Cell
An electric cell supplies energy to move charges through a circuit, like a battery.

NATURE OF ELECTRICITY
The flow of electric current through electrolytes can change the basic chemical
properties of the compounds.
If we pass current through water in presence of electrolytes the current can break
down the water molecules into simple hydrogen and oxygen gases
The movement of electron through any living material can change its properties. In
living organisms the electrical charge can change the electrolyte balance which is
very much important for life. If the amount of electron (current) exceeds above
from 240 volts, is fatal for human life and can seize the heart conduction.
If this electric current is used in a safe and organized way. It is beneficial for us in
thousands of daily utilities.
We can use electricity for home, offices and industrial uses.
In medical field instruments are operated through electricity like monitors,
ventilators, heaters air conditioners, operation theatres equipments, nebulizers,
suction apparatus etc.
Defibrillator is used to restore the heart movement
Electro convulsive therapy is used to treat seriously suffering mental disorders
patients
electrocardiography and electroencephalography are the tests carried out through
electric impulses

PRECAUTIONS DURING THE USE OF ELECTRICITY

When someone uses electric equipments in home or hospital, some precautions
always keep in mind to prevent from electric shock hazards
The electric supply should match with the demand of the home or unit.
Always use equipments made by a certified and approved company.
The wiring of the equipments should be unbroken and free of tear from any point.
The switch should match to the pin plug of the equipment
The flow of electric current should be matched to the equipment s, requirement.
The pin plug should be safe and spark free.
Electric instruments should be checked from any expert person for the efficiency
and accuracy of function
The continuously operated equipments should be shut off in a day to prevent from
heat if possible. In hospitals it is impossible to stop ventilators, so cooling system of
the ward should be properly managed.
The electric switches and oxygen supplying apparatus should be kept on a distance
to protect of explosion due to any sparking.
Never use open wires (without pin switch) into a plug. It can cause of electric
shock.

During defibrillation of a patient keep away from the body and bed of the patient
Pacemaker applied patient should avoid to touch any type of current

TERMS

Inertia is property of matter by which it resists change in its state of rest or in

its direction of motion.
PHYSICS is the branch of science, which deals with the study of properties of
matter, energy and their mutual relationship.
Kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to the energy produced when
power of 1 kilowatt is expended for 1 hour.
Ultrasonic Means sound waves of high frequency (20,000 Cycles per second
and higher) inaudible to human ear.
Velocity is the rate of change of position of a body in a given time in a definite
direction.
Voltage is the electromotive force in electricity.
Mechanics is the study of motion and the physical affect which influence
motion.
Electromagnetism is the study of electromagnetism phenomena and mutual
relationship between them.
Atomic and molecular physics is the study of atoms and molecules of
material things.
Study of physics enables the nurses to understand the basic fundamental
units of measurement, necessary for the accuracy of fluids and medicines
during nursing practice.
There are 3 fundamental SI units for LENGTH, MASS, and TIME.
The first standardized system of measurement: the Metric system Developed
in France in 1791 Established in 1960, at the 11th General Conference on
Weights and Measures.
Unit: measure of the quantity that is defined to be exactly 1
Prefix: modifier that allows us to express multiples or fractions of a base unit
National Bureau of Standards is International Bureau of Weight and
Measures in Paris
Physical quantity: A quantity that can be measured by instrument, clearly
defined and has proper units is called physical quantity.
Physical quantities are classified as fundamental and derived quantities
Fundamental units The physical quantity which does not depend on any
other physical quantity
The base units:A unit of measurement that can be determined by taking one
measurement without having to combine with any other measurement
The Seven Base SI UnitsQuantity are meter, kilogram, Kelvin, second, mole,
candela and ampere

meter :The currently accepted definition of meter is the length of path travelled
by light in vacuum in 1/299,792,458th second.
Kilogram: Kilogram is the fundamental unit of mass.
Second: Second is the fundamental unit of time.
Coulomb: Coulomb is the fundamental unit of charge.
Candela: Candela is the fundamental unit of luminous intensity.
Kelvin: Kelvin is the fundamental unit of temperature.
Mole: Mole is the fundamental unit of quantity of matter.
DERIVED UNITS:The units that can be obtained from fundamental units are
called derived units.
One Kilogram=1000 grams= 2.2046223 pounds
One pound =16 ounce = 453.5924 grams
Motion is a change in position of an object with respect to time.
Linear motion: when a body moves either in a straight line or along a curved
path, then we say that it is executing linear motion.
Rotatory motion: A body is said to be in rotatory motion when it stays at one
place and turns round and round about an axis.
Oscillatory motion: a body is said to be in oscillatory motion when it swings to
and fro about a mean position. Example: the pendulum of a clock, the swing etc.
Dynamics: In dynamics we discuss the motion of bodies under the action of
forces.
Kinematics: it deals with the study of motion of bodies without any reference
to the cause of motion.
Force is an action /agent that can change motion of a body.
Force is an action /agent that can change state of rest of a body.
Centripetal force is the inward force exerted on an object to keep it moving in
a curved path.
Centrifugal force is the outward force exerted on the object that makes it want
to fly off into space
Inertia is a term used to measure the ability of an object to resist a change in
its state of motion.
Newtons 1st Law An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will
remain in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force.
Newtons 2nd Law Force equals mass times acceleration.
Newtons 3rd Law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Scalars are quantities which are described by a magnitude only.
Vectors are quantities which are described by both a magnitude and a
direction.
Distance: length between two points in a straight line or length moved through
a definite path.
Displacement: Distance moved in a definite direction (vector quantity).
In physics, the word position refers to the location of an object at one instant.
A position is always specified relative to an origin.
The net change in position relative to the origin is called displacement.
Units of speed could be: km/h, m/s, mi/h, ft/s
Average speed is the average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a
total distance/total time ratio
Velocity is the distance travelled in a specific direction.
The unit of FORCE is in Newton (N).
The ACCELERATION due to gravity is given a special letter, g. and it is = 9.8
m/s2
Units of speed could be: km/h, m/s, mi/h, ft/s

Unit of Distance: SI unit: metre (m) Other common units: kilometre (km),
metres,centimetre (cm)
Unit of Displacement: SI unit: metre (m) Other common units: kilometre
(km), centimetre (cm)
Unit of Acceleration: SI unit: m/s2
Friction is a force between two surfaces that are sliding, or trying to slide
across one another, for example when you try to push a toy car along the floor.
Friction always works in the direction opposite from the direction the object is
moving, or trying to move. It always slows a moving object down.
Cause of Friction: the microscopic roughness between surfaceslike two
gears locking together.
High friction (lots of friction) will slow something down
Low friction (not much friction) will keep things moving
Types of friction ,Static ,Sliding, Rolling and Fluid
Dry friction: occurs when non smooth (non ideal) surfaces of two solids are in
contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to slide.
Sliding
Friction resulting when pushing or pulling an object over a surface.
Fluid friction is Resistance from a liquid or air.
The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in various parts of
machines. In this way some useful energy is wasted as heat energy.
The ability to grasp objects in hands is due to the friction provided by the ridges
of the fingers and hands.
Gravity is defined as the force which gives freely falling objects on or near the
surface of the earth with acceleration.
On the earth its value is 9.8m/sec2.
Center of gravity of a body is a point where total weight of the body is
concentrated.
Center of gravity of a circle is at its center.
Gravity exercises are sometimes prescribed for patients with circulatory disorders
of the lower extremities.
The change in position aids in improving circulation of the blood.
A diagnostic test ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate is done on the base of
gravity
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
Torque is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis fulcrum, or
pivot.
Motion in which an entire object moves is called translation.
Motion in which an object spins is called rotation.
The point or line about which an object turns is its center of rotation.
Torque is created when the line of action of a force does not pass through the
center of rotation.
Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work or ability to do work.
The faster an object moves, the more kinetic energy it has.
The greater the mass of a moving object, the more kinetic energy it has.
Kinetic energy depends on both mass and velocity.
Stored energy is potential energy ,it can be changed into Kinetic Energy
Potential energy that is dependent on height is called gravitational potential
energy.
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
light energy that travels in waves; have electrical and magnetic properties
Electromagnetic Energy is also carried by X-rays, radio waves, and laser light.
High power rays are harmful to human and animals

Light is the movement of photons

Light travels in straight lines and in transverse waves.
Light transmits ENERGY.
Magnetic energy is the attraction of objects made of iron
Thermal energy is the internal energy in substances-the vibration and
movement of atoms and molecules within substance.
Heat energy causes changes in temperature and phase of any form of matter.
Mechanical energy is also the total amount of kinetic and potential energy in a
system.
Sounds are caused by vibrations and travels in longitudinal waves.
Electrical energy is caused by the movement of electrons.
The generation or use of electric power over a period of time expressed in
kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (NM) or gigawatt-hours (GWh).
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
When atomic nuclei join together it is known as nuclear fusion.
When atomic nuclei are split apart it is known as nuclear fission.
Kg of Uranium produces energy through nuclear fission equal to the burning of
25 lac Kgs of Coal in an atomic reactor.
Energy is always changing from one kind to another. The total energy of an
object never changes.
Work is the transfer of energy through motion.
Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is
transformed into useful energy.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
A machine is a device that helps make work easier to perform by accomplishing
one or more functions.
Simple Machines can be put together in different ways to make complex
machinery
A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum.
In a first-class lever the fulcrum is located in the middle and at some point
between the effort and resistance forces.
In Second class lever, the fulcrum is located at the end, with the load in the
middle
In a third class lever the fulcrum is again at the end, but the effort is in the
middle Forceps used in wards
An inclined plane is an even sloping surface that is higher on one end.
The wedge is a modification of the inclined plane. Wedges are used as either
separating or holding devices.
A screw is a simple machine used to hold objects together.
A wheel and axle is a simple machine made of a rod attached to the center of a
wheel.
A pulley is a simple machine with a wheel and axle with a groove around the
outside with a rope.
Effort: The force applied to move a load using a simple machine.
Resistance: The weight or load that is moved using a simple machine.
The screw drivers are utilized in daily life; it is the example of a wheel and axle.
Orthopedic patients with lower extremities fractures are helped to maintain
posture with pulleys and weight as supportive traction.
The needle of the syringe is made as the shape of a wedge.
It is a measure of the internal energy that has been absorbed or transferred
from another object.
Heat Energy is a form of energy that is transferred or absorbed by a difference
in temperature.

Heat is energy that flows from a higher-temperature object to a lowertemperature object because of the difference in temperatures.
Heating = increasing internal energy
Cooling = decreasing internal energy
calorie (cal) - energy needed to raise temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree
Celsius
kilocalorie (kcal, Calorie, Cal) - energy needed to raise temperature of 1 kg of
water 1 degree Celsius
British thermal unit (BTU) - energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of
water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
the relationship between calories and joules is that 1 calorie = 4.18 joules
A calorimeter is the experimental apparatus used in a technique known as
calorimetry.
Temperature, the degree of hotness or coldness of an object, is proportional
to the average (NOT total) kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules making it
up.
By international agreement, the symbol K is not written with a degree sign (),
nor is the word degrees used when quoting temperatures.
Absolute Zero is measured in Kelvin which is the coldest possible
temperature
Heat travels through fluids from one place to another is via convection.
Conduction is the way heat travels through solids. It is the way heat can travel
through a vacuum, through empty space.
A property that changes with temperature is called a thermometric property.
The thermocouple is a thermometer used extensively in scientific laboratories. It
consists of thin wires of different metals, welded together at the ends to form
two junctions.
Thermometer: Mechanical or electrical device for measuring temperature.
Early thermometer was invented by Galileo.
Scale: A series of equally measured sections that are marked and numbered for
use in measurement.
Celsius Scale: Most commonly used unit of temperature is called a degree.
Based on the boiling and freezing points of water.
Boiling Point: The temperature at which water boils. 100 C at sea level.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which water freezes. 0 C at sea level.
Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed
The S I Unit of pressure (the newton per square metre) is called the pascal
1 atm= 1.01325 105 pascals or 101325 pascals
1 atm = 14.69595 lbs / in2 =1.01325 bar = 760 torr =1033 gr/cm2
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within a fluid, such as water or air
The pressure at any given point of a non-moving (static) fluid is called the
hydrostatic pressure.
The pressure a liquid exerts depends on depth and density of the liquid
The average water pressure acting against a dam depends on the average
depth of the water and not on the volume of water held back.
Pascal, s Law states that an increase in pressure applied to any part of a fluid at
rest is transmitted undiminished to all parts of the fluid.
The atmosphere exerts a pressure called atmospheric pressure which is caused
by the weight of the thick layer of air above the Earth's surface.
Atmospheric pressure acts on every object on the surface of the earth.
The instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure is called barometer.
1 Standard atmospheric pressure (1 P atm) = 76 cm Hg or 760 mm Hg (also
known as one atmosphere).

When pressure is kept more than atmospheric pressure, it is known as positive

pressure
When pressure is kept less than atmospheric pressure, it is known as negaitive
pressure
According to Boyle,s law :As the pressure increases, the volume decreases and
as the pressure decreases, the volume increases
Charles , law ;One relationship states that when the pressure of a gas is kept
constant the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature
Gay- Lussac ,s law states that when the volume of the gas is kept constant the
pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature. P t
Fluids and gases move from higher pressure to low pressure
Gases are shifted in condensed form, their pressure decreases due to very low
temperature but a great mass in less volume e.g, oxygen for hospitals use
The law of the partial pressure is known as the Daltons law of partial pressure.
Henrys law states that when the temperature of a gas remains constant, the
quantity of a gas that goes into a solution in any given liquid is proportional to
the partial pressure of the gas.
Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a
negative charge and can move freely.
Static electricity is the charge that stays on an object.
The flow of electricity is somewhat analogous to the flow of water. The
electromotive force (Voltage) is comparable to the pressure exerted by a pump.
The current (ampere) which gives the number of electron passing a given point
in a unit of time it is 6.25x1018 electrons per second at a given point.
The resistance (ohm) is due to the nature of the conductor and its length and
cross section area is comparable to the friction between the water molecules
and the walls of the tube through which the water flows.
Electron flow takes place only when there is a difference between the parts of
the circuit.
Watt is the product of volts and amperes .in example
Electric power = Volts x amperes
3600 = 100 volts x 36 amperes
Electric energy is the product of electric power and time . The common unit of
electric energy are the watt-hour and kilo watt hour.
A series circuit is a circuit that has only one path for the current.
A parallel circuit has more than one path for current to travel.
A conductor is a material that current can pass through easily ,e.g. metals and
humans are both conductors.
Electrolytes:Both negative and positive charges can move .e.g solution of
H2SO4 in a battery
Semiconductors
In-between conductors and insulators in their ability to conduct electricity
Insulators do not allow electricity to flow through easily. Rubber, glass, and
plastic are all good insulators.
Resistor: A resistor is a material that resists, but doesnt stop the flow of
current.
Electric Cell: An electric cell supplies energy to move charges through a circuit,
like a battery.
In living organisms the electrical charge can change the electrolyte balance
which is very much important for life.
Defibrillator is used to restore the heart movement

The electric switches and oxygen supplying apparatus should be kept on a

distance to protect of explosion due to any sparking.
During defibrillation of a patient keep away from the body and bed of the
patient
Pacemaker applied patient should avoid to touch any type of current
Transducer: The hand-held portion of the ultrasound imaging machine, which
sends sound waves into the body, and records echoes produced by the waves.
Sound, water and light travel in waves.
Sound is a disturbance of air waves with pitch.
Sounds are created by Moving molecule in the medium ( Solid, Liquid and
Gases)
Sounds are measured by Frequency, Wavelength, Speed, and Amplitude.
The speed of sound is frequency times wavelength.
In a rigid solid such as ivory which resembles a petrous bone, in its properties,
sound travels at 3000 m/sec. in air free water at 10. C the velocity of sound is
1400 m/sec, where in air at 20C IS 343 m/sec. there is an increase in velocity of
sound about 0.6 m/sec for each degree rise in temperature centigrade
Resonance happens with sound.
Sound can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed and also shows evidence of
interference and diffraction.

Humans are generally capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz and

20,000KHz.

Sounds with frequencies above the range of human hearing are called
ultrasound.

Sounds with frequencies below the range of human hearing are called
infrasound.

Amplitude = the extreme displacement of a wave on either side of the position

of equilibrium is known as amplitude.
Diffraction= sound spreads in all directions
Refraction= the light travels in a straight pathway and can change its direction
in change of medium but not diffract like sound.
The human voice is a complex sound that starts in the larynx, a small structure
at the top of your windpipe.
The sound that starts in the larynx is changed by passing through openings in
the throat and mouth.
An average human voice has a range of frequencies between 87 and 1060
cycles per second.
We use the term supersonic to describe motion at speeds faster than the speed
of sound.
Spaces enclosed by boundaries can create resonance with sound waves.
Music is a combination of sound and rhythm that we find pleasant.
In the Ultrasound we mainly use ultrasound frequencies of 1, 2 and 3 MHz.
Light waves require NO material medium to travel from place to place.
An isolated light beam travels in a straight line. Light can change directions
under certain conditions.

Refraction (or bending of a ray of light) as the ray travels from one transparent
medium to another.
Light can reflect from a surface like mirrors, objects, known as reflection.
A solar light beam can be divided into different colours by a prism, it is called
dispersion.
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes through a hole or around an
obstacle.