Mechanical Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering

Materials Laboratory
Manual
Prepared by:
Prof. Moustafa Gouda
Prof. Iman El-Mahallawi
Dr. Mostafa El-Ashry
Eng. Kareem Gouda
Eng. Mohammad Hassan
2011-2012

EXPERIMENT (1)
MICROSPECIMEN PREPARATION AND USE
OF THE METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE

Introduction:
Since many of the important engineering properties of materials depend upon the microstructural arrangement of its components, it is of interest and value to be able to examine and evaluate
these materials under a microscope. Quality assurance laboratories rely heavily upon the microscopic
examination of materials. It is the purpose of this laboratory exercise to acquaint the student with the
techniques of specimen preparation and of microscopic examination of materials. A secondary purpose
is to acquaint the student with the general microscopic features of important engineering materials.

Equipments and materials required:

1. Metallurgical microscope.
2. Etching equipment, and suitable etchant.
3. Grinding & Polishing equipment, abrasive papers.
4. Specimens:
Steel, brass

Procedures:
1. Bevel or chamfer the edges of the specimen surface to be observed.
2. Grind the specimen using different abrasive paper, starting with coarse, medium and fine (3
stages).
3. Show your specimen to the instructor at this stage. If your specimen is in proper condition for
proceeding, you will be asked to continue, otherwise appropriate polishing methods will be
demonstrated. he will direct you to continue and may demonstrate the polishing technique to use.
4. Polish the specimen with polishing cloths (2 stages)
5. After completing the polishing, show your specimen to the instructor for inspection and indicate
whether you may proceed to the etching step. He may also demonstrate etching techniques.
6. Etch with suitable etchant.
7.

Ask the instructor to check your etched specimen and advise you whether to proceed to examine it
on the microscope or whether re-etching is required.

8. Transfer the specimen to the microscope, use coarse adjustment wheel to lower the stage (or raise
body) so that there is sufficient space between the objective lens and the stage for specimens to fit
without coming too close to the lens.

(There should be sufficient clearance so that there is little likelihood of scratching the lens or
specimen when the specimen is placed on the stage.)
Put the lowest total magnification lens combination (objective and eyepiece) into position on the
microscope. Turn on the microscope light.
Place one specimen on the stage. Place the specimen directly under the objective lens being used,
trying to centre the specimen under the lens.
9.

Do not look through the microscope yet. Instead, watch the etched surface of the specimen by
directly looking at it. While watching the specimen, turn the coarse adjustment to slowly raise the
stage towards the objective lens. As the specimen and the lens become closer, a spot of light should
appear on the surface of the specimen. You should still be looking directly at the specimen and not
through the microscope. Reposition the specimen, if necessary, so that the light falls on its centre.
Continue to close the gap between the specimen and the lens. Watch this gap while it decreases.
When the specimen almost, but not quite, touches the lens, look through the eyepiece and slowly
turn the coarse adjusting wheel in the proper direction to increase the gap. You should notice that
the illumination of the circular field of view will become brighter. Keep moving the coarse
adjusting wheel in the opposite direction to increase the gap. You should notice that the
illumination of the circular field of view will become brighter. Keep moving the coarse adjustment
until the field of view reaches maximum illumination. At that time the microstructure should come
into focus although you may see it flash into view only momentarily as you pass it by. You have
focused going away from the lens in order to avoid damaging the objective lens by running the
specimen into it which you might have done had you focused going toward the lens. Now move
your hand to the fine adjustment knob and turn it in the direction which brightens the view until
the structure comes into sharpest focus.

Fig 1 Optical microscope

10. Study the structure under the microscope

Fig 2a

Fig 2b

Fig 2a shows the essential parts of a reflected light microscope and the trace of light rays through
its optical system. Fig 2b shows the microstructure appeared under microscope.

11.

Change microscope total magnification to approximately 2or 3 times that used before and
indicate the total magnifications available on your microscope by multiplying the eyepiece lens X
objective lens= total magnification

12. . Turn off the microscope light. Cover the microscope with a dustcover. It is recommended that the
microscope be left assembled at the close of the laboratory session because unnecessary assembly
and disassembly will cause looseness to develop in the disturbed connections. Store the specimen
properly according to the practice in the laboratory.

Report requirements & Questions

Sketch and label the microstructure of each of the samples examined, indicating etchant and total
magnification. Identify on your sketches the micro-constituents present and any significant features
observed. Answer the following questions:
1. Define metallographic. State the steps of metallographic preparation
2. Explain why grain boundaries are the first to be visualized on a specimen of properly polished
and etched metal under the optical microscope.

EXPERIMENT (2)
THE HARDNESS TEST

Introduction
The hardness is defined as "Resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However,
the term may also refer to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal,
which gives it the ability to resist being permanently, deformed when a load is applied. The greater the
hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.
In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to being
scratched by another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist
plastic deformation.
The indentation hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation. This is the usual type
of hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a surface under a substantially
static load.
HARDNESS MEASUREMENT METHODS
There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell hardness
test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test. Since the definitions of metallurgic
ultimate strength and hardness are rather similar, it can generally be assumed that a strong metal is also a
hard metal. The way the three of these hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the
metal's resistance to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth
which such a ball or cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time.
The followings are the most common hardness test methods used in today`s technology:
1. Rockwell hardness test
2. Brinell hardness
3. Vickers

1- Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal surface with 10mm- diameter- steel ball at a load
of at aload of 3000 Kg. for a soft metals the load is reduced to 500 Kg to avoid too deep impression, for
very hard metals we use a tungsten carbide ball to minimize distortion of the indentor.
The load is applied for a standard time, usually 30 seconds, and the the diameter of the indentation is
measured with a low power microscope after removal of the load. The average of two diameters of the
impression at right angles is made. And then the Brinell hardness number (BHN) is expressed as the load
P divided by the surface area of the indentation as shown in the following figure.

It is noticed that the units of the BHN are kg/mm2. However, the BHN is not satisfactory physical concept
since it doesn't give the mean pressure over the surface of the indentation.

2- Vickers Hardness
The Vickers harness test uses a square base diamond pyramid as the indenter. The vickers hardness
number (VHN) is defined as the load divided by the surface area of the indentation. In practice, the area
is measured by microscopic measurements of the lengths of the diagonals of the impression as shown in
the following figure.

Ordinarily, the loads used in this test are in the range of 1 to 120 Kg, depending on the hardness of the
metal to be tested. The test isn't widely accepted because it is slow, requires careful surface preparation
for the specimen, and allows for personal error in determination of the diagonals.

3- Rockwell hardness test

It is one of the most widely used hardness test, because it is a fast test, freedom from human error, ability
to distinguish small hardness differences in hardness and producing a small size indentation. The test
uses the depth of indentation from constant load as a measure of hardness. A minor load of 10 Kg is used
to set the specimen. Then, the major load is applied and the depth of indentation is automatically
recorded on a dial gage in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers.
The indenters used in this test are 120 diamond cone and 1.6 and 3.2 mm diameter steel balls. Major
loads of 60, 100 and 150 Kg are used. As the Rockwell hardness is dependent on the load and indenter, it
is necessary to specify the combination which it is used.

Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.

The indenter and anvil should be clean and well seated.

The surface to be tested should be clean, dry, smooth and free from oxide.
The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter.
Tests on cylindrical will give low readings, the error depend on the curvature, load, indenter and
hardness of the material. Theoretical and empirical corrections for this effect have been published.
5. The thickness of the specimen should be such that a mark isn't produced on the reverse side of the
piece.
6. The spacing between indentations should be three to five times the diameter of the indentation.
\

Report requirements & Questions

1- Produce a simple sketch for the hardness testing device in the lab indicating its main parts and
functions. What is the type of this hardness machine?

2- For the same sample you used for microstructure examination, follow the above shown
procedures to prepare the sample for hardness testing. Report the hardness value with its proper
designation, and hence answer the following:

abcd-

Describe the shape of the indenter.

Describe the shape of the indentation.
According to the hardness reading is this material hard or soft?
Compare the hardness with the microstructure of the part.

EXPERIMENT (3)
THE IMPACT TEST

Introduction
Under ordinary operating conditions, metals in general are ductile.
However, it is possible to make them rather brittle by strengthening techniques which increase the
yield strength. These techniques are applies to ductile metals by engineers in a controlled manner to
produce a stronger material. However, other circumstances can cause some ductile metals to become
brittle often in an unexpected manner. Brittle failure has been observed for normally-ductile mild
steel tanks, bridges and pipes for over 100 years. During World War II many ships which had been
constructed of mild steel fractured in a brittle manner in the icy waters in the North Atlantic Ocean.
This prompted extensive research which leads to a better understanding of the mechanical behavior
of materials. It is essential for the engineer to understand all of the environmental conditions which
may inadvertently enhance the brittle nature in metals and result in brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is
characterized by a sudden failure of the part with little or no plastic deformation and no prior
warning.

Objectives
To observe the energy that was absorbed by the specimen before fracture.

Equipments and materials required

1.
2.
3.
4.

Impact testing machine.

Vernier caliper.
Micrometer.
Standard V-notch Charpy impact test specimen 10x10x60.

Procedure
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in the safe rest position, place the specimen across the
parallel jaws of the testing machine.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its topmost striking position unless it is already there, and lock it at
that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum.
The total energy of the pendulum is not absorbed by the specimen. Thus it continues to swing. At
its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum
falls back. Note the indicator reading at that topmost final position.
5. Record the data from the indicator of the machine.

Impact Tests
Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to a suddenly applied force.
The test measures the impact energy, or the energy absorbed prior to fracture. The most common
methods of measuring impact energy are the:

Charpy Test

What is Impact Energy

Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen.
When the striker impacts the specimen, the specimen will absorb energy until it yields. At this point,
the specimen will begin to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The test specimen continues to
absorb energy and work hardens at the plastic zone at the notch. When the specimen can absorb no
more energy, fracture occurs.

The Charpy Test

While most commonly used on metals, it is also used on polymers, ceramics and composites. The
Charpy test is most commonly used to evaluate the relative toughness or impact toughness of
materials and as such is often used in quality control applications where it is a fast and economical
test. It is used more as a comparative test rather than a definitive test.

Charpy Test Specimens

Charpy test specimens normally measure 55x10x10mm and have a notch machined across one of the
larger faces. The notches may be:

V-notch the V-shaped notch is 2mm deep, with 45 angle and 0.25mm radius along the base

What Does the Charpy Test Involve?

The Charpy test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at the end of a
pendulum. The test piece is fixed in place at both ends and the striker impacts the test piece
immediately behind a a machined notch.

Figure 1. Schematic of the Charpy impact test.

Determination of Charpy Impact Energy

At the point of impact, the striker has a known amount of kinetic energy. The impact energy is
calculated based on the height to which the striker would have risen, if no test specimen was in place,
and this compared to the height to which the striker actually rises.
Tough materials absorb a lot of energy, whilst brittle materials tend to absorb very little energy prior to
fracture.

Factors Affecting Charpy Impact Energy

Factors that affect the Charpy impact energy of a specimen will include:

Yield strength and ductility

Notches

Temperature and strain rate

Fracture mechanism

Yield Strength and Ductility

For a given material the impact energy will be seen to decrease if the yield strength is increased, i.e. if
the material undergoes some process that makes it more brittle and less able to undergo plastic
deformation. Such processes may include cold working or precipitation hardening.

Notches
The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and some materials are more sensitive towards notches
than others. The notch depth and tip radius are therefore very important.

Temperature and Strain Rate

Most of the impact energy is absorbed by means of plastic deformation during the yielding of the
specimen. Therefore, factors that affect the yield behavior and hence ductility of the material such as
temperature and strain rate will affect the impact energy.
This type of behavior is more prominent in materials with a body centered cubic structure, where
lowering the temperature reduces ductility more markedly than face centered cubic materials.

Fracture Mechanism

Metals tend to fail by one of two mechanisms, micro-void coalescence or cleavage.

Cleavage can occur in body centered cubic materials, where cleavage takes place along the {001}
crystal plane. Micro-void coalescence is the more common fracture mechanism where voids form as
strain increases, and these voids eventually join together and failure occurs. Of the two fracture
mechanisms cleavage involved far less plastic deformation ad hence absorbs far less fracture energy.

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a ductile to brittle transition. This
behavior is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of temperature. The resultant curve
will show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the temperature decreases. If the impact energy
drops off very sharply, a transition temperature can be determined. This is often a good indicator of
the minimum recommended service temperature for a material.

Report requirements & Questions

1. Study the machine in the lab, draw a schematic of the machine and add the function of each of its
parts. Write the machine model and specifications.
2. Draw the specimen with dimensions.
Specimen
no.

Material

Dimensions
W

Notch
Specifications
H

3. Note the rupture energy of each specimen.

Specimen

Rupture Energy

4. Study the features and draw the texture of the fractured surface of each specimen.
Specimen

Illustration

Comments

5. Comment on the results.

Discussion
1.
2.
3.
4.

Discuss the significance and advantages of impact tests in comparision with static tests.
What physical property of a material is determined by means of an impact test?
Why are charpy impact specimens notched?
Discuss the effect of the following factors upon the results of impact tests:
(i)
Characteristics of the notch
(ii)
Speed of the hammer
(iii)
Temperature of the specimen

EXPERIMENT (4)
THE TENSILE TEST

Objectives:
1. To draw, analyze and determine different mechanical properties of different materials from the
stress-strain diagram

Equipment and materials required:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Computerized universal tensile testing machine

Specimens
Vernier caliper 0 to 25 cm
De-burring tool to remove excess burrs off the specimen

Procedures:
1. Note the dimensions of the specimen and determine the average diameter of the middle parallel
portion. Prepare a data sheet using the following format:
Material tested ..
Average initial diameter

. mm

Original gauge length (Lo)

. mm

Original cross-sectional area (Ac)

. mm2

Final diameter. At neck

. mm

Final gauge length (Lf)

mm

Final cross-sectional area (Af)

mm2

Fig 3 a, b tensile test specimen

2. Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in the jaws of the universal testing machine and adjust
the machine to read zero
3. Start increasing the load gradually
4. Get the data points of the Load (F) vs. Extension (L)
5. Convert the data into Stress () vs. Strain ()
Where =F/Ac and = L/Lo

Report requirements & Questions

Complete the following table:
Load (kg)
0

Extension (L)
0

Stress (F/AInitial)
0

Strain (L/L)
0

Plot the stress-strain diagram for your specimen material, and indicate the
0.2 % yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, the % elongation, % reduction in area, modulus of
elasticity,. Use ordinary millimeter graph paper. After finishing answer the following questions.

1. Calculate the values of % elongation and % reduction in area and indicate their significance?
2. Calculate the elastic modulus using the slope of the linear portion of the curve.
3. Determine the 0.2 % yield stress.
4. What property does the area under the stress-strain define?
5. Compare the stress-strain curves for the cold-rolled and annealed steel and the aluminum
specimens.