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Proceedings of the ASME TURBO EXPO 2003

Power for Land, Sea and Air
June 16-19, 2003 ,Atlanta, Georgia, USA

GT2003-38027
SOME EFFECTS OF SIZE ON THE PERFORMANCES OF SMALL GAS TURBINES.
C Rodgers
3010 N Arroyo Dr.
San Diego. Ca 92103. USA
crodgers @4dcomm.com
ABSTRACT

A later offshoot was the military incentive to provide aircraft

auxiliary power units (APUs) compatible with the prime
propulsion turbojet logistics.
Very small gas turbines for a variety of applications followed,
but were never manufactured in the same quantities as prime
propulsion engines. The smallest and perhaps the most
fascinating are turbojet engines for model aircraft, Gerendas,
Pfister, 2000, with a size similar to a coca cola can. In the
propulsion field, engines include jet fuel starters and
expendable turbojets Rodgers, 1986, also a variety of small
generator sets have been deployed for defense applications
over the years, Rodgers,1993.
Over the last five decades small aircraft Auxiliary Power
Units (APU's) have been produced in large quantities. Many
of these machines are sophisticated, having multiple spools
and power plus bleed air capability. A major design
requirement for these machines is light weight, and a compact
package, hence the reliance on the non- recuperative approach.
These machines have high reliability, and utilize sophisticated
controls to facilitate integration with the main propulsion
engines and the aircraft environmental system, with the result
that by commercial standards their cost is relatively high.
Following deregulation of the Utility Industry, a need became
apparent for modern, and much smaller and more efficient
turbogenerators for the Distributed Generation (DG) market.
About a dozen companies in the USA, Europe and Japan have
small gas turbine turbogenerator (now phrased microturbine)
programs in progress. Units in the 30-100 kW power range are
expected to be produced in significant quantities within the
next several years or so. The first generation of recuperated
microturbines are based on the use of existing materials and
proven technology, and typically have an efficiency close to
30 percent. An excellent example of an operating microturbine
embodying state-of-the-art technology is the Capstone 30 kW
compact turbogenerator, Graig, 1997. Over a thousand of
these units have entered service for a variety of power
generation applications, and it has been demonstrated for
vehicular use.

By the new millennia gas turbine technology standards the

size of the first gas turbines of Von Ohain and Whittle would
be considered small. Since those first pioneer achievements
the sizes of gas turbines have diverged to unbelievable
extremes. Large aircraft turbofans delivering the equivalent of
150 megawatts, and research micro engines designed for 20
watts. Microturbine generator sets rated from 2 to 200kW are
penetrating the market to satisfy a rapid expansion use of
electronic equipment. Tiny turbojets the size of a coca cola
can are being flown in model aircraft applications.
Shirt button sized gas turbines are now being researched
intended to develop output powers below 0.5kW at rotational
speeds in excess of 200 Krpm, where it is discussed that
parasitic frictional drag and component heat transfer effects
can significantly impact cycle performance.
The demarcation zone between small and large gas turbines
arbitrarily chosen in this treatise is rotational speeds of the
order 100 Krpm, and above.
This resurgence of impetus in the small gas turbine, beyond
that witnessed some forty years ago for potential automobile
applications, fostered this timely review of the small gas
turbine, and a re-address of the question, what are the effects
of size and clearances gaps on the performances of small gas
turbines?. The possible resolution of this question lies in
autopsy of the many small gas turbine component design
constraints, aided by lessons learned in small engine
performance development, which are the major topics of this
paper.
1. INTRODUCTION.
The successful development of the aircraft gas turbine turbojet
in World War II subsequently triggered a myriad of gas
turbine engine configurations covering a host of applications
and power range. Predominant amongst these was the efforts
to develop a competitive small automobile gas turbine
competitive to the compression ignition reciprocating engine.

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A very small turbogenerator that was introduced for

commercial use was the Nissan Micro Gas Turbine rated at 2.6
kW, Nakajima, et.al., 1995. The package envelope for this
microturbine was similar in size to a picnic ice chest.
Large gas turbines have the advantage of both economy of
performance and scale. The reverse is true for very small gas
turbines. Small engines have significantly lower aerodynamic
efficiencies. This is a result of smaller blade heights, Reynolds
number effects, tip clearance effects, manufacturing
tolerances, surface finish and engine-to engine variation all of
which adversely affect efficiency. Also their geometries make
blade cooling very difficult, and thus advances in turbine inlet
temperature are essentially dependent on materials technology.
This poses a second question, is there a miniaturization limit
to small gas turbines?. An attempt to resolve of this question is
addressed in this paper, yet unfortunately the term small gas
turbine has a diverse connotation, liberally applied, Leyes, and
Fleming, 1999, to gas turbines ranging in equivalent power
outputs from 30-3000 hp.
A proposed yardstick, Penny, 1963, delineating the large gas
turbine from the small, was classification by the first stage
turbine nozzle area, somewhat equivalent to piston engine
displacement, as the three basic parameters effecting output
power flow, pressure, and turbine inlet temperature, all in
combination dictate the nozzle area. Miniaturization imposes
constraints other than thermodynamic however, amongst
which are:
Component fabrication and machining limitations
Ultra high rotational speed bearing design
Non -scalar elements such as controls and protection
instrumentation
Lower Reynolds numbers do not inherently present a physical
barrie r providing that the design major cycle performance
parameters still provide net output power (or at least selfsustaining conditions. Partial corroboration of this is the
commercial manufacture of light vehicle turbochargers with
rotational speeds of 220krpm, Hayashi et,al., 1983.
Harnessing silicon micro-fabrication techniques, Ashley,
1998, is being used to develop tiny so called Mesoscopic gas
turbines with power ratings of less than 1 kW, which further
confuses the classification between small and big. The
demarcation zone between small and big gas turbines
arbitrarily chosen in this treatise is rotational speeds skirting
100 Krpm, and above. Some justification for this choice arises
from the recommended antifriction bearing design life DN
criteria of approximately
1.2 E 06 (mm, rpm), where speeds above 100krpm would limit
bearing bore and shaft diameters to no higher than 12mm.
Less robust smaller antifriction bearings are of course
available, so too is the option to use air bearings, as will be
dis cussed later.

NOMENCLATURE.
A
Area
APU
Auxiliary Power Unit
C
Compressor
CFS
Volume Flow
D
Diameter
EGT
Turbine Exhaust Gas Temperature
g
Gravity
H
Head
ICR
Intercooled recuperative
k
Specific heat ratio
kW
Kilowatt
Krpm Thousands of rpm
Mu
DeLaval number = U2/ (g kRT) 0.5
N
Rotational Speed
Ns
Specific Speed = CFS0.5/(gHad)0.75
P
Pressure
q
Work factor = H/ U 2
R
Radial, or Pressure Ratio
RWC Compressor Normalized Inlet Flow Parameter
=(Wc T1 /A 1 P1 )/ (Wc T1 /A 1 P1 )crit
RWT Turbine Normalized Inlet Flow Parameter
= (Wt T1 /A n P1 )/ (Wt T1 /A n P1 )crit
T
Temperature
TIT
Turbine Inlet Temperature
U
Tip Speed
V0
Spouting Velocity = 2g Had
W
Airflow

Difference

Efficiency

Angular Velocity
Subscripts
ad
Adiabatic
c
Compressor
d
Diffuser
crit
Sonic conditions
1
Inlet
t
Turbine, or total
2. SMALL GAS TURBINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.
The performance characteristics of small gas turbines depends
upon the choice of cycle configuration, which in turn is largely
dependent upon the application.
The various cycle schematic options shown on Fig 1 by no
means cover the whole gambit, and are presented as
representative of what is either in production, in development,
or has been researched in the past.
The thermodynamic performances at design point conditions
are basically a function of three parameters;
Peak cycle temperature, or turbine inlet temperature,
TIT
Pressure ratio.
Component efficiencies.

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The TIT is essentially determined by the turbine rotor alloy

stress rupture and low cycle fatigue strengths, duty cycle, and
rotor cooling options. The pressure ratio is dictated by the
compressor type and material.
The component efficiencies are related to the rotor sizes,
aerodynamic excellence, and clearance gaps.
In contrast to larger industrial gas turbines the thermodynamic
performances of small gas turbines are therefore size (output
power) dependent, and scalar techniques so widely employed
in the design of larger engines can no longer be strictly
adhered to. An example of scalar relationships for larger
engines with single stage centrifugal compressors is shown on
Fig 2, showing relative changes in weight, speed, flow, torque,
inertia and acceleration time versus power ratio. Note that
even on Fig2 some departure from true scale is portrayed, as
an examination of actual engine weights in a 300-50kW class
gas turbine revealed that the weight was departing from the
cube/square 1.5 power law, to a 1.2 power, presumably due to
fabrication techniques and cost constraints.

Representative thermodynamic performances various gas

turbine cycles including the turbo-compounded diesel are
depicted on Fig 3,where thermal efficiency is shown versus
specific power with TIT, and pressure ratio, as parameters. It
is apparent that more complex cycles such as the intercooled
recuperative cycle may provide higher thermal efficiencies,
but incur increased cost and durability issues.
The small gas turbine designer is then shackled with the
dichotomy of maximizing performance and durability all
confined within a compact envelope at a competitive
manufacturing cost. The resolution of this dichotomy centers
upon component number reduction and engine flowpath
simplification.
The influence of size on the design of small gas turbine
engines and components encompasses a variety of
considerations and compromises, which may become more
critical in subsequent manufacturing, assembly, and test
qualification phases than possibly larger gas turbines. Some of
these considerations are discussed as follows.

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2.1 Engine Flowpath.

2.2 Compressor.

A collage of small gas turbine flowpaths is shown on Fig 4,

representative of existing engines but not inclusive of every
single flowpath that has been developed and tested.
Examination of these flowpaths and component arrangements
tend to substantiate the emphasis on reduced component
number.

Choice of compressor type and pressure ratio is a major design

consideration. Small gas turbines have been designed with
pressure ratios ranging from 2.5 to 8.0 with both single stage
centrifugal, multistage axial compressors, and combinations
thereof. The centrifugal is the least sensitive to clearance
losses, and is furthermore capable of exhibiting wide surge
margins with high inlet flow distortion tolerance.
The simplicity and reduced cost features of the single stage
centrifugal compressor are ideal assets for low cost gas
turbines with output powers from 10 to 300 kW.
The attainable efficiencies of single stage centrifugal
compressors, with ambient air suction, and are largely
dependent upon four parameters.

Inlet Specific Speed Nsc

Impeller tip diameter (size)
Blade backsweep
Inducer tip Mach number.

Although Nsc serves as an initial design guideline, choice of

Nsc a-priori is no unconditional guarantee of peak attainable
performance, thus good design, manufacturing, and test
development procedures are still essential. Furthermore the
compressor is only one engine component and the turbine
design is equally important, particularly for a shaft power
engine type where the turbine may provide up to 30 % more
power than the compressor. In small turbojet applications
requiring maximum thrust per frontal area both compressor
and turbine efficiency may be compromised in favor of
airflow swallowing capacity.

Fig2. Engine Power Scalars

Although simplifying design through component reduction can
be construed as an overstatement of probable reliability, the
lower parts count of the single shaft unit is at least conducive
towards lower cost and improved durability. The combination
of a radial comp ressor and turbine mounted back-to-back, in
single shaft form, has found wide acceptance particularly in
small microturbines, APUs, and expendable turbojets.

Specific speed too involves a choice of rotational speed, which

influences shaft and bearing dynamic design, a critical concern
with rotational speeds in excess of 100krpm. The influence of
specific speed of both the compressor and turbine on engine
design and engine miniaturization will be discussed later.

The mechanical design approach of low pressure ratio, lower

rotational speed, multiple stages for small gas turbines has
been previously studied, Wilson and Korakianitis, 1998, but
has found limited application, at least within the relevant
speed range. Lower rotational speeds induce lower stresses
and cyclic loads on the rotational parts, permitting simplified
lower cost bearing and shaft dynamic designs.
With exception of the automobile gas turbine, most heat
exchanged small gas turbines have embodied stationary
recuperators of the wrap-around annular, or modular add-on
type.

The typical efficiency levels of small single stage centrifugal

compressors with abradable shrouds, and vaned diffusers,
Rodgers,1991, are shown on Fig 5 as a function of specific
speed and flow, for pressure ratios of 3.5 to 4.0.
Flows less than 0.1 pps are observed to reduce efficiency
below 70%, as corroborated by a US Army funded study, and
compressor component testing of a 1.5/3 kW unit by
Airesearch. This compressor, Faehn, 1975, was tested at a 154
krpm, delivering a stagnation pressure ratio of 4.0, flow of
0.16 pps, and adiabatic efficiency of 72% t-t.

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A test data point performance of this compressor with a

clearance of .005 inch is superimposed on Fig 6, for reference
purposes.
Transonic inducer conditions are approached as pressure ratios
rise above 4.0, provoking shock losses , which can be defrayed
by adopting razor thin blade leading edges, combined with
reduced suction surface turning. Such small blades may
however become impractical to manufacture, and accordingly it
is prudent to select lower design pressure ratios as size is
diminished.
The effect of axial shroud clearance on compressor efficiency
can be correlated with the clearance gap/tip blade height,
indicating that a gap ratio of 10% can decrease efficiency 4%
points. Clearance losses can be mitigated utilizing abradable
shrouds, permitting the impeller blades to machine their own
minimum operating clearance, (providing the blades are robust
enough). The use of shrouded impellers does not entirely
mitigate clearance effects, as a seal must be provided to throttle
flow recirculation back to the entry, in addition to which
rotating shrouds complicate impeller manufacturing.

particularly prone to compressor heating. Ten (10) deg F of

inlet heating was predicted for a 200KW monorotor engine
with a compressor Nsc of 0.8, and that for the same cycle
conditions the inlet heating would increase inversely
proportional to Nsc2 . Halving the engine design point speed
would therefore increase the inlet heating to 40F, and
potentially reduce power by 20%.

Fig 5. Compressor Efficiency vis Nsc

Heat transfer from the hot turbine to the coldcompressor can

also be a problem, since gas turbine engine power lapse rate
characteristic is such that the influence of 10 degree F inlet
temperature rise above ambient at the inducer inlet can reduce
engine power approximately 5%. Monorotor type compressor
and turbine assemblies, Rodgers, 1978, are therefore

The US Army 1.5/3KW gas turbine centrifugal compressor

map is shown in normalized format on Fig 6, where inlet flow
parameter RWC is plotted versus pressure ratio and efficiency
with parameters of De Laval number Mu. The normalized map
is fairly universal for medium Nsc sweptback compressor
designs with vaned type diffusers, and may therefore be used as

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guideline in preliminary design studies.

State-of-the-art total-to-ambient efficiency levels (i.e., with

exhaust diffuser) for small radial and axial turbines are shown
on Fig 7, as a function of specific speed (Nst) with airflow as a
parameter.
These levels are representative of metallic turbines with typical
blade finenesses, with minimum clearance gap/blade height
ratios, of the order 5%, to prevent shroud contact under
transient operation. The effect of axial shroud clearance on
radial turbine efficiency, Rodgers,1997, can be correlated with
the clearance gap/tip blade height, indicating that a gap ratio of
10% can decrease efficiency 3% points. Axial turbines are
approximately three times more sensitive to clearance gap
blade height ratio.

The inlet flow parameter RWC is based upon the inducer inlet
unblocked annulus area, whereas actual choke flow is
controlled by either, the inducer, or the diffuser throat area.
Higher Nsc designs typical of small turbochargers exhibit
maximum values of RWC approaching 0.8.

For common compressor and turbine speeds, Nst is related to

Nsc by the relative compressor and turbine densities and
adiabatic heads. Typical specific speed ratios Nst/Nsc for
single stage centrifugal compressors are approximately 0.85 for
shaft power engines, and 1.05 for turbojets.
In comparison the design of microturbines with single stage
radial compressors and turbines is focused towards
optimization of thermal efficiency, thus rotational speed
selection becomes a compromise between both Nst and Nsc. In
this respect it should be noted that the sensitivity of compressor
and turbine efficiencies on engine performance is not only on
the singular effect of component efficiency changes
themselves, but also the result the efficiency changes may have
upon other cycle variables. Two examples are, 1) increasing
compressor efficiency at a given speed will normally also result
in and increase in pressure ratio, and more important a
congruent increase in airflow for a given turbine nozzle area.
Alternatively, 2) increasing turbine efficiency can decrease
turbine exhaust temperature, which if utilized as the basis for
engine rating (e.g with a recuperator) can permit higher power
output than reflected by the efficiency increase alone.

2. 3 Turbine Types.
Inward flow radial and mixed flow turbines have established a
prominence in small turbomachines because of their simplicity,
low cost, relatively high performance, and ease of installation.
Two predominant applications of these turbines are in small
gas turbines and turbochargers, with airflows in the 5.0 to 0.01
pps range.

Fig 7. Turbine Efficiency vis Nst.

Small gas turbines with turbine expansion ratios above 3.0
result in overloading the single stage axial turbine; higher
efficiencies can be obtained with two axial stages, or single
stage higher tip speed, radial or mixed flow turbines. Design
studies have indicated that for the same overall turbine
efficiency the single stage radial can offer the lowest cost, but
requires a larger diameter with more containment weight.

Fig 8. Turbine Efficiency vis U/V0

The flow controlling elements of the turbine stage are the nozzle
throat, and rotor throat areas. Typical pressure/flow and speed
characteristics of radial and axial turbines are shown on Fig 8 in

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The above arguments may become flawed in actual engine

design, as in contrast high Nsc designs with higher rotational
speeds, influence both shaft and bearing journal stiffness. At
speeds of the order 300 krpm up to 25% of engine power output
may be consumed in hydrodynamic air bearing drag, dependent
upon tip speed, axial thrust.

terms of the relative flow parameter RWT and velocity ratio

Ut/V0. The rotor exit throat area is determined by desire for both
low exit swirl and low exhaust energy, with proviso that the
blade root centrifugal stress, governed by AN 2 does not exceed
approximately 8.0 10 10 (in 2 , rpm)
2.4 Bearings.

2.5 Structural and Material Constraints.

Small gas turbines currently operate with rotational speeds

from 60 to 150 krpm with both conventional antifriction and air
bearings. Bearing DN values approach 1.5*106 . Such high
rotational speeds imply small bearings, which are sensitive to
internal clearances and thus temperature environment,
especially hot-end, rear-bearing locations. Adequate cooling
either from the compressor discharge or a lubrication supply is
paramount to prevent a runaway thermal condition. Alternate
design options to ameliorate this hot end bearing environment
are:

The three major design parameters that link engine

performance to engine life and durability, are
(1) Turbine inlet temperature,
(2) Compressor pressure ratio
(3) Rotational speed.
These three are also coupled to turbine efficiency via the
turbine velocity ratio Ut/V0, and specific speed Nst.
During preliminary engine design and performance
optimization phases, it then becomes mandatory to conduct a
trade-off between turbine rotor efficiency and life, and thus the
relationship between rotor stresses, operating temperatures, and
required tip speeds.
To assess stress rupture and low cycle fatigue life, most of the
following information is essential:

Front end air inlet housing bearing capsule location

with overhung rotor assembly.
Use of ceramic bearings with lower radial loads and
higher temperature capability.
Throw-away fuel lubricated bearings, often used on
expendable or model turbojets.
Self contained grease packed or wick fed systems.

The simple Petroff equation relates viscous fluid

film bearing losses as a function of:
Loss D3 *N2 * viscosity.
For fixed specific speed and cycle conditions, the
scalar relationships can be applied.
Output power W, thus D2 .
The ratio of Loss / Power D3 *N2 / D 2 .
Thus the ratio bearing losses to output power N.

Rotor geometry
Rotor thermal and stress model
Definition of typical operating cycle
Material Stress/Rupture, Low Cycle
properties.

Fatigue

An initial choice of turbine tip speeds and TITs for current

super-alloys of 2000 fps (610m/s) radial, 1600 fps (490m/s)
axial, and 1800F (982C) provides a dependable baseline with
which to initiate these turbine life computations.
3. SIZE EFFECTS ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE.
Upon contemplation regarding gas turbine min iaturization
limits, it becomes apparent that engine size reduction becomes
impractical when the engine component efficiencies and cycle
conditions can no longer provide useful power output, i.e., no
longer self sustain. Examination of the Brayton cycle at selfsustaining conditions shows that the self-sustaining maximum
cycle temperature ratio TIT/T1 is a function of ;

This would translate to relatively lower mechanical efficiency

with increasing speed. Surprisingly high bearing losses of the
order 1.0kW were quoted by Nakajima,1995, for a 2.6 kW
microturbine, the equivalent of 72% mechanical efficiency.
Air bearings require no lubrication or associated lubrication
cooling system, plus minimal parasitic drag during starting. Air
bearings however possess low thrust bearing load capacity, and
are sensitive to thermal gradients, and shock loading under high
impact "g" accelerations.
Air bearings too incur power losses, especially the thrust
bearing, which may be as large in diameter as the compressor
impeller. The impeller exhibits almost constant tip speed ( N
1/D), for a given pressure ratio and geometry. With a fixed
diameter ratio between the compressor and thrust bearing the
absolute bearing loss then becomes proportional to diameter,
which further implies that for a given engine design low Nsc
selection leads to higher thrust bearing losses.

TIT/T1 ( c t m) ( Rc/Rt ) (Wt/Wc)

This self-sustaining parameter is shown plotted on Fig 9
showing that typical turbine rotor superalloy temperature limits
(TIT/T1 4.0 ) would be likely exceeded when the value of this
function falls below 0.35. The relationship was found to be
surprisingly independent of pressure ratio.
With flow continuity, a mechanical efficiency of 95%, and a
pressure losses amounting to Rc/Rt = 0.95 the corresponding
minimum product of c t for simple cycle self sustain would
be 0.39, necessitating both the compressor and turbine
efficiencies to be above 62%. Recuperated cycles with higher

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pressure drops exacerbate this condition. Ceramic materials

might of course permit higher TITs (TIT/T1> 5.0) and thus
somewhat lower component efficiencies.
The sensitivity of self sustain conditions to component flow and
thus, size can be assessed by superimposing the efficiency
versus flow trends of Figs 5 and 7 on Fig 9, thereby illustrating
that with current state-of-art small turbomachinery technology,
microturbines with design point flows approaching 0.001 pps
may challenge the fringes of self-sustaining operation. Note that
the MIT Micro Gas Turbine Project, Epstein 2000, was designed
with a flow of .0005 pps and TIT/T1= 5.5. With compressor Nsc
of 0.3 estimated compressor inlet heating, Rodgers, 1978, would
have been 300F!.
This projection was substantiated by additional cycle
performance analyses using a computational procedure
Rodgers,1997, addressing the effect of engine power output on
performance, physical size, weight and cost. Commencing with
an initial selection of power output, pressure ratio, TIT, and
component type, with rotational speed as input parameter, the
procedure iterates upon component efficiencies via Reynolds
number and component specific speed relationships, to converge
upon preliminary engine dimensions. An original motivation for
deriving the computer procedure was to enable the project
engineer to conduct thermodynamic and economic trade studies
in the preliminary design phase allowing earlier identification of
a promising component candidate configurations.

Fig10. OptimumThermal Efficiency Regimes

Note that as the engine size diminishes the speed islands also
diminish which is a consequence of specific speed efficiency
trends converging towards the self-sustaining domain and into
an eventual black hole. Component efficiencies skirting the selfsustaining level may also be deleterious to engine acceleration
characteristics, necessitating over temperature past the
externally assisted torque cutoff to rated speed conditions. Over
temperature is the nemesis of small metallic turbine blade
heights and thicknesses. Blade thicknesses below 0.03 inch can
readily vanish even at moderate TITs, if subject to high
combustor temperature pattern factors.
A huge domestic market potential is foreseeable for a 5kW
microturbine, but a 1.0kW unit would seem to have a limited
market perhaps other than special military applications and
logistic requirements.

Fig 9. Self Sustaining Cycle Conditions.

Fig11. Effect of Clearances on Output Power.

The procedure was applied to conduct preliminary design

analyses of a 5kW microturbine McDonald and Rodgers, 2001,
and subsequently exercised in this paper to examine the
anticipated performance of a 1.0 kW sized microturbine, with
either metallic or ceramic hot end components.
The results of this exercise are shown on Fig 10, revealing that
optimum rotational speeds would increase to some 350 krpm
metallic, and 450 krpm ceramic, with decreasing thermal
efficiency below 20%.

In order to emphasize the importance of clearances on small gas

turbines the estimated effect of increasing the 5KW
microturbine compressor and turbine clearances from .005 to
.015,and .015 to .025 inch, is shown on Fig 11 indicating a
power loss of 12%, excluding the effects of throat area
variations. Thus tolerance and clearance control would
obviously be prime engine assembly stack-up and inspection
criteria.

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CONCLUSIONS.

A 100 watt micro gas turbine, Isomura, et,al., 2002, is currently

being researched in Japan. Nevertheless it is anticipated that at
power levels above 1.0 kW the small metallic gas turbine, and
possibly eventually the small ceramic gas turbine could be
economically viable if mass produced with automobile
manufacturing technology capabilities.
This is as partially substantiated by the Nissan 2.6kW
microturbine development program, and witnessed by small 10
lbf, 160,000rpm turbojet kits, already available for a purchase
price of the order $1500.

The resurgence of potential market applications of the small gas

turbine fostered a review of the effects of size on the
performances of small gas turbines, encompassing an
examination of small gas turbine engine design constraints and
developmental lessons learned. Smallness was arbitrarily
defined as engines with rotational speeds exceeding 100 krpm
which although methodically convenient, excludes practical
multistage engine flowpaths with equally lower power outputs
but with lower rotational speeds, thus lower dynamic stresses,
and the feasibility of non-metallic materials.

A lessons learned approach addressing the many facets of

component size effects on small gas turbine performance and
viability was adopted. Lessons learned can impair vision, as
history records of the 1940 National Academy Scientific panel
that stated gas turbines would never fly, when indeed the
Hienkel 178 had already flown in 1939 powered by the Von
Ohain turbojet.

A huge domestic market potential is foreseeable for a 5kW

microturbine, but smaller units would seem to have a limited
market perhaps other than special military applications and
logistic requirements. Commercial market potential is uncertain
basically from both demand and profit margin considerations.
Analytical resolution of the question first focuses towards the
component efficiencies necessary to provide, at the very least,
self-sustaining operation, difficult indeed for the early gas
turbine pioneers. Analytical studies herein suggest that units of
1.0 kW could become feasible with the proviso that research
technology is spearheaded towards three critical elements:

Shirt button sized gas turbines are being researched and

optimistically will at least demonstrate self-sustaining
operation, as to whether they can prove economically viable
remains a trial of need versus cost.

(a) Stable consistent combustor operation on liquid fuel.

(b) Tolerable bearing viscous drag.
(c) Reducing turbine to compressor heat transfer.
These elements are conceivably more critical than the effects
of turbomachinery miniaturization on attainable compressor
and turbine efficiencies.
Current manufacturing technology tolerances for both metallic,
and ceramic castings, are projected to cause large performance
variations, beyond those already incurred in small
microturbines, pending newer technology fabrication
techniques and engine assembly procedures. Advanced
technology plasma layering and stereo lithography procedures
are in development but it may be premature to suggest these
techniques may significantly impact the tolerance variation
concerns. Layering techniques together with five-axis milling,
Childs and Noronha, 1997, are intimately coupled with the
trade offs between elapsed time and surface finish.
Alternative electrical energy sources, fuel cells, high energy
density batteries and thermo -electric generators, are being
researched which may prove both economically viable and
power density competitive with lower power sources in the 50
500 watt bracket.

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The Capstone Turbogenerator as an
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Rodgers, C.,1997. Thermo - Economics of Small 50 kW

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