363r 92

ACI 363R-92
(Reapproved 1997)
State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 363
Henry G. Russell
Chairman
Arthur R. Anderson
Jack O. Banning
Irwin G. Cantor*
Ramon L. Carrasquillo*
James E. Cook
Gregory C. Frantz
Weston T. Hester
Jaime Moreno
Secretary
Anthony N. Kojundic
Brian R. Mastin*
William C. Moore
Arthur H. Nilson*
William F. Perenchio
Francis J. Principe
Kenneth L Saucier*
Surendra P. Shah*
J. Craig Williams*
John Wolsiefer, Sr.
J. Francis Young
Paul Zia
Members responsible for individual chapters
ACI Committee 363 Members Balloting 1992 Revisions

William F. Perenchio
Secretary
Kenneth L Saucier
Chairman
Pierre Claude Aitcin
F. David Anderson
Claude Bedard
Roger W. Black
Irwin G. Cantor
Ramon L. Carrasquillo
Judith A. Castello
James E. Cook
Kingsley D. Drake
Gregory C. Frantz
Thomas G. Guennewig
Weston T. Hester+
Nathan L Howard
Anthony N. Kojundic
Mark D. Luther
Heshem Marzouk
Brian R. Mastin
William C. Moore
Jaime Moreno
Arthur H. Nilson
Clifford R. Ohwiler
Currently available information about high-strength concrete is summarized. Topics discussed include selection of materials, concrete mix proportioning, batching miring, transporting placing, control procedures,
concrete properties, structural design, economics, and applications. A
bibliography is included.
Chapter l-Introduction, pg. 363R-2
1.l-Historical background
1.2-Committee objectives
Keywords: bibliographies; bridges (structures); buildings; conveying;

economics; high-strength concretes; mechanical properties; mixing; mix
proportioning; placing; quality control; raw materials; reviews; structural design.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices,

and Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, or inspecting construction and
in preparing specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If
items found in these documents are desired to be part
of the Project Documents, they should be phrased in
mandatory language and incorporated into the Project
Documents.
Henry G. Russell
Michael T. Russell
Surendra P. Shah
Bryce P. Simons
Ava Szypula
Dean J. White, II
J. Craig Williams
John T. Wolsiefer
Francis J. Young
Paul Zia
Chapter 2-Selection of materials, pg. 363R-3
2.1-Introduction
2.2-Cements
2.3-Chemical admixtures
2.4-Mineral admixtures and slag cement
c 1992, American Concrete Institute.

Copyright O
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or
visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device,
unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
363R-1
363R-2
ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
2.5-Aggregates
2.6-Water
2.7-Cited references
Chapter 3-Concrete mix proportions, pg. 363R-8
3.1-Introduction
3.2-Strength required
3.3-Test age
3.4-Water-cement ratio or water-cementitious ratio
3.5-Cement content
3.6-Aggregate proportions
3.7-Proportioning with admixtures
3.8-Workability
3.9-Trial batches
Chapter 4-Batching, mixing, transporting, placing,
curing, and control procedures, pg. 363R-16
4.1-Introduction
4.2-Batching
7.2-Cost studies
7.3-Case histories
7.4-Other studies
7.5-Selection of materials
7.6-Quality control
7.7-Areas of application
7.4-Conclusion
Chapter 8-Applications, pg. 363R-44
8.1-Introduction
8.2-Buildings
8.3-Bridges
8.4-Special applications
8.5-Potential applications
Chapter 9-Summary, pg. 363R-48
Chapter 10-References, pg. 363R-49
4.3-Mixing
4.4-Transporting
4.5-Placing procedures
4.6-Curing
4.7-Quality assurance
4.8-Quality control procedures
4.9-Strength measurements
Chapter 5-Properties of high-strength concrete, pg.
363R-22
5.1-Introduction
5.2-Stress-strain behavior in uniaxial compression
5.3-Modulus of elasticity
5.4-Poissons ratio
5.5-Modulus of rupture
5.6-Tensile splitting strength
5.7-Fatigue strength
5.8-Unit weight
5.9-Thermal properties
5.10-Heat evolution due to hydration
5.11-Strength gain with age
5.12-Freeze-thaw resistance
5.13-Shrinkage
5.14-Creep
Chapter 6-Structural design considerations, pg. 363R-
29
6.1-Introduction
6.2-Axially-loaded columns
6.3-Beams and slabs
6.4-Eccentric columns
6.5-Summary
Chapter 7--Economic considerations, pg. 363R-41
7.1-Introduction
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.1-Historical background
Although high-strength concrete is often considered a

relatively new material, its development has been gradual
over many years. As the development has continued, the
definition of high-strength concrete has changed. In the
1950s, concrete with a compressive strength of 5000 psi
(34 MPa) was considered high strength. In the 1960s,
concrete with 6000 and 7500 psi (41 and 52 MPa) compressive strengths were used commercially. In the early
1970s, 9000 psi (62 MPa) concrete was being produced.
More recently, compressive strengths approaching 20,000
psi (138 MPa) have been used in cast-in-place buildings.
For many years, concrete with compressive strength in
excess of 6000 psi (41 MPa) was available at only a few
locations. However, in recent years, the applications of
high-strength concrete have increased, and high-strength
concrete has now been used in many parts of the world.
The growth has been possible as a result of recent developments in material technology and a demand for
higher-strength concrete. The construction of Chicagos
Water Tower Place and 311 South Wacker Drive concrete buildings would not have been possible without the
development of high-strength concrete. The use of concrete superstructures in long span cable-stayed bridges
such as East Huntington, W.V., bridge over the Ohio
River would not have taken place without the availability
of high-strength concrete.
1.2-Committee objectives
Since the definition of high-strength concrete has
changed over the years, the committee needed to define
an applicable range of concrete strengths for its activities.
The following working definition was adopted: The immediate concern of Committee 363 shall be concretes
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
have specified compressive strengths for design of 6000

psi (41 MPa) or greater, but for the present time, considerations shall not include concrete made using exotic
materials or techniques.
The word exotic was included in the definition so that
the committee would not be concerned with concretes
such as polymer-impregnated concrete, epoxy concrete,
or concrete with artificial normal and heavy-weight aggregates.
Although 6000 psi (41 MPa) was selected as the lower
limit, it is not intended to imply that there is a drastic
change in material properties or in production techniques
that occur at this compressive strength.
In reality, all changes that take place above 6000 psi
(41 MPa) represent a process which starts with the lowerstrength concretes and continues into high-strength concretes. Many empirical equations used to predict properties of concrete or to design structural members are
based on tests using concrete with compressive strengths
less than about 6000 psi (41 MPa). The availability of
data for higher-strength concretes requires a reassessment of the equations to determine their applicability
with higher-strength concretes. Consequently, caution
should be exercised in extrapolating data from lowerstrength to high-strength concretes. If necessary, tests
should then be made to develop data for the materials or
applications in question.
The committee also recognized that the definition of
high-strength concrete varies on a geographical basis. In
regions where concrete with a compressive strength of
9000 psi (62 MPa) is already being produced commercially, high-strength concrete might be in the range of 12,000
to 15,000 psi (83 to 103 MPa) compressive strength.
However, in regions where the upper limit on commercially available material is currently 5000 psi (34 MPa)
concrete, 9000 psi (62 MPa) concrete is considered high
strength. The committee recognized that material selection, concrete mix proportioning, batching, mixing, transporting, placing, and control procedures are applicable
across a wide range of concrete strengths. However, the
committee felt that material properties and structural
design considerations given in this report should be concerned with concretes having the highest compressive
strengths. The committee has tried to cover both aspects
in compiling this state-of-the-art report.
CHAPTER 2-SELECTION OF MATERIALS
2.1-Introduction
The production of high-strength concrete that consistently meets requirements for workability and strength
development places more stringent requirements on
material selection than for lower-strength concretes.
Quality materials are needed and specifications require
enforcement. High-strength concrete has been produced
using a wide range of quality materials based on the results of trial mixtures. This chapter
cites the state of
I
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knowledge regarding material selection and provides a

baseline for the subsequent discussion of mix proportions
in Chapter 3.
Fig. 2.1-Effects of cement on concrete compressive

strength. 2.2
2.2-Cements
The choice of portland cement for high-strength constrength is the objective, such as in prestressed concrete,
there is no need to use a Type III cement. Furthermore,
within a given cement type, different brands will have different strength development characteristics because of
the variations in compound composition and fineness that
are permitted by ASTM C 150.
Initially, silo test certificates should be obtained from
potential suppliers for the previous 6 to 12 months. Not
only will this give an indication of strength characteristics
from the ASTM C 109 mortar cube test, but also, more
importantly, it will provide an indication of cement uniformity. The cement supplier should be required to report uniformity in accordance with ASTM C 917. If the
tricalcium silicate content varies by more than 4 percent,
the ignition loss by more than 0.5 percent, or the fineness
by more than 375 cm2/g (Blaine), then problems in maintaining a uniform high strength may result.2.1Sulfate
(SO,) levels should be maintained at optimum with variations limited to 0.20 percent.
Although mortar cube tests can give a good indication
of potential strength, tests should be run on trial batches.
These should contain the materials to be used in the job
and be prepared at the proposed slump, with strengths
determined at 7, 28, 56, and 91 days. The effect of
cement characteristics on water demand is more noticeable in high-strength concretes because of the higher
cement contents.
High cement contents can be expected to result in a
high temperature rise within the concrete. For example,
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mixtures with sufficient retarder dosage to give the desirable rate of hardening under the anticipated temperature
conditions.
Since retarders frequently provide an increase in
strength that will be proportional to the dosage rate, mixtures can be designed at different doses if it is expected
that significantly different rates will be used. However,
there is usually an offsetting effect that minimizes the
variations in strengths due to temperature. As temperature increases, later age strengths will decline; however,
an increase in retarder dosage to control the rate of
hardening will provide some mitigation of the temperature-induced reduction. Conversely, dosages should be
decreased as temperatures decline.
While providing initial retardation, strengths at 24
hours and later are usually increased by normal dosages.
2.3-Chemical admixtures
2.3.1 General-Admixtures are widely used in the pro- Extended retardation or cool temperatures may affect
duction of high-strength concretes. These materials in- early (24-hour) strengths adversely.
2.3.4 Normal-setting water reducers (ASTM C 494,
clude air-entraining agents and chemical and mineral
admixtures. Air-entraining agents are generally surfac- Type A-Normal setting ASTM C 494 Type A conventants that will develop an air-void system appropriate for tional water-reducing admixtures will provide strength
durability enhancement. Chemical admixtures are gener- increases without altering rates of hardening. Their
ally produced using lignosulfonates, hydroxylated car- selection should be based on strength performance. Inboxylic acids, carbohydrates, melamine and naphthalene creases in dosage above the normal amounts will genercondensates, and organic and inorganic accelerators in ally increase strengths, but may extend setting times.
various formulations. Selection of type, brand, and dos- When admixtures are used in this fashion to provide reage rate of all admixtures should be based on perfor- tardation, a benefit in strength performance sometimes
mance with the other materials being considered or results.
2.3.5 High-range water reducers 2.4,2.5 (ASTM C 494,
selected for use on the project. Significant increases in
compressive strength, control of rate of hardening, ac- Types F and G-High-range water reduction provides
celerated strength gain, improved workability, and dur- high-strength performance, particularly at early (24-hour)
ability are contributions that can be expected from the ages. Matching the admixture to the cement, both in type
admixture or admixtures chosen. Reliable performance and dosage rate, is important. The slump loss characteron previous work should be considered during the selec- istics of a high-range water reducer (HRWR) will detertion process.
mine whether it should be added at the plant, at the site,
or a combination of each.
2.3.2 Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C 260)-The
Use of a HRWR in high-strength concrete may serve
use of air entrainment is recommended to enhance durability when concrete will be subjected to freezing and the purpose of increasing strength at the slump or inthawing while wet. As compressive strengths increase and creasing slump. The method of addition should distribute
water-cement ratios decrease, air-void parameters im- the admixture throughout the concrete. Adequate mixing
prove and entrained air percentages can be set at the is critical to uniform performance. Supervision is imlower limits of the acceptable range as given in ACI 201. portant to the successful use of a HRWR. The use of
2.6
Entrained air has the effect of reducing strength, parti- superplasticizers is discussed further in ACI SP-68.
2.3.6 Accelerators (ASTM C 494, Types C and E)-Accularly in high-strength mixtures, and for that reason it
has been used only where there is a concern for durabili- celerators are not normally used in high-strength concrete unless early form removal is critical. High-strength
ty. See also Section 5.12.
2.3.3 Retarders (ASTM C 494, Types B and D)-High- concrete mixtures can provide strengths adequate for verstrength concrete mix designs incorporate high cement tical form removal on walls and columns at an early age.
factors that are not common to normal commercial con- Accelerators used to increase the rate of hardening will
crete. A retarder is frequently beneficial in controlling normally be counterproductive in long-term strength deearly hydration. The addition of water to retemper the velopment.
2.3.7 Admixture combinations-Combinations of highmixture will result in marked strength reduction. Further,
structural design frequently requires heavy reinforcing range water reducers with normal-setting water reducers
steel and complicated forming with attendant difficult or retarders have become common to achieve optimum
placement of the concrete. A retarder can control the performance at lowest cost. Improvements in strength
rate of hardening in the forms to eliminate cold joints gain and control of setting times and workability are
and provide more flexibility in placement schedules. Pro- posstble with optimized combinations. In certain cirjects have used retarders successfully by initially designing cumstances, combinations of normal-setting or retarding
the temperature in the 4 ft (1.2 m) square columns used
in Water Tower Place which contained 846 lb cement/yd 3
(502 kg/m3), rose to 150 F (66 C) from 75 F (24 C)
during hydration. 2.2 The heat was dissipated within 6 days
without harmful effects. However, when the temperature
rise is expected to be a problem, a Type II low-heat-ofhydration cement can be used, provided it meets the
strength-producing requirements.
A further consideration is the optimization of the
cement-admixture system. The exact effect of a waterreducing agent on water requirement, for example, will
depend on the cement characteristics. Strength development will depend on both cement characteristics and cement content.
water-reducing admixtures plus an accelerating admixture

have also been found to be useful.
When using a combination of admixtures, they should
be dispensed individually in a manner approved by the
manufacturer(s). Air-entraining admixtures should, if
used, be dispensed separately from water-reducing admixtures.
2.4-Mineral admixtures and slag cement
Finely divided mineral admixtures, consisting mainly
of fly ash and silica fume, and slag cement have been
widely used in high-strength concrete.
2.4.1 Fly ash-Fly ash for high-strength concrete is
classified into two classes. Class F fly ash is normally produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal and
has pozzolanic properties, but little or no cementitious
properties. Class C fly ash is normally produced from
burning lignite or subbituminous coal, and in addition to
having pozzolanic properties, has some autogenous cementitious properties. In general, Class F fly ash is available in the eastern United States and Canada, and Class
C fly ash is available in the western United States and
Canada.
Specifications for fly ash are covered in ASTM C 618.
Methods for sampling and testing are found in
ASTM C 311. Variations in physical or chemical properties of mineral admixtures, although within the tolerances
of these specifications, may cause appreciable variations
in properties of high-strength concrete. Such variations
can be minimized by appropriate testing of shipments
and increasing the frequency of sampling. ACI 212.2R
provides guidelines for the use of admixtures in concrete.
It is extremely important that mineral admixtures be tested for acceptance and uniformity and carefully investigated for strength-producing properties and compatibility
with the other materials in the high-strength concrete
mixture before they are used in the work.
2.4.2 Silica fume - Silica fume and admixtures containing silica fume2.8 have been used in high-strength concretes 2.9, 2.10 for structural purposes and for surface applications and as repair materials in situations where
abrasion resistance and low permeability are advantageous. Silica fume is a by-product resulting from the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in electric arc
furnaces in the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. The fume, which has a high content of amorphous
silicon dioxide and consists of very fine spherical particles, is collected from the gases escaping from the
furnaces.
Silica fume consists of very fine vitreous particles with
a surface area on the order of 20,000 m 2/kg when
measured by nitrogen adsorption techniques 2.29 The
particle-size distribution of a typical silica fume shows
most par-titles to be smaller than one micrometer (1
m) with an average diameter of about 0.1 m, which is
approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement
particle. The specific gravity of silica fume is typically 2.2,
but may be as high as 2.5. The bulk density as collected
363R-5
is 10 to 20 lb/ft3 (160 to 320 kg/m3); however, it is also

available in densified or slurry forms for commercial
application.
Silica fume, because of its extreme fineness and high
silica content, is a highly effective pozzolanic material.
The silica fume reacts pozzolanically with the lime during
the hydration of cement to form the stable cementitious
compound calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). The availability of high-range water-reducing admixtures has facilitated
the use of silica fume as part of the cementing material
in concrete to produce high-strength concretes.2.29 Normal silica fume content ranges from 5 to 15 percent of
portland cement content.
The use of silica fume to produce high-strength
concrete increased dramatically in the 1980s. Both laboratory and field experience indicate that concrete incorporating silica fume has an increased tendency to develop
plastic shrinkage cracks. 2.29 Thus, it is necessary to
quickly cover the surfaces of freshly placed silica-fume
concrete to prevent rapid water evaporation. Since it is
a relatively new material to the concrete industry in the
United States, the user is referred to several recent
symposia and publications for additional information on
2.4.3 Slag cement - Ground slag cement is produced
only in certain areas of the United States and Canada.
Specifications for ground granulated blast furnace slag
are given in ASTM C 989. The classes of portland blast
furnace slag cement are covered in ASTM C 595. Slag
appropriate for concrete is a nonmetallic product that is
developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron
in a blast furnace. When properly quenched and processed, slag will act hydraulically in concrete as a partial
replacement for portland cement. Slag can be interground with cement or used as an additional cement at
the batching facility. Blast furnace slag essentially consists
of silicates and alumino-silicates of calcium and other
bases. Research using ground slag shows much promise
for its use in high-strength concrete.
2.4.4 Evaluation and selection - Mineral admixtures
and slag cement, like any material in a high-strength concrete mixture, should be evaluated using laboratory trial
batches to establish the optimum desirable qualities.
Materials representative of those that will be employed
later in the actual construction should be used. Particular
care should be taken to insure that the mineral admixture comes from bulk supplies and that they are typical.
Generally, several trial batches are made using varying
cement factors and admixture dosages to establish curves
which can be used to select the amount of cement and
admixture required to achieve the desired results.
When fly ash is to be used, the minimum requirement
is that it comply with ASTM C 618. Although this specification permits a higher loss on ignition, an ignition loss
2.11
of 3 percent or less is desirable.
High fineness, uniformity or production, high pozzolanic activity, and compatibility with other mixture ingredients are items of primary importance.
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2.5-Aggregates
2.5.1 General - Both fine and coarse aggregates used

for high-strength concrete should, as a minimum, meet
the requirements of ASTM C 33; however, the following
exceptions may be beneficial.
2.5.2 - Grading
2.5.2.1 Fine aggregate - Fine aggregates with a
rounded particle shape and smooth texture have been
found to require less mixing water in concrete and for
this reason are preferable in high-strength concrete2.11 2.12
The optimum gradation of fine aggregate for highstrength concrete is determined more by its effect on
water requirement than on physical packing. One report 2.10 stated that a sand with a fineness modulus (PM)
below 2.5 gave the concrete a sticky consistency, making
it difficult to compact. Sand with an FM of about 3.0
gave the best workability and compressive strength.
High-strength concretes typically contain such high
contents of fine cementitious materials that the grading
of the aggregates used is relatively unimportant compared to conventional concrete. However, it is sometimes
helpful to increase the fineness modulus. A National
Crushed Stone Association report2.13 made several recommendations in the interest of reducing the water requirement. The amounts passing the No. 50 and 100
sieves should be kept low, but still within the requirements of ASTM C 33, and mica or clay contaminants
should be avoided. Another investigation2.13 found that
the sand gradation had no significant effect on early
strengths but that at later ages and consequently higher
levels of strength, the gap-graded sand mixes exhibited
lower strengths than the standard mixes.
2.5.2.2 Coarse aggregate
compressive strength with high cement content and low
water-cement ratios the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be kept to a minimum, at in. (12.7 mm) or
H in. (9.5 mm). Maximum sixes of in. (19.0 mm) and
1 in. (25.4 mm also have been used successfully. Cordon
and Gillespie 2.19 felt that the strength increases were
caused by the reduction in average bond stress due to the
increased surface area of the individual aggregate. Alexander 2.20 found that the bond to a 3 in. (76 mm) aggregate particle was only about l/10 of that to a -in. (13
mm) particle. He also stated that except for very good or
very bad aggregates the bond strength was about 50 to 60
percent of the paste strength at 7 days.
Smaller aggregate sixes are also considered to produce
higher concrete strengths because of less severe concentrations of stress around the particles, which are caused
by differences between the elastic moduli of the paste
and the aggregate.
Many studies have shown that crushed stone produces
higher strengths than rounded gravel. The most likely
reason for this is the greater mechanical bond which can
develop with angular particles. However, accentuated angularity is to be avoided because of the attendant high
water requirement and reduced workability. The ideal ag-
gregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100 percent

crushed aggregate with a minimum of flat and elongated
particles. 2.13
Because, as stated earlier, bond strength is the limiting
factor in the development of high-strength concrete, the
mineralogy of the aggregates should be such as to promote chemical bonding. Some work has been done with
artificial material such as portland and aluminous cement
clinkers and selected slags.2.14,221 The long-term stability
of the clinkers is in question, however. Harris2.22 states
that Moorehead measured a potential silica-lime bond of
at least 28,000 psi (193 M Pa). Presumably many siliceous
minerals would prove to have good bonding potential
with portland cement. This would appear to be a promising area for further research.
2.5.3 Absorption -Curing is extremely important in the
production of high-strength concrete. To produce a
cement paste with as high a solids content as possible,
the concrete must contain the absolute minimum mix
water. However, after the concrete is in place and the
paste structure is established, water should be freely
available, especially during the early stages of hydration 2.14,2.23 During this period, a great deal of water
combines with the cement. All of this water loses approximately of its volume after the chemical reactions are
completed. This creates a small vacuum that is capable of
pulling water short distances into the concrete which, at
this time, is still relatively permeable. Any extra water
which can enter the structure will increase the ultimate
amount of hydration and, therefore the percent of solids
per unit volume of paste, thereby increasing its strength.
If the aggregates are capable of absorbing a moderate
amount of water, they can act as tiny curing-water reservoirs distributed throughout the concrete, thereby providing the added curing water which is beneficial to these
low water-cement ratio pastes.
2.5.4 Intrinsic aggregate strength-It would seem obvious that high-strength concrete would require highstrength aggregates and, to some extent, this is true.
However, several investigators2.24,2.25 have found that, for
some aggregates, a point is reached beyond which further
increases in cement content produce no increase in the
compressive strength of the concrete. This apparently is
not due to having fully developed the compressive
strength of the concrete but to having reached the limit
of the bonding potential of that cement-aggregate combination.
2.6-Water
The requirements for water quality for high-strength
concrete are no more stringent than those for conventional concrete. Usually, water for concrete is specified to
be of potable quality. This is certainly conservative but
usually does not constitute a problem since most concrete
is produced near a municipal water supply. However,
cases may be encountered where water of a lower quality
must be used. In such cases, test concrete should be
made with the water and compared with concrete made
TH CONCRETE
with distilled water, or it may be more convenient to

make ASTM C 109 mortar cubes. In either case, specimens should be tested in compression at 7 and 28 days.
If those made with the water in question are at least
equal to 90 percent of the compressive strength of the
specimens made with distilled water, the water then can
be considered acceptable to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers requirements2.26 and ASTM C 94.
For more detailed information on specific contaminants refer to the literature in References 2.27, 2.28, and
2.29. Test methods for water for special situations are
given in AASHTO T26.
(See also Chapter 10-References)

2.1. Hester, Weston, High Strength Air-Entrained
Concrete, Concrete Construction, V. 22, No. 2, Feb. 1977,
pp. 77-82.
2.2. High Strength Concrete in Chicago High-Rise
Buildings, Task Force Report No. 5, Chicago Committee
on High-Rise Buildings, Feb. 1977, 63 pp.
2.3. Freedman, Sydney, High-Strength Concrete,
Modern Concrete, V. 34, No. 6, Oct. 1970, pp. 29-36; No.
7, Nov. 1970 pp 28-32; No. 8, Dec. 1970, pp. 21-24; No.
9, Jan. 1971, pp. 15-22; and No. 10, Feb. 1971, pp. 16-23.
Also, Publication No. IS176T, Portland Cement Association.
2.4. Superplasticizing Admixtures in Concrete, Publication No. 45.030, Cement and Concrete Association,
Wexham Springs, 1976, 32 pp.
2.5. Eriksen, Kirsten, and Nepper-Christensen, Palle,
Experiences in the Use of Superplasticizers in Some
Special Fly Ash Concretes, Developments in the Use of
Superplasticizers, SP-68, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1981, pp. 1-20.
2.6. Developments in the Use of Superplasticizers, SP-68,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981, 572 pp.
2.7. Wolsiefer, John, Ultra High-Strength Field Placeable Concrete with Silica Fume Admixture, Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 4, Apr. 1984,
pp. 25-31.
2.8. Malhotra, V.M., and Carette, G.G., Silica Fume,
Concrete Construction, V. 27, No. 5, May 1982, pp. 443446.
2.9. Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and other Mineral
By-Products in Concrete, SP-79, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1983, 1196 pp.
2.10. Blick, Ronald L., Some Factors Influencing
High-Strength Concrete, Modern Concrete, V. 36, No. 12,
Apr. 1973, pp. 38-41.
2.11. Wills, Milton H., Jr., How Aggregate Particle
Shape Influences Concrete Mixing Water Requirement
and Strength, Journal of Materials, V. 2, No. 4, Dec.
1967, pp. 843-865.
2.12. Gaynor, R.D., and Meininger, R.C., Evaluating
Concrete Sands: Five Tests to Estimate Quality, Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 5, No. 12,
Dec. 1983, pp. 53-60.
363R-7
2.13. High Strength Concrete, Manual of Concrete

Materials-Aggregates, National Crashed Stone Association, Washington, D.C. Jan. 1975, 16 pp.
2.14. Perenchio, W.P., An Evaluation of Some of the
Factors Involved in Producing Very High-Strength Concrete, Research and Development Bulletin No. RD014,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1973, 7 pp.
2.15. Methods of Achieving High Strength Concrete,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 64, No. 1, Jan. 1967, pp.
45-48.
2.16. Fowler, Earl W., and Lewis, D.W., Flexure and
Compression Tests of High Strength, Air-Entraining Slag
Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 60, No. 1, Jan.
1963, pp. 113-128.
2.17. Harris, A.J., High-Strength Concrete: Manufacture and Properties, The Structural Engineer (London),
V. 47, No. 11, Nov. 1969, pp. 441-446.
2.18. Walker, Stanton, and Bloem, Delmar L., Effects
of Aggregate Size on Properties of Concrete, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. 3, Sept. 1960, pp. 283298.
2.19. Cordon, William A, and Gillespie, H. Aldridge,
Variables in Concrete Aggregates and Portland Cement
Paste Which Influence the Strength of Concrete, ACI
JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 60, No. 8, Aug. 1963, pp. 10291052.
2.20. Alexander, K.M., Factors Controlling the
Strength and Shrinkage of Concrete, Constructional
Review (North Sydney), V. 33, No. 11, Nov. 1960, pp.
19-28.
2.21 Tentative Interim Report of High Strength
Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 64, No. 9, Sept.
1967, pp. 556-557.
2.22. Harris, A.J., Ultra High Strength Concrete,
Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 12, No. 1, Feb.
1967, pp. 53-59.
2.23. Klieger, Paul, Early High Strength Concrete for
Prestressing, Proceedings, World Conference on Prestressed Concrete, San Francisco, 1957, pp. A5-1-A5-14.
2.24. Burgess. A. James; Ryell, John; and Bunting,
John, High Strength Concrete for the Willows Bridge,
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 67, No. 8, Aug. 1970, pp.
611-619.
2.25. Gaynor, Richard D., High Strength Air-Entrained Concrete, Joint Research Laboratory Publication
No. 17, National Sand and Gravel Association/National
Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Mar.
1968, 19 pp.
2.26. Requirements for Water for Use in Mixing or
Curing Concrete, (CRD-C 400-63), Handbook for Concrete and Cement, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, 2 pp.
2.27. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
2.28. McCoy, W.J., Mixing and Curing Water for
Concrete, Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete
and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1966, pp.
363R-8
515-521.
2.29. Silica Fume in Concrete, preliminary report by
ACI Committee 226, Materials Journal, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, V. 84, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1987.
2.30 Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans
in Concrete, SP-91, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1986, 1628 pp.
2.31 Proceedings of the International Workshop on Condensed Silica Fume in Concrete, CANMET, Montreal,
Canada, May 1987.
2.32 Proceedings of the Third International Conference
on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete, SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1989.
tors, inspection agencies, and environmental conditions.

All factors which will affect the variability of strengths
and strength measurements should be considered when
selecting mix proportions and when establishing the standard deviation acceptable for strength results. Materials
and proportions used for qualifying the mixture should
not be more closely controlled than is planned for the
proposed work. Kennedy and Price have identified factors which contribute to the variability of measured compressive strengths of concretes in lower strength
ranges. 3.3,3.4
Hester identified sources of measured strength variations in high-strength concretes. 3.5 High-strength concrete is recognized to be more difficult to test accurately
than normal strength concretes. Testing difficulties may
contribute to lower measured values or higher variability.
A high variance in test results will dictate a higher
CHAPTER 3 - CONCRETE MIX PROPORTIONS required average strength. If variability is predicted to be
relatively low, but proves to be higher, the frequency of
test results below the specified strength may be unacceptConcrete mix proportions for high-strength concrete ably high. Therefore, when selecting a target standard
have varied widely depending upon many factors. The deviation the concrete producer should submit the most
3.6
A higher required average
strength level required, test age, material characteristics, appropriate test record.
and type of application have influenced mix proportions. strength may be difficult or impossible to attain when
In addition, economics, structural requirements, manufac- producing high-strength concretes because mix proporturing practicality, anticipated curing environment, and tions may already be optimized.
ACI 318 recognizes that some test results are likely to
even the time of year have affected the selection of mix
proportions. Much information on proportioning con- be lower than the specified strength. The most common
crete mixtures is available in ACI 211.1 and ACI design approach has been to limit the frequency of tests
SP-46. 3.1 Included in ACI publication SP-46 is the paper allowed to fall below the specified strength. The concrete
Proportioning and Controlling High Strength Concrete has been judged acceptable if the following requirements
are met:
(SP-46-9).
a) The average of all sets of three consecutive strength
High-strength concrete mix proportioning is a more
critical process than the design of normal strength con- test results shall equal or exceed the required fc'.
b) No individual strength test (average of two cylincrete mixtures. Usually, specially selected pozzolanic and
chemical admixtures are employed, and the attainment of ders) shall fall below fc' by more than 500 psi (3.4 MPa).
However, some designers have specified higher or
a low water-cementitious ratio is considered essential.
Many trial batches are often required to generate the lower overdesign strengths than called for in ACI 318
data that enables the researcher to identify optimum mix regardless of established performance.
Schmidt and Hoffman3.7 report that they do not autoproportions.
maticalIy order removal of concrete which is represented
by cylinders 500 psi (3.4 MPa) below specified strength
3.2-Strength required
but do order adjustment of the mixture and correction of
3.2.1 ACI 318- The ACI Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318) describes concrete the deficiency. This is because the ACI 318 Section 4.7.4
strength requirements. Normally the concrete has been was established for concretes with strengths in the range
proportioned in such a manner that the mean average of of 3000 to 5000 psi (21 to 34 MPa). High-strength concompressive strength test results has exceeded the spe- cretes continue to gain considerable strengths above and
beyond design requirements with the passage of time,
cified strength fc' by an amount sufficiently high to
3.7
minimize the relative frequency of test results below the more than lower-strength concretes. While the percentage gain of compressive strength of high-strength conspecified strength value.
An average value can be calculated for any set of cretes from 7 days to 90 days may be equal to or lower
measurement data. The amount that individual test val- than concretes in lower strength ranges, the order of
ues deviate from the average is usually quantified by magnitude of strength gain expressed in psi is actually
calculation of the standard deviation. Calculation of much higher. For example, a mixture which averages
standard deviation on concrete test histories can be a 2500 psi (17.2 MPa) in 7 days may average 4200 psi (29
MPa) in 90 days. It would have gained strength equal to
valuable aid in predicting future test result variability.
Many factors can influence the variability of the test 68 percent of the 7-day strength, or 1700 psi (11.7 MPa)
results, including the individual materials, plants, contrac- at the age of 90 days. A mixture averaging 7300 psi (50.3
MPa) in 7 days could average 10,000 psi (69 MPa) in 90

days. That would be an increase of only 37 percent, but
it would have gained 2700 psi (18.6 MPa), a full 1000 psi
(6.9 MPa) higher total gain than the lower-strength
mixture.
ACI 318 allows mix designs to be proportioned based
on field experience or by laboratory trial batches. When
the concrete producer chooses to select high-strength
concrete mix proportions based upon laboratory trial
batches, confirming tests results from concretes placed in
the field should also be established.
3.2.2 ACI 214-- Once sufficient test data have been
generated from the job, a reevaluation of mix proportions using Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
Compression Test Results of Concrete (ACI 214) may
be appropriate. Analyses affecting reproportioning of
mixtures based upon test histories are described in
Sections 4.8.1 and 4.8.2.
3.2.3 Other Strength Requirements--In some situations,
considerations other than compressive strength may influence mix proportions. Detailed discussion of material
properties including flexural and tensile strengths is given
in Chapter 5.
3.3- Test age
The selection of mix proportions can be influenced by
the testing age. This testing age has varied depending
upon the construction requirements. Most often the
testing age has been thought to be the age at which the
acceptance criteria are established, for example at 28
days. Testing, however, has been conducted prior to the
age of acceptance testing, or after that age, depending
upon the type of information required.
3.3.1 Early Age-- Prestressed concrete operations may
require high strengths in 12 to 24 hours. Special applications for early use of machinery foundations, pavement
traffic lanes, or slip formed concrete have required high
strengths at early ages. Post-tensioned concrete is often
stressed at ages of approximately 3 days and requires
relatively high strengths. Generally concretes which develop high later-age strengths will also produce high
early-age strengths. However, the optimum materials
selected, and therefore the mix proportions, may vary for
different test ages. For example, Type III cement and no
fly ash have been used in a high early-strength design,
compared to Type I or II cement and fly ash for a laterage strength design. Early-age strengths may be more
variable due to the influence of curing temperature and
the early-age characteristics of the specific cement.
Therefore, anticipated mix proportions should be evaluated for a higher required average strength or a later test
age.
3.3.2 Twenty-eight days- A very common test age for
compressive strength of concrete has been 28 days. Performance of structures has been empirically correlated
with moist-cured concrete cylinders, usually 6 x 12 in.
(152 x 305 mm) prepared according to ASTM C 31 and
C 192. This has produced good results for concretes with-
393R-9
in lower strength ranges not requiring early strengths or

early evaluation. High-strength concretes gain considerable strengths at later ages and, therefore, are evaluated
at later ages when construction requirements allow the
concrete more time to develop strengths before loads are
imposed. Proportions, notably cementitious components,
have usually been adjusted depending upon test age.
3.3.3 Later age-- High-strength concretes are frequently
tested at later ages such as 56 or 90 days. High-strength
concrete has been placed frequently in columns of highrise buildings. Therefore, it has been desirable to take
advantage of long-term strength gains so that efficient
use of construction materials can be achieved. This has
often been justified in high-rise buildings where full
loadings may not occur until later ages.
In cases where later-age acceptance criteria have been
specified, it may be advantageous for the concrete supplier to develop earl -age or accelerated tests to predict
later-age strengths.3.8 The ACI publication SP-56, Accelerated StrengthTesting, provides information on accelerated testing. 3.9 Of course, historical correlation data must
be developed relative to the materials and proportions to
be used in the work. These tests may not always accurately predict later-age strengths; however, these tests
could provide an early identification of lower-strength
trends before a long history of non-compliance is
realized. Later-age acceptance criteria can leave suspect
concrete in question for a long time.
Test cylinders have been held for testing at ages later
than the specified acceptance age. In cases where the
specified compressive strength fc' was not achieved, subsequent testing of later-age or hold cylinders has sometimes justified the acceptance of the concrete in question.
3.3.4 Test age in relationship to curing- When selecting
mix proportions, the type of curing anticipated should be
considered along with the test age, especially when designing for high early strengths. Concretes gain strength
as a function of maturity, which is usually defined as a
function of time and curing temperature.
3.4- Water-cement ratio or water-cementitious ratio
3.4.1 Nature of water-cement ratio in high-strength con-
crete- The relationship between water-cement ratio and

compressive strength, which has been identified in lowstrength concretes, has been found to be valid for higherstrength concretes also. Higher cement contents and
lower water contents have produced higher strengths.
Proportioning larger amounts of cement into the concrete mixture, however, has also increased the water
demand of the mixture. Increases in cement beyond a
certain point have not always increased compressive
strengths. Other factors which may limit maximum
cement contents are discussed in Section 3.5.3. When
pozzolanic materials are used in concrete, a water-cement
plus pozzolan ratio by weight has been considered in
place of the traditional water-cement ratio by weight. Fly
ash meeting requirements of ASTM C 618 with a loss on
ignition of less than 3.0 percent and ASTM C 494 types
363R-10
A, D, F, and G chemical admixtures have usually been

used. 3.10
Of course the slump of the concrete is related to the
water-cementitious ratio and the total amount of water
in the concrete. While 0 to 2 in. slump concrete has been
produced in precast operations, special consolidation efforts are required. Specified slumps for cast-in-place concretes not containing high-range water reducers have
ranged from 21/2 to 41/4 in. (64 to 114 mm). Field-placed
nonplasticized concretes have had measured slumps averaging as high as 43/4 in. (121 mm). 3.10
The use of high-range water reducers has provided
lower water-cementitious ratios and higher slumps.3.11
Water-cementitious ratios by weight for high-strength
concretes typically have ranged from 0.27 to 0.50. The
quantity of liquid admixtures, particularly high-range
water reducers, sometimes has been included in the
water-cementitious ratio.
3.4.2 Estimating compressive strength-- The compressive
strength that a concrete will develop at a given watercementitious ratio has varied widely depending on the
cement, aggregates, and admixtures employed.
Principal causes of variations in compressive strengths
at a given water-cementitious ratio include the strengthproducing capabilities of the cement and potential for
pozzolanic reactivity of the fly ash or other pozzolan if
used. Different types and brands of portland cement have
produced
different compressive strengths as shown in Fig.
3.2,3.12
3.1.
particular pozzolan employed has varied and has generally increased with increasing fineness of the pozzolan.
Often water requirements for fly ash concrete are lower
than for portland cement. This helps to lower the watercementitious ratio of the mixture.
Perenchio 3.15 has reported variable compressive
strength results at given water-cement ratios in laboratory
prepared concretes, depending on the aggregates used. In
addition, these results have differed from results achieved
in actual production with materials from the same area.
A range of typical strengths reported at given watercementitious ratios is represented in Fig. 3.2. Trial
batches with materials actually to be used in the work
have been found to be necessary. Generally, laboratory
trial batches have produced strengths higher than those
strengths which are achievable in production, as seen in
Fig. 3.33.2
Krxo
Compressive
Strength,
MPa
Compressive
Strength ,
psi
800
Compressive
Strength ,
psi
10000
Water - Cementitious
Ratio
Fig. 3.2-- Strength versus water-cement ratios of various
mixtures
3.2,3.10,3.15,3.16
3.5-Cement content
Fig. 3.1-- Effects of various brands of cement on concrete
3.2,3.12
compressive strength
Specific information pertaining to the range of values

of compressive strengths of cements has been published
in ASTM C 917 and Peters.3.13 Fly ashes may vary in
pozzolanic activity index from 75 percent to 110 percent
of the portland cement control, as defined in
ASTM C 618. Proprietary pozzolans containing silica
fume have been reported to have activity indexes in
excess of 200 percent.3.14 The water requirement of the
The cement quantity proportioned into a high-strength

mixture has been determined best by the fabrication of
trial batches. Common cement contents in high-strength
concrete test programs range from 660 to 940 lb per yd 3
3.2,3.16
(392 to 557 kg/m3).
In evaluating optimum cement
contents, trial mixes usually are proportioned to equal
consistencies, allowing the water content to vary according to the water demand of the mixture.
3.5.1 Strength-For any given set of materials in a
concrete mixture, there may be a cement content that
produces maximum concrete strength. The maximum
strength may not always be increased by the use of
363R-11
60
50 -
. Agg. No. I
. Agg. No. 2
. Agg. No.3
Reduction in Comp. 40
Strength Below
Non-A.E. Concrete 30
8000
Compessive
Strength,
MPo
Compressive
Strength,
psi
6000
of Some W/C, %
40
Points Represent Avg.
of ?-and 28-Day Tests
4000
0
IO
Added Air , percent
Fig. 3.4--Strength reduction by air entrainment 3.26
2000
the completeness of the testing programs, but particular

attention has been given to evaluation of the brand of
28
56
cement to be used with the class and source of pozzolan,
Age , days
if a pozzolan is to be used. Prior to 1977, Chicago highstrength experience was based on concretes using Class
Fig. 3.3--Laboratory-molded concrete strengths versus F fly ash, while other high-strength work has been done
ready-mixed field-molded concrete strengths for 9000 psi (62 in Houston using Class C fly ash. 3.2,3.10 Class C fly ash
MPa) concrete. 3.2
has been used in Chicago since 1977.
The strength efficiency of cement will vary for differcement added to the mixture beyond this optimum ceent maximum size aggregates at different strength levels.
ment content. The strength for any given cement content Higher cement efficiencies are achieved at high strength
will vary with the water demand of the mixture and the
levels with lower maximum aggregate sixes. -* Fig. 3.5
strength-producing characteristics of that particular
illustrates this principle. For example, a maximum agcement as shown in Fig. 3.1. The Standard Method of
gregate size of less than % in. (9.5 mm) yields the highest
Evaluation of Cement Strength Uniformity from a Single cement efficiency for a 7000 psi (48.3 MPa) mixture.
Source (ASTM C 917) may prove useful in considering
cement mill sources. 3.13 Mortar cube compressive
IO
strength data of cements at ages of up to 90 days have
been evaluated when proportioning cement in highstrength mixtures.
The strength of the concrete mixture will depend upon
the gel-space ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the
volume of hydrated cement paste to the sum of the volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary
6
pores. 3.17 This is particularly true when air-entraining
Strength Efficiency,
admixtures are employed. Higher cement contents in airp i / l b o f c e m e n t / c u Yd
entrained concrete have not been found to be useful in
r/ /
producing strengths equivalent to, or approaching,
strengths attainable with non-air-entrained concretes.
Incorporation of entrained air may reduce strength at a
ratio of 5 to 7 percent for each percent of air in the mix
= 3.8 to 5.8 in.
= 28 days, Moist
as shown in Fig. 3.4.
3.5.2 Optimization-- A principal consideration in establishing the desired cement content will be the identification of combinations of materials which will produce
optimum strengths. Ideally, evaluations of each potential
No. 4
+ $ It
3
6
source of cement, fly ash, liquid admixture, and aggregate
Maximum Size Aggregate , in.
in varying concentrations would indicate the optimum cement content and optimum combination of materials. Fig. 3.5-- Maximum size aggregate for strength efficiency enTesting costs and time requirements usually have limited velop. 3.2
1
-11
90
363R-12
ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT
3.5.3 Limiting factors-There are several factors which

may limit the maximum quantity of cement which may be
desirable in a high-strength mixture. The strength of the
concrete may decrease if cement is added above and
beyond a given optimum content. The maximum desirable quantity of cement may vary considerably depending
upon the efficiency of dispersing agents, such as highrange water reducers, in preventing flocculation of
cement particles.
Stickiness and loss of workability will be increased as
higher amounts of cement are incorporated into the mixture. Combinations of cement, pozzolans, and sand
should be evaluated for the effect of cementitious content upon mixture placeability. Incorporation of an airentraining admixture may necessitate reevaluation of the
effect of the cement upon mixture workability.
The maximum temperature desired in the concrete
element may limit the quantity or type of cement in the
mixture. 3.2,3.18 Modification of the mixture with ice, set
retarders, or pozzolans may be helpful.
Cement-rich mixtures frequently have very high water
demands. Therefore, it is possible that special precautions may be necessary to provide adequate curing
water, so that sufficient hydration can occur. It may be
preferable to reduce the amount of cement in the mixture and to rely upon more careful selection of aggregates, aggregate proportions, etc., optimizing the use of
other constituents.
The amount of slump loss experienced, with attendant
increase in retempering water, and the setting time of the
concrete has varied depending upon the type, brand, and
quantity of cement use. Lower cement contents, within
limits, are desirable in order to enhance the placement
capabilities of the mixture, provided that adequate
strengths can be achieved.
3.6-Aggregate proportions
In the proportioning of high-strength concrete, the
aggregates have been a very important consideration
since they occupy the largest volume of any of the
ingredients in the concrete. Usually, high-strength
concretes have been produced using normal weight aggregates. Shideler3.19 and Holm 3.20 have reported on
light-weight high-strength structural concrete. Mather3.21
has reported on high-strength high-density concrete using
heavyweight aggregate.
3.6.1 Fine aggregates-In proportioning a concrete mixture, it is generally agreed that the fine aggregates or
sand have considerably more impact on mix proportions
than the coarse aggregates.
The fine aggregates contain a much higher surface
area for a given weight than do the larger coarse aggregates. Since the surface area of all the aggregate
particles must be coated with a cementitious paste, the
proportion of fine to coarse can have a direct quantitative effect on paste requirements. Furthermore, the
shape of these sand particles may be either spherical,
subangular, or very angular. This property can alter paste
requirements even though the net volume of the sand

remains the same.
The gradation of the fine aggregate plays an important
role in properties of the plastic as well as the hardened
concrete. For example, if the sand has an overabundance
of the No. 50 and No. 100 sieve sixes, the plastic workability will be improved but more paste will be needed to
compensate for the increased surface area. This could result in a costlier mixture, or if the paste volume is increased by adding water, a serious loss in strength could
result. It is sometimes possible, although not always practical economically, to blend sands from different sources
to improve their gradation and their capacity to produce
higher-strength concrete.
Low fine aggregate contents with high coarse aggregate contents have resulted in a reduction in paste requirements and normally have been more economical.
Such proportions also have made it possible to produce
higher strengths for a given amount of cementitious materials. However, if the proportion of sand is too low,
serious problems in workability become apparent.
Consolidation by means of mechanical vibrators may
help to overcome the effects of an undersanded mixture,
and the use of power finishing equipment can help to
offset the lack of trowelability.
Particle shape and surface texture of fine aggregate
can have as great an effect on mixing water requirements
as those of coarse aggregate. Tests made by Bloem
and Gaynor 3.22 show that concrete-mixing water requirements for each cubic yard of concrete change 1 gal. (3.8
L) for each change of 1 percent in the void content of
the sand. Following the work by Bloem and Gaynor, the
NSGA-NRMCA Joint Research Laboratory has simplified the procedure for conducting the void content test
of sand and a modified gradation is now used. The new
procedure is described in Reference 2.12.
3.6.2 Coarse aggregates-The optimum amount and
size of coarse aggregate for a given sand will depend to
a great extent on the characteristics of the sand. Most
particularly it depends on the fineness modulus (FM) of
the sand. This is brought out specifically in Table 3.1,
which is taken from ACI 211.1. One reference 3.23 suggests that the proportion of coarse aggregate shown in
Table 3.1 might be increased by up to 4 percent if sands
with low void contents are used. If the sand particles are
very angular, then it is suggested that the amount of
coarse aggregate should be decreased by up to 4 percent
from the values in the table. Such adjustments in the
proportion of coarse aggregate and sand have been intended to produce concretes of equivalent workability,
although such changes will alter the water demand for a
given slump. When more or less water is needed in a
given volume of concrete, to preserve the same consistency of paste, it is also necessary to adjust the amount
of cement or cementitious materials if a given watercement ratio is to be maintained.
Another possible expedient in the proportioning of
coarse aggregates for high-strength concrete is to alter
Table 3.1-Volume of coarse aggregate per unit of

volume of concrete*
Volume of dry-rodded
coarse aggregate
per unit volume of concrete for
different fineness moduli of sand
*Table 3.1 Taken from ACI 211.1.

+Volumes are based on aggregates in dry-rodded condition as described in
ASTM C 29 for Unit Weight of Aggregate.
These volumes are selected from empirical relationships to produce concrete
with a degree of workability suitable for usual reinforced construction. For less
workable concrete such as required for concrete pavement construction, they
may be increased about 10 percent. For more workable concrete see Section
5.3.6.1.
the amount of these aggregates passing certain sieve sixes

from the amounts shown in ASTM C 33. This method is
described in Reference 3.24 and 3.25 as a means of
avoiding particle interference, thus permitting a greater
amount of coarse aggregate and less total sand. This has
helped to reduce the paste requirements or permit the
use of a more viscous paste, resulting in a higher
strength.
3.6.3 Proportioning aggregates-The amounts of coarse
aggregate suggested in Table 3.1 (which is Table 5.3.6 of
ACI 211.1) are recommended for initial proportioning.
Considerations should be given to the properties of the
sand (FM, angularity, etc.) which may alter the quantity
of coarse aggregate. In general, the least sand consistent
with necessary workability has given the best strengths for
a given paste. Mechanical tools for handling and placing
concrete have helped to decrease the proportion of sand
needed. As previously stated, the use of the smaller sixes
of coarse aggregate are generally beneficial, and crushed
aggregates seem to bond best to the cementitious paste.
3.7-Proportioning with admixtures
Nearly all high-strength concretes have contained admixtures. Changes in the quantities and combinations of
these admixtures affect the plastic and hardened properties of high-strength concrete. Therefore, special attention has been given to the effects of these admixtures
(described in Sections 2.3 and 2.4). Careful adjustments
to mix proportions have been made when changes in admixture quantities or combinations have been made. Material characteristics have varied extensively, making
experimentation with the candidate materials necessary.
Some of the more common adjustments are described in
Sections 3.7.1 and 3.7.2.
3.7.1 Pozzolanic admixtures- Pozzolanic admixtures are
often used as a cement replacement. In high-strength
concretes they have been used to supplement the portland cement from 10 to 40 percent by weight of the ce-
363R-13
ment content. In those cases where a net increase in the

absolute volume of the cementitious materials was experienced due to the addition of a pozzolan, a corresponding decrease in the absolute volume of the sand was usually made.
The use of fly ash has often caused a slight reduction
in the water demand of the mixture, and that reduction
in the volume of water (if any) has been compensated for
by the addition of sand. The opposite relationship has
been found to be true for other pozzolans. Silica fume,
for example, dramatically increases the water demand of
the mixture which has made the use of retarding and
superplasticizing admixtures a requirement. Proprietary
products containing silica fume include carefully balanced
chemical admixtures as wel13.14
3.7.2 Chemical admixtures
3.7.2.1 Conventional water-reducers and retardersThe amount of these admixtures used in high-strength
concrete mixtures has varied depending upon the particular admixture and application. Generally speaking, the
tendency has been to use larger than normal or maximum quantities of these admixtures. Typical water reductions of 5 to 8 percent may be increased to 10 percent. Corresponding increases in sand content have been
made to compensate for the loss of volume due to the
reduction of water in the mixture.
3.7.3.2 Superplasticizers or high-range water-reducing
admixtures-Adjustments to high-strength concrete made
with high-range water reducers have been similar to
those adjustments made when conventional water reducers are used. These adjustments have typically been
larger due to the larger amount of water reduction, approximately 12 to 25 percent. Corresponding increases in
sand content have been made to compensate for the loss
of volume from reduction of water in the mixture.
Some designers have simply added high-range water
reducers to existing mixtures without any adjustments to
the mix proportions to improve the workability of that
concrete.
Sometimes cement or cementitious content has been
reduced for reasons of economy or to achieve a reduction of the heat of hydration. Usually, however, in
high-strength concretes high-range water reducers are
used to lower the water-cementitious ratio. These admixtures have been effective enough to both lower the
water-cementitious ratio and increase the slump. Due the
relatively large quantity of liquid that has been added to
the mixture in the form of superplasticizing admixture,
the weight of these admixtures has sometimes been included in the calculation of the water-cementitious ratio.
3.7.2.3 Air-entraining agents- Although sometimes
required, air-entraining agents have been found to be
very undesirable in high-strength concretes due the dramatic decrease in compressive strength which occurs
when these admixtures are used. Modifications to lower
the water-cementitious ratio and adjust the yield of the
concrete by reduction of sand content have been made.
Larger dosage rates of air-entraining admixture have
363R-14
been found to be required in high-strength concretes,

especially in very rich low-slump mixtures and mixtures
containing large quantities of some fly ashes.
3.7.2.4 Combinations- Most but not all highstrength concretes have contained both mineral and
chemical admixtures. It has been common for these mixtures to contain combinations of chemical admixtures as
well. High-range water reducers have performed better
in high-strength concretes when used in combination with
conventional water reducers or retarders. This is because
of the reduced rate of slump loss experienced. It is not
unusual for portland-pozzolan high-strength concretes to
contain both a conventional and high-range water
reducer.
3.8-Workability
Workability is defined in ACI 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology as that property of freshly mixed
concrete . . . which determines the ease and homogeneity
with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and
finished.
3.8.1 Slump- ASTM C 143 describes a standard test
method for the slump of portland cement concrete which
has been used to quantify the consistency of plastic, cohesive concretes. This test method has not usually been
considered applicable to ultra-low and ultra-high slump
concretes. Other test methods such as the Vebe consistometer have been used with very stiff mixes and may be
a better aid in proportioning some high-strength concretes.
High-strength concrete performance demands a dense,
void-free mass with full contact with reinforcing steel.
Slumps should reflect this need and provide a workable
mixture, easy to vibrate, and mobile enough to pass
through closely placed reinforcement. Normally a slump
of 4 in. (102 mm) will provide the required workability;
however, details of forms and reinforcing bar spacing
should be considered prior to development of mix designs. Slumps of less than 3 in. (76 mm) have made
special consolidation equipment and procedures a
necessity.
Without uniform placement, structural integrity may
be compromised High-strength mixes tend to lose slump
more rapidly than lower-strength concrete. If slump is to
be used as a field control, testing should be done at a
prescribed time after mixing. Concrete should be discharged before the mixture becomes unworkable.
3.8.2 Placeability-- High-strength concrete, often
designed with % in. (12 mm) top size aggregate and with
a high cementitious content, is inherently placeable provided attention is given to optimizing the ratio of sand to
coarse aggregate. Local material characteristics have a
marked effect on proportions. Cement fineness and particle size distribution influence the character of the
mixture. Admixtures have been found to improve the
placeability of the mixture.
Placeability has been evaluated in mock-up forms
prior to final approval of the mix proportions. At that
time placement procedures, vibration techniques, and

scheduling have been established since they greatly affect
the end product and will influence the apparent placeability of the mixture.
3.8.3 Flow properties and stickiness-Slumps needed for
almost any flow can be designed for the concrete; however, full attention must be given to aggregate selection
and proportioning to achieve the optimum slump. Elongated aggregate particles and poorly graded coarse and
fine aggregates are examples of characteristics that have
affected flow and caused higher water content for placeability with attendant strength reduction.
Stickiness is inherent in high-fineness mixtures required for high strengths. Certain cements or cementpozzolan or cement-admixture combinations have been
found to cause undue stickiness that impairs flowability.
The cementitious content of the mixture normally has
been the minimum quantity required for strength development combined with the maximum quantity of coarse
aggregate within the requirements for workability.
Mixtures that were designed properly but appear to
change in character and become more sticky can be considered suspect and quickly checked for proportions, possible false setting of cement, undesirable air entrainment,
or other changes. A change in the character of a highstrength mixture could be a warning sign for quality control and, while a subjective judgment, may sometimes be
more important than quantitative parameters.
3.9- Trial batches
Frequently the development of a high-strength concrete pro ram has required a large number of trial
batches. 3.2,3.10 In addition to laboratory trial batches,
field-sized trial batches have been used to simulate typical production conditions. Care should be taken that all
material samples are taken from bulk production and are
typical of the materials which will be used in the work.
To avoid accidental testing bias, some researchers have
sequenced trial mixtures in a randomized order.
3.9.1 Laboratory trial batch investigations- Laboratory
trial batches have been prepared to achieve several goals.
They should be prepared according to Standard Method
of Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory (ASTM C 192). However, whenever possible,
timing, handling, and environmental conditions similar to
those which are likely to be encountered in the field
should be approximated.
Selection of material sources has been facilitated by
comparative testing, with all variables except the candidate materials being held constant. In nearly every
case, particular combinations of materials have proven to
be best. By testing for optimum quantities of optimum
materials, the investigator is most likely to define the best
combination and proportions of materials to be used.
Once a promising mixture has been established, further laboratory trial batches may be required to quantify
the characteristics of those mixtures. Strength characteristics at various test ages may be defined. Water
TH
demand, rate of slump loss, amount of bleeding, segregation, and setting time can be evaluated. The unit
weight of the mixture should be defined and has been
used as a valuable quality control tool. Structural
considerations such as shrinkage and elasticity may also
be determined. While degrees of workability and
placeability may be difficult to define, at least a
subjective evaluation should be attempted.
3.9.2 Field-production trial batches- Once a desirable
mixture has been formulated in the laboratory, field
testing with production-sized batches is recommended.
Quite often laboratory trial batches have exhibited a
strength level significantly higher than that which can be
reasonably achieved in production as shown in Fig. 3.3 3.2
Actual field water demand, and therefore concrete yield,
has varied from laboratory design significantly. Ambient
temperatures and weather conditions have affected the
performance of the concrete. Practicality of production
and of quality control procedures have been better evaluated when production-sized trial batches were prepared
using the equipment and personnel that were to be used
in the actual work.
(See also Chapter l0-References)
3.1. Proportioning Concrete Mixes, SP-46, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1974, 240 pp.
3.2. Blick, Ronald L.; Petersen, Charles F.; and
Winter, Michael E., Proportioning and Controlling High
Strength Concrete, Proportioning Concrete Mixes, SP-46,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1974, p. 149.
3.3. Kennedy, T.B., Making and Curing Concrete
Specimens, Significance of Tests and Properties of
Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, STP-169A,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1966, pp. 90-101.
3.4. Price, Waller H., Factors Influencing Concrete
Strength, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. 6, Feb.
1951, pp. 417-432.
3.5. Hester, Weston T., Testing High Strength Concretes: A Critical Review of the State of the Art,
Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 2, No.
12, Dec. 1980, pp. 27-38.
3.6. Gaynor, Richard D., Mix Design Submission
Under ACI 318 and ACI 301--(or Which Test Record
Should I Use?), NRMCA Technical Information Letter
No. 372, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association,
Silver Spring, May 8, 1980, 7 pp.
3.7. Schmidt, William, and Hoffman, Edward J., 9000
psi Concrete-Why? Why Not?, Civil EngineeringASCE, V. 45, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 52-55.
3.8. Gaynor, Richard D., An Outline on High
Strength Concrete, Publication No. 152, National Ready
Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, May 1975, pp.
3, 4, and 10.
3.9. Accelerated Strength Testing, SP-56, American
3.10. Cook, James E., A Ready-Mixed Concrete
CONCRETE
363R-15
Companys Experience with Class C Fly Ash, Publication

No. 163, National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association,
Silver Spring, Apr. 1981, 11 pp.
3.11. Hester, Weston, T., and Leming, M., Use of
Superplasticizing Admixtures in Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Operations.
3.12. High Strength Concrete, National Crushed
Stone Association, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1975, 16 pp.
3.13. Peters, Donald J., Evaluation of Cement
Variability-The First Step, Publication No. 161,
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver
Spring, Apr. 1980, 9 pp.
3.14. Wolsiefer, John, Ultra High-Strength Field
Placeable Concrete with Silica Fume Admixture, Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 4,
Apr. 1984, pp. 25-31.
3.15. Perenchio, William F., and Khieger, Paul, Some
Physical Properties of High Strength Concrete, Research
and Development Bulletin No. RD056.01T, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, 1978, 7 pp.
7, Nov. 1970, pp. 28-32; No. 8, Dec. 1970, pp. 21-24; No.
Also, Publication No. IS176T, Portland Cement Association.
3.17. Neville, A.M., Properties of Concrete, 3rd Edition,
Pitman Publishing Limited, London, 1981, 779 pp.
3.18. Bickley, John A, and Payne, John C., High
Strength Cast-in-Place Concrete in Major Structures in
Ontario, paper presented at the ACI Annual Convention, Milwaukee, Mar. 1979.
3.19. Shideler, J.J., Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete
for Structural Use, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 54, No.
4, Oct. 1957, pp. 299-328.
3.20. Holm, T.A., Physical Properties of High
Strength Lightweight Aggregate Concretes, Proceedings,
2nd International Congress on Lightweight Concrete
(London, Apr. 1980), Ci8O, Construction Press,
Lancaster, 1980, pp. 187-204.
3.21. Mather, Katharine, High Strength, High Density
Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 62, No. 8, Aug.
1965, pp. 951-962. Also, Technical Report No. 6-635, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
3.22. Bloem, Delmar L., and Gaynor, Richard D.,
Effects of Aggregate Properties on Strength of Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 60, No. 10, Oct.
1963, pp. 1429-1456.
3.23. Tobin, Robert E., Flow Cone Sand Tests, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 75, No. 1, Jan. 1978, pp. l-12.
3.24. Ehrenburg, D.O., An Analytical Approach to
Gap-Graded Concrete, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates,
V. 2, No. 1, Summer 1980, pp. 39-42.
3.25. Tuthill, Lewis H., Better Grading of Concrete
Aggregates, Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 2, No. 12, Dec. 1980, pp. 49-51.
3.26. Gaynor, Richard D., High Strength Air-Entrained Concrete, Joint Research Laboratory Publication
363R-16
No. 17, National Sand and Gravel Association/National

Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Mar.
1968, 19 pp.
CHAPTER 4- BATCHING, MIXING,
TRANSPORTING, PLACING, CURING,
AND CONTROL PROCEDURES
4.1-Introduction
The batching, mixing, transporting, placing, and control procedures for high-strength concrete are not different in principle from those procedures used for conventional concrete. Thus ACI 304 can be followed. Some
changes, some refinements, and some emphasis on critical points are necessary. Maintaining the unit water content as low as possible, consistent with placing requirements, is good practice for all concrete; for high-strength
concrete it is critical. Since the production of highstrength concrete will normally involve the use of relatively large unit cement contents with resulting greater
heat generation, some of the recommendations given in
Chapter 3 on Production and Delivery and Chapter 4 on
Placing and Curing in ACI 305R, Hot Weather Concreting, may also be applicable.
In addition, the production and testing of highstrength concrete requires well-qualified concrete producers and testing laboratories, respectively.
4.2 - Batching
4.2.1 Control, handling and storage of materials- The
control, handling, and storage of materials need not be

substantially different from the procedures used for conventional concrete as outlined in ACI 304. Proper stockpiling of aggregates, uniformity of moisture in the
batching process, and good sampling practice are essential. It may be prudent to place a maximum limit of 170
F (77 C) on the temperature of the cement as batched in
warm weather and 150 F (66 C) in hot weather. Where
possible, batching facilities should be located at or near
the job site to reduce haul time.
The temperature of all ingredients should be kept as
low as possible prior to batching. Delivery time should be
reduced to a minimum and special attention paid to
scheduling and placing to avoid having trucks wait to
unload.
4.2.2 Measuring and weighing- Materials for production of high-strength concrete may be batched in manual,
semiautomatic, or automatic plants. However, since
speed and accuracy are required, ACI 304 recommends
that cements and pozzolans be weighed with automatic
equipment. Automatic weigh batchers or meters are recommended for water measurement. To maintain the
proper water-cement ratios necessary to secure highstrength concrete, accurate moisture determination in the
fine aggregate is essential. A combination of warm
weather and high cement content often requires the
cooling of mixing water. ACI 305R notes that the use of
cold miring water effects a moderate reduction in concrete placing temperature. The use of ice is more effective than cold water; however, this will require ice
making or chipping equipment at the batch plant.
4.2.3 Charging of materials-Batching procedures have
important effects on the ease of producing thoroughly
mixed uniform concrete in both stationary and truck
mixers. The uniformity of concrete mixed in central
mixers is generally enhanced by ribbon loading the aggregate, cement, and water simultaneously. However, if
truck mixers are being used, ribbon loading will prevent
delayed miring, which is sometimes used to prevent hydration of the cement during long hauls. This procedure
involves stopping the mixer drum after aggregates and
three-quarters of the water are charged and before the
cement is loaded and not starting the drum again until
the job site is reached. Slump loss problems may thus be
minimized. High-range water-reducing admixtures are
another consideration. These admixtures are very likely
to be used in the production of high-strength concrete.
According to the guidelines in the Canadian Standards
Associations Preliminary Standard A 266.5-M 1981, tests
have shown that high-range water-reducing admixtures
are most effective and produce the most consistent
results when added at the end of the mixing cycle after
all other ingredients have been introduced and thoroughly mired. If there is evidence of improper mixing
and nonuniform slump during discharge, procedures used
to charge truck and central mixers should be modified to
insure uniformity of mixing as required by ASTM C 94.
4.3- Mixing
High-strength concrete may be mixed entirely at the
batch plant, in a central or truck mixer, or by a combination of the two. In general, mixing follows the recommendations of ACI 304. Experience and tests 4.0,4.2 and
standards documents of the Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau have indicated that high-strength concrete can
be mired in all common types of mixers.4.3,4.4,4.5 It may
prove beneficial to reduce the batch size below the rated
capacity to insure more efficient mixing.
4.3.2 Mixer performance- The performance of mixers
is usually determined by a series of uniformity tests
(ASTM C 94) made on samples taken from two to three
locations within the concrete batch being mixed for a
given time period.4.6 Some work 4.2,4.7 has indicated that
due to the relatively low water content and high cement
content and the usual absence of large coarse aggregate,
the efficient mixing of high-strength concrete is more
difficult than conventional concrete. Special precautions
or procedures may by required. Thus, it becomes more
important for the supplier of high-strength concrete to
check mixer performance and efficiency prior to production mixing.
4.3.3 Mixing time- The mixing time required is based
upon the ability of the central mixer to produce uniform
concrete both within a batch and between batches. Manufacturers recommendations, ACI 304, and usual specifi-
cations, such as 1 min for 1 yd 3(0.75 m3) plus /4 min for

each additional yd 3of capacity, are used as satisfactory
guides for establishing mixing time. Otherwise, mixing
times can be based on the results of mixer performance
tests. The mixing time is measured from the time all ingredients are in the mixer. Prolonged miring may cause
moisture loss and result in lower workability,4.8 which in
turn may require retempering to restore slump, thereby
reducing strength potential.
4.3.4 Ready-mixed concrete-High strength concrete
may be mixed at the job in a truck mixer. However, not
all truck mixers can mix high-strength concrete, especially
if the concrete has very low slump. Close job control is
essential for high-strength ready-mixed concrete operations to avoid causing trucks to wait at the job site due to
slow placing operations. (Note Section 4.7.) Retarding
admixtures are used to prolong the time the concrete will
respond to vibration after it has been placed in the
forms. Withholding some of the mixing water until the
truck arrives at the job site is sometimes desirable. Then
after adding the remaining required water, an additional
30 revolutions at mixing speed are used to incorporate
the additional water into the mixture adequately. (See
ACI 304.) When loss of slump or workability cannot be
offset by these measures, complete batching and miring
can be conducted at the job site. If a high-range waterreducer is added at the site, a truck mounted dispenser
or an electronic field dispenser is usually required.
4.4-Transporting
4.4.1 General considerations- High-strength concrete
can be transported by a variety of methods and equipment, such as truck mixers, stationary truck bodies with
and without agitators, pipeline or hose, or conveyor belts.
Each type of transportation has specific advantages and
disadvantages depending on the conditions of use, mixture ingredients, accessibility and location of placing site,
required capacity and time for delivery, and weather conditions.
4.4.2 Truck-mixed concrete- Truck miring is a process
in which proportioned concrete materials from a batch
plant are transferred into the truck mixer where all
mixing is performed. The truck is then used to transport
the concrete to the job site. Sometimes dry materials are
transported to the job site in the truck drum with the
miring water carried in a separate tank mounted on the
truck. Water is added and mixing is completed. This
method, which evolved as a solution to long hauls and
placing delays, is adaptable to the production of highstrength concrete where it is desirable to retain the
workability as long as possible. However, free moisture in
the aggregates, which is part of the mixing water, may
cause some cement hydration.
4.4.3 Stationary truck body with and without agitatorUnits used in this form of transportation usually consist
of an open-top body mounted on a truck. The smooth,
streamlined metal body is usually designed for discharge
of the concrete at the rear when the body is tilted. A
363R-17
discharge gate and vibrators mounted on the body are

provided at the point of discharge. An apparatus that
ribbons and blends the concrete as it is unloaded is
desirable. However, water is not added to the truck body
because adequate mixing cannot be obtained with the
agitator.
4.4.4 Pumping- High-strength concrete will in many
cases be very suitable for pumping. Pumps are available
that can handle low-slump mixtures and provide high
pumping pressure. High-strength concrete is likely to
have a high cement content and small maximum size aggregate--both factors which facilitate concrete pumping.
Chapter 9 of ACI 304 provides guidance for the use of
pumps for transporting high-strength concrete. In the
field, the pump should be located as near to the placing
areas as practicable. Pump lines should be laid out with
a minimum of bends, firmly supported, using alternate
lines and flexible pipe or hose to permit placing over a
large area directly into the forms without rehandling.
Direct communication is essential between the pump operator and the concrete placing crew. Continuous pumping is desirable because if the pump is stopped, movement of the concrete in the line may be difficult or
impossible to start again.
4.4.5 Belt conveyor- Use of belt conveyors to transport concrete has become established in concrete construction. Guidance for use of conveyors is given in ACI
304.4R. The conveyors must be adequately supported to
obtain smooth, nonvibrating travel along the belt. The
angle of incline or decline must be controlled to eliminate the tendency for coarse aggregate to segregate from
the mortar fraction. Since the practical slump range for
belt transport of concrete is 1 to 4 in. (25 to 100 mm),
belts may be used to move high-strength concrete only
for relatively short distances of 200 to 300 ft (60 to
90 m). Over longer distances or extended time lapses,
there will be loss of slump and workability.4.9 Enclosures
or covers are used for conveyors when protection against
rain, wind, sun, or extreme ambient temperatures is
needed to prevent significant changes in the slump or
temperature of the concrete. As with other methods of
transport for high-strength concrete, proper planning,
timing, and control are essential.
4.5-Placing procedures
4.5.1 Preparations- Preparations for placing highstrength concrete should include recognition at the start
of the work that certain abnormal conditions will exist
which will require some items of preparation that cannot
be provided readily the last minute before concrete is
placed. Since workability time is expected to be reduced,
preparation must be made to transport, place, consolidate, and finish the concrete at the fastest possible rate.
This means, first, delivery of concrete to the job site must
be scheduled so it will be placed promptly on arrival, particularly the first batch. Equipment for placing the concrete must have adequate capacity to perform its functions efficiently so there will be no delays at distance
363R-18
portions of the work. There should be ample vibration

equipment and manpower to consolidate the concrete
quickly after placement in difficult areas. All equipment
should be in the first class operating condition. Breakdowns or delays that stop or slow the placement can seriously affect the quality of the work. Due to more rapid
slump loss, the strain on vibrating equipment will be
greater. Accordingly, provision should be made for an
ample number of standby vibrators, at least one standby
for each three vibrators in use. A high-strength concrete
placing operation is in serious trouble, especially in hot
weather, when vibration equipment fails and the standby
equipment is inadequate.
4.5.3 Equipment- A basic requirement for placing
equipment is that the quality of the concrete, in terms of
water-cement ratio, slump, air content, and homogeneity,
must be preserved. Selection of equipment should be
based on its capability for efficiently handling concrete of
the most advantageous proportions that can be consolidated readily in place with vibration. Concrete should be
deposited at or near its final position in the placement.
Buggies, chutes, buckets, hoppers, or other means may be
used to move the concrete as required. Bottom-dump
buckets are particularly useful however, side slopes must
be very steep to prevent blockages. High-strength concrete should not be allowed to remain in buckets for
extended periods of time, as the delay will cause sticking
and difficulty in discharging.
4.5.3 Consolidation- Proper internal vibration is the
most effective method of consolidating high-strength concrete. The advantages of vibration in the placement of
concrete are well established. The provisions of ACI 309
must be followed. Hi h-strength concrete can be very
sticky" material. 4.1,4.10 indeed, effective consolidation
procedures may well start with mix proportioning. Coarse
sands have been found to provide the best workability.4.10
The im ortance of full compaction cannot be overstated.
Davies 4.11 has shown that up to 5 percent loss in strength
may be sustained from each 1 percent void space in concrete. Thus, vibration almost to the point of excess may
be required for high-strength concrete to achieve its full
potential.
4.5.4 Special considerations- Where different strength
concretes are being used within or between different
structural members, special placing considerations are
required. To avoid confusion and error in concrete placement in columns, it is recommended that, where practical, all columns and shearwalls in any given story be
placed with the same strength concrete. For formwork
economy, no changes in column size in the typical highrise buildings are recommended.4.12 In areas where two
different concretes are being used in column and floor
construction, it is important that the high-strength concrete in and around the column be placed before the
floor concrete. With this procedure, if an unforeseen cold
joint forms between the two concretes, shear strength will
still be available at the column interface.4.13
4.6-Curing
4.5.1 Need for curing- Curing is the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture content and a favorable
temperature in concrete during the hydration period of
the cementitious materials so that desired properties of
the concrete can be developed. Curing is essential in the
production of quality concrete; it is critical to the production of high-strength concrete. The potential strength
and durability of concrete will be fully developed only if
it is properly cured for an adequate period prior to being
placed in service. Also, high-strength concrete should be
water cured at an early age since partial hydration may
make the capillaries discontinuous. On renewal of curing,
water would not be able to enter the interior of the concrete and further hydration would be arrested.4.14
4.5.3 Type of curing- Water curing of high-strength
concrete is highly recommended4.14 due to the low watercement ratios employed. At water-cement ratios below
0.4, the ultimate degree of hydration is significantly
reduced if free water is not provided. Water curing will
allow more efficient, although not complete, hydration of
the cement. Klieger4.15 reported that for low watercement ratio concretes it is more advantageous to supply
additional water during curing than is the case with
higher water-cement ratio concretes. For concretes with
water-cement ratio of 0.29, the strength of specimens
made with saturated aggregates and cured by ponding
water on top of the specimen was 850 to 1000 psi (5.9 to
6.9 M Pa) greater at 28 days than that of comparable
specimens made with dry aggregates and cured under
damp burlap. He also noted that although early strength
is increased by elevated temperatures of mixing and
curing, later strengths are reduced by such temperatures.
However, work by Pfieffer 4.16 has shown that later
strengths may have only minor reductions if the heat is
not applied until after time of set. Others 4.1,4.17
have
reported that moist curing for 28 days and thereafter in
air was highly beneficial in securing high-strength concrete at 90 days.
4.5.3 Methods of curing- As pointed out in ACI 308,
the most thorough but seldom used method of water
curing consists of total immersion of the finished concrete unit in water. Ponding or immersion is an excellent method wherever a pond of water can be created by
a ridge or dike of impervious earth or other material at
the edge of the structure. Fog spraying or sprinkling with
nozzles or sprays provides satisfactory curing when immersion is not feasible. Lawn sprinklers are effective
where water runoff is of no concern. Intermittent
sprinkling is not acceptable if drying of the concrete
surface occurs. Soaker hoses are useful, especially on
surfaces that are vertical. Burlap, cotton mats, rugs, and
other coverings of absorbent materials will hold water on
the surface, whether horizontal or vertical. Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds retain the original
moisture in the concrete but do not provide additional
moisture.
363R-19
4.7-- Quality assurance

mum elapsed time of 11/2 hr after the cement has entered
4.7.1 Materials- Once the high-strength concrete mixthe drum until completion of discharge is frequently speture has been proportioned, the concrete supplier or cified (See ASTM C 94). Reduction to 45 minutes may
sampling and testing program is recommended to assure be necessary under hot weather conditions or where
the physical properties required. The use of ASTM severe slump loss is experienced. For extreme job temStandard Method for Evaluation of Cement Strength peratures, field production trial batches are often made.
Uniformity from a Single Source (ASTM C 917) with appropriate limits will provide the proper basis for such 4.8-Quality control procedures
uniformity. It is desirable that the aggregates and ad4.8.1 Criteria- The first consideration for selecting
mixtures specified in the mixture be uniform and come quality control procedures is determining that the disfrom the same source for the duration of the project.
tribution of the compressive strength test results follows
a normal distribution curve. It has been suggested4.18 that
4.7.2 Control of operations4.10- Effective coordination
and control procedures between the supplier and the a skew distribution may prevail due to the mean apcontractor are critical to the operations. The supplier proaching a limit. This may be the case for very-highnormally has full control of high-strength concrete until strength concrete, 15,000 psi (103 MPa) or higher. Howit is placed in the forms. Control of the slump, time on ever available data4.19,4.20 indicate that in the range of
job, mixing, and mixture adjustments is under the juris- 6000; to 10,000 psi (41 to 69 MPa) normal distribution is
diction of the supplier. The contractor must be prepared achieved. Thus ACI 214 will normally be a convenient
to handle, place, and consolidate the concrete promptly tool for quality control procedures for high-strength
as received. Cement hydration, temperature rise, slump concrete. Another point which needs consideration both
loss, and aggregate grinding during mixing all increase in the quality control and the design phase is the queswith passage of time; thus it is important that the period tion of the age at the time of testing for acceptance for
between initial mixing and delivery be kept to an abso- high-strength concrete. Compressive strength tests show
lute minimum. The dispatching of trucks is coordinated that a considerable strength gain may be achieved after
with the rate of placement to avoid delays in delivery. 28 days in high-strength concrete. To take advantage of
When elapsed time from batching to placement is so long this fact, several investigators 4.10,4.13,4.20 have suggested
as to result in significant increases in mixing water that the specification for compressive strength should be
demand, or in slump loss, mixing in the trucks is delayed modified from the typical 28-day criterion to either 56 or
until only sufficient time remains to accomplish mixing 90 days. This extension of test age would then allow, for
before the concrete is placed.
example, the use of 7000 psi (48 MPa) concrete at 56
days in lieu of 6000 psi (41 MPa) at 28 days for design
4.7.3 Communication equipment- Equipment for direct
communication between the supply and placement loca- purposes. In this case the same mixture could be used to
tions for use by the inspection force is essential. The meet this criterion. High-strength concrete is generally
need for other equipment such as signaling and identi- used in high-rise structures; therefore, the extension of
fying devices depends on the complexity of the project the time for compressive strength test results is reasonand the number of different concrete mixtures employed. able since the lower portion of the structure will not
The project engineer will normally advise the contractor attain full dead load for periods up to one year and
of the equipment that is necessary and require him to longer.
present plans or descriptions of the equipment for review
4.8.2 Method of evaluation - To satisfy strength perforwell in advance of the start of placement.
mance requirements, the average strength of concrete
4.7.4 Laboratoy 4.10-- A competent concrete laboratory must be in excess of fc', the design strength. The amount
must be available for testing the concrete delivered to the of excess strength depends on the expected variability of
job site. This laboratory should be inspected regularly by test results as expressed by a coefficient of variation or
the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory (CCRL) standard deviation and on the allowable proportion of
and conform to the requirements of ASTM E 329. A low tests. Available information4.14,4.19,4.20 indicates that
minimum of one set of cylinders is normally made for the standard deviation for high-strength concrete beeach 100 yd 3 (76 m3) of concrete placed, with at least comes uniform in the range of 500 to 700 psi (3.5 to 4.8
two cylinders cast for each test age; that is, 7, 28, 56, and MPa), and therefore, the coefficient of variation will
actually decrease as the average strength of the concrete
90 days.
increases. This, of course, may be the result of increased
4.7.5 Contingency plans-Plans need to be developed
to provide for alternate operations in case difficulty is vigilance and quality assurance on the part of the proexperienced in the basic placing concept. Backup equip- ducer. Thus, the method of quality control is closely rement is essential, especially vibrators. Batch sixes are lated to the factors noted in Section 4.7. Assuming that
reduced if placing procedures are slowed. For truck- the producer will devote a reasonable effort to proper
mixed concrete, rush hour traffic delays can cause serious quality assurance measures, the standard deviation methproblems. It may be desirable to reduce the elapsed time od of evaluation appears to be a logical quality control
between contact of the cement and water (mixing and procedure. Consider, for example, that good quality contransporting), especially during warm weather. A maxi- trol may be expected on a job where an fc' of 10,000 psi
363R-20
(69 MPa) is required. A required average strength fc' of

only 11,000 psi (76 MPa) is thus required with a standard
deviation of 645 psi (4.4 MPa)
fCI = f,+ 134s
= 10,000 + 1.34 x 645

= 10,864 psi (75 MPa)
(4-la)
or
f, = f,+ 2.33s - 500
= 10,000 + 2.33 x 645 - 500

= 11,000 psi (76 MPa)
(4-lb)
s = standard deviation.
Of course, a close check of the field results and maintenance of records in the form of control charts or other
means are necessary to maintain the desired control.
Early-age control of concrete strength such as the accelerated curing and testing of compression test specimens
according to ASTM C 684 is often used, especially where
later-age (56 or 90 days) strength tests are the final acceptance criterion.
4.9 - Strength measurements
4.9.1 Conditions-since much of the interest in highstrength concrete is limited to strength only in compression, compressive strength measurements are of
primary concern in the testing of high-strength concrete.
Standard test methods of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) are followed except where
changes are dictated by the peculiarities of the highstrength concrete. The potential strength and variability
of the concrete can be established only by specimens
made, used, and tested under standard conditions. Then
standard control tests are necessary as a first step in the
control and evaluation of the mixture. Curing concrete
test specimens at the construction site and under job
conditions is sometimes recommended since this is considered more representative of the curing applied to the
structure. Tests of job-cured specimens may be highly
desirable and are necessary when determining the time
of form removal, particularly in cold weather, and when
establishing the rate of strength development of structural members. They should never be used for quality
control testing. Strength specimens of concrete made or
cured under other than standard conditions provide additional information but are analyzed and reported separately. ASTM C 684 requires that a minimum of two
cylinders be tested for each age and each test condition.
4.9.2 Specimen size and shape- ASTM standards specify a cylindrical specimen 6 in. (152 mm) in diameter and
12 in. (305 mm) long. This size specimen has evolved
over a period of time, apparently from practical considerations. It is about the maximum weight one person
can handle with reasonable effort and is large enough to
be used for concrete containing 2 in. (50 mm) maximum
size aggregate and smaller, which encompasses the
majority of concrete being placed today. Designers generally assume 6 x 12 in. (152 x 305 mm) specimens as the
standard for measured strengths. Recently some 4 x 8 in.
(102 x 204 mm) cylinders have been used for determining
compressive strength. 4.18,4.19 However, 4 x 8 in. (102 x 204
mm) cylinders exhibit a higher strength and an increase
in variability compared to the standard 6 x 12 in. (152 x
305 mm) cylinder.4.23,4.24 Regardless of the specimen size,
as the compressive stress is transferred through the
loading platen-specimen interface, a complex, triaxial distribution of stresses in the specimen end may develop
which can radically alter the specimen failure mode and
affect results.
4.9.3 Testing apparatus- Testing machine characteristics that may affect the measured compressive strength
include calibration accuracy, longitudinal and lateral
stiffness, stability, alignment of the machine components,
type of platens, and the behavior of the platen spherical
seating. Testing machines should meet the requirements
of ASTM C 39 when used for testing compressive
strength of cylindrical specimens. Overall testing machine
design including longitudinal and lateral stiffness and
machine stability will affect the behavior of the specimen
at its maximum load. The type of platens and behavior of
the spherical seating will affect the level of measured
compressive strength.4.23
Sigvaldason 4.25 recommended a minimum lateral stiffness of 10 xl0 4 lb/in. (17.5 x l0 6 N/m), and a longitudinal stiffness of 10 x l06 lb/in. (17.5 x l06 N/m). He
reported that a longitudinally flexible machine would
contribute to an explosive failure of the specimen at the
maximum stress, but that the actual stress achieved was
insensitive to machine flexibility. However, he also noted
that a machine which is longitudinally stiff but laterally
flexible deleteriously influences the measured compressive strengths. Sigvaldason and Cole4.26 reported that use
of proper platen size and design is critical if strengths are
to be maximized and variations reduced. The upper
platen must have a spherical bearing block seating and be
able to rotate and achieve full contact with the specimen
under the initial load and perform in a fixed mode when
approaching the ultimate load. Cole demonstrated that
a testing machine with a spherical bearing block seating
(able to rotate under load) measured increasingly erroneous results for higher strength concretes, with
reductions as high as 16 percent for 10,000 psi (69 MPa)
cubes.
The diameters of the platen and spherical bearing
socket are critically important.4.23 Ideally, the platen and
spherical bearing block diameters should be approximately the same as the bearing surface of the specimen.
Bearing surfaces larger than the specimen will be restrained (due to size effects) against lateral expansion will
probably not expand as rapidly as the specimen, and will
consequently create confining stresses in the specimen
end. Bearing surfaces and spherical seating blocks smaller
in diameter than those of the specimen may result in
portions of the specimens remaining unloaded and bend-
ing of the platen around the socket with a consequent

nonuniform distribution of stresses.
4.9.4 Type of mold-- The choice of mold materials, and
specify construction of the mold regardless of the types
of material used, can have a significant effect on
measured compressive strengths. A given consolidation
effort is more effective with rigidly constructed molds,
and sealed waterproofed molds reduce leakage of mortar
paste and inhibit the dehydration of the concrete.
Blick 4.15 compared high-strength specimens cast in steel
and high-quality paper molds and reported that use of
the rigid steel molds increased strengths approximately 13
percent but that use of either mold material did not consistently affect variability of the measured strengths.
Hester 4.7 evaluated a number of mold materials used
under actual field conditions. Measured compressive
strengths achieved with properly prepared specimens
were compared. Specimens cast in steel molds achieved
approximately 6 percent higher strengths but had a
slightly higher coefficient of variation compared to
specimens cast in tin molds. Specimens cast in steel
molds achieved approximately 16 percent higher strength
than specimens cast in plastic molds.
4.9.5 Specimen preparation- For many years concrete
technologists have recognized the need to cap or grind
the ends of cast concrete test specimens prior to testing
for compressive strength. The detrimental effects of nonplaneness, irregulari din and grease, etc., have been
well documented.4.23 For high-strength concrete the
strength of the cap, if used, is another consideration.
Troxell,4.27 Wemer, 4.28 and other have compared the relative merits of sulfur mortars, gypsum plaster, highalumina cements, and other capping materials. If the
compressive strength or modulus of elasticity of the
capping material is less than that of the specimen, loads
applied through the cap will not be transmitted uniformly.
Sulfur mortar is the most widely used capping material. Most commercially available sulfur mortar capping
compounds are combinations of sulfur with inert minerals
and fillers and, when properly prepared, are economical,
convenient to apply, and develop a relatively high
strength in a short period of time. However, these materials are sensitive to the material formulations and
handling practices. Kennedy4.29 and Werner investigated
the effect of the thickness of sulfur mortar caps on compressive strengths of moderate strength concretes. Cap
thicknesses in the range of 1/16 to /s in. (1.5 to 3 mm)
are desirable for use on high-strength concrete. However,
caps consistently thinner than Ya in. (3 mm) are difficult
to obtain. Kennedy4.26 and Hester4.23 note that the principal problems with thin caps are air voids at the specimen-cap interface and cracking of the specimen cap
under load. Caps with a thickness of / in. (6 mm) are
apparently satisfactory. Low-strength thick caps may
creep laterally under load and therefore contribute to
increased tensile stresses in the specimen ends and consequently substantially reduce measured compressive
363R-21
strengths for the concrete specimen. Gaynor 4.30 and

Saucier 4.31 indicate that concrete strengths up to 10,000
psi (69 MPa) may be determined using high-strength capping materials, including sulfur mortar, which have
strengths in the range of 7000 to 8000 psi (50 to 60
MPa), if the cap thickness is maintained at approximately
l/4 in. (6 mm). For expected compressive strengths above
10,000 psi (69 MPa), the ends are usually formed or
ground to tolerance.4.29.4.30
4.10- Cited References
(See also Chapter l0-- References)
4.1. Saucier, K.L.; Tynes, W.O.; and Smith, E.F.,
High-Compressive-Strength Concrete-Report 3, Summary Report, Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-520, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Sept. 1965, 87 pp.
4.2. Saucier, K.L., Evaluation of Spiral-Blade Concrete Mixer, Shelbyville Reservoir Project, Shelbyville,
Illinois, Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-975, U.S. Army
Engineer, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Mar. 1968, 17 pp.
4.3. Strehlow. Robert W., Concrete Plant Production,
Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau, Silver Spring,
1973, 112 pp.
4.4. Concrete Plant Standards of the Concrete Plant
Manufacturers Bureau, 7th Revision, Concrete Plant
Manufacturers Bureau, Silver Spring, Jan. 1, 1983, 11 pp.
4.5. Concrete Plant Mixer Standards of the Plant
Mixer Manufacturers Division, Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau, 5th Revision, Concrete Manufacturers
Bureau, Silver Spring, July 18, 1977, 4 pp.
4.6. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, 1975. 627 pp.
4.7. Saucier, K.L., Evaluation of a 16-cu-ft Laboratory
Concrete Mixer, Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-692, U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Section,
Vicksburg, Jan. 1965.
4.8. Bloem, Delmar L., High-Energy Mixing, Technical Information Letter No. 169. National Ready Mixed
Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Aug. 1961, pp. 3-8.
4.9. Saucier Kenneth L., Use of Belt Conveyors to
Transport Mass Concrete, Technical Report No. C-74-4,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, 1974, 42 pp.
4.10. Blick, Ronald L., Some Factors Influencing
High-Strength concrete, Modern Concrete, V. 36, No. 12,
Apr. 1973, pp. 38-41.
4.11. Davies, R.D., Some Experiments on the Compaction of Concrete by Vibration, Magazine of Concrete
Research (London), V. 3, No. 8, Dec. 1951, pp. 71-78.
4.12. Schmidt, William, and Hoffman, Edward J.,
9000-psi ConcreteWhy?-Why Not?, Civil Engineering
-ASCE, V. 45, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 52-55.
4.13. High-Strength Concrete in Chicago High-Rise
on High-Rise Buildings, 1977, 63 pp.
4.14. Neville, A.M., Properties of Concrete, 2nd Edition,
363R-22
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1973, 686 pp.

4.15. Klieger. Paul, Early High Strength Concrete for
Prestressing, Proceedings, World Conference on Prestressed Concrete, San Francisco, 1957, pp. A5-l-A5-14.
4.16. Pfieffer, D.W., and Ladgren, J.R., Energy Efficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete-A Laboratory
Study for Plant-Produced Prestressed Concrete, Technical Report No. 1, Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, Dec. 1981.
4.17. Price, Walter H., Factor Influencing Concrete
Strength, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. 6, Feb
1951, pp. 417-432.
4.18. Mather, Brant, Stronger Concrete, Highway
Research Record No. 210, Highway Research Board, 1967,
pp. l-28.
4.19. Day, K.W., Quality Control of 55 MPa Concrete
for Collins Place Project, Melbourne, Australia, Concrete
International Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 3, Mar.
1981, pp. 17-24.
4.20. Cook, James E., Research and Application of
High-Strength Concrete Using Class C Fly Ash, Concrete
International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 7, July
1982, pp. 72-80.
4.21. Fortie, Douglas A, and Schnoreier, P.E., Fourby-Eight Test Cylinder Are Big Enough, Concrete Construction, V. 24, No. 11, Nov. 1979, pp. 751-753.
4.22. Wolsiefer, John, private communication with
ACI Committee 363, 1982.
4.23. Hester, Weston T., Field Testing High-Strength
Concretes: A Critical Review of the State-of-the-Art,
Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 2, No.
12, Dec. 1980, pp. 27-38.
4.24. Carrasquillo, Ramon L.; Nilson, Arthur H.; and
Slate, Floyd O., Properties of High-Strength Concrete
Subject to Short-Term Loads, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 78, No. 3, May-June 1981, pp. 171-178.
4.25. Sigvaldason, O.T., The Influence of Testing
Machine Characteristics Upon the Cube and Cylinder
Strength of Concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research
(London), V. 18, No; 57, Dec. 1966, pp. 197-206.
4.26. Cole, D.G., Some Mechanical Aspects of Compression Testing Machines, Magazine of Concrete
Research (London), V. 19, No. 61, Dec. 1967, pp. 247251.
4.27. Troxell, G.E., The Effect of Capping Methods
and End Conditions Before Capping Upon the Compressive Strength of Concrete Test Cylinder, Proceedings,
ASTM, V. 41, 1941, pp. 1038-1052.
4.28. Werner, George, The Effect of Type of Capping
Material on the Compressive Strength of Concrete
Cylinder, Proceedings, ASTM V. 58, 1958, pp. 1166-1186.
4.29. Holland, Terrence C., Testing High Strength
Concrete, Concrete Construction, June 1987, pp. 534-536.
4.30. Godfrey, K.A., Jr.,"Concrete Strength record
Jumps 36%, Civil Engineering, Oct. 1987, pp. 84-88.
4.31. Saucier, K.L., Effect of Method of Preparation
of Ends of Concrete Cylinders for Testing," Miscellaneous
Paper No. C-72-12, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Ex-
periment Station, Vicksburg, Apr. 1972, 51 pp.
CHAPTER 5-PROPERTIES OF
HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE
5.1-Introduction
Concrete properties such as stress-strain relationship,

modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength, and
bond strength are frequently expressed in terms of the
uniaxial compressive strength of 6 x 12-m. (152 x 305mm) cylinders. Generally, the expressions have been
based on experimental data of concrete with compressive
strengths less than 6000 psi (41 MPa). Various properties
of high-strength concrete are reviewed in this chapter.
The applicability of current and proposed expressions for
predicting properties of high-strength concrete are
examined.
5.2-Stress-strain behavior in uniaxial compression
Axial-stress versus strain curves for concrete of compressive strength up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa) are shown in
Fig. 5.1. The shape of the ascending part of the stressstrain curve is more linear and steeper for high-strength
concrete, and the strain at the maximum stress is slightly
higher for high-strength concrete.5.5-5.6 The slope of the
descending part becomes steeper for high-strength concrete. To obtain the descending part of the stress-strain
curve, it is generally necessary to avoid the specimentesting system interaction; this is more difficult to do for
high-strength concrete. 5.3,5.5,5.8
A simple method of obtaining a stable descending part
of the stress-strain curve is described in References 5.3
Stress,
ksi
Strain, percent
Fig. 5.1 -Complete compressive stress-strain curves 5.I
363R-23
and 5.7. Concrete cylinders were loaded in parallel with

a hardened steel tube with a thickness such that the total
load exerted by the testing machine was always increasing. This approach can be employed with most conventional testing machines. An alternate approach is to use
a closed-loop testing machine.. In a closed-loop testing
machine, specimens can be loaded so as to maintain a
constant rate of strain increase and avoid unstable
failure.
High-strength concrete exhibits less internal microcracking than lower-strength concrete for a given imposed axial strain. 5.9 As a result, the relative increase in
lateral strains is less for high-strength concrete (Fig.
5.2).5.10 The lower relative lateral expansion during the
inelastic range may mean that the effects of triaxial
stresses will be proportionally different for high-strength
concrete. For example, the influence of hoop reinforcement is observed to be different for high-strength concrete.5.11 It was reported that the effectiveness of spiral
reinforcement is less for high-strength concrete.5.11
Fig. 5.2-- Axial stress versus axial strain and lateral strain
5.10
for plain normal weight concrete
5.3-Modulus of elasticity
In 1934, Thoman and Raede 5.12 reported values for
the modulus of elasticity determined as the slope of the
tangent to the stress-strain curve in uniaxial compression
at 25 percent of maximum stress from 4.2 x l06 to 5.2 x
l06psi (29 to 36 GPa) for concretes having compressive
strengths ranging from 10,000 (69 MPa to 11,000 psi (76
MPa). Many other investigators5.4,5.13-5.18 have reported
values for the modulus of elasticity of high-strength concretes of the order of 4.5 to 6.5 x l0 6 psi (31 to 45 GPa)
depending mostly on the method of determining the
modulus. A comparison 5-19of experimentally determined
values for the modulus of elasticity with those predicted
by the expression given in ACI 318, Section 8.5 for
lower-strength concrete, based on a dry unit weight of
145 lb/ft 3(2346 kg/m 3) is given in Fig. 5.3. The ACI 318
expression overestimates the modulus of elasticity for
concretes with compressive strengths over 6000 psi (41
MPa) for the data given in Fig. 5.3.
A correlation between the modulus of elasticity Ec and
the compressive strength fc' for normal weight concretes
(see Fig. 5.3) was reported in Reference 5.19 as

Ec
= 40,000 K + 1.0 x l06 psi

for 3000 psi < f,< 12,000 psi
(EC = 3320 & + 6900 M P a

for 21 MPa c<f, < 83 MPa)
(5-l)
Other empirical equations for predicting elastic modulus have been proposed.5.17,5.18 Deviation from predicted
values are highly dependent on the properties and proportions of the coarse aggregate. For example, higher
values than predicted by Eq. (5-l) were reported by
Russell,5.20 Saucier,5.21 and Pfeiffer. 5.22
5.4-Poissons ratio
Experimental data on values of Poissons ratio for
high-strength concrete are very limited. Shideler5.23 and
Carrasquillo et al5.2 reported values for Poissons ratio of
lightweight-aggregate high-strength concrete having uniaxial compressive strengths up to 10,570 psi (73 MPa) at
28 days to be 0.20 regardless of compressive strength,
age, and moisture content. Values determined by the dynamic method were slightly higher.
On the other hand, Perenchio and Klieger5.24 reported
values for Poissons ratio of normal weight high-strength
concretes with compressive strengths ranging from 8000
to 11,600 psi (55 to 80 MPa) between 0.20 and 0.28. They
concluded that Poissons ratio tends to decrease with increasing water-cement ratio. Kaplan5.25 found values for
Poissons ratio of concrete determined using dynamic
measurements to be from 0.23 to 0.32 regardless of compressive strength, coarse aggregate, and test age for concretes having compressive strengths ranging from 2500 to
11,500 psi (17 to 79 MPa).
Based on the available information, Poissons ratio of
high-strength concrete in the elastic range seems comparable to the expected range of values for lower-strength
concretes.
5.5-Modulus of rupture
The values reported by various investigators 5.23,5.26-5.28
for the modulus of rupture of both lightweight and normal weight high-strength concretes fall in the range of 7.5
&r to 12 g where both the modulus of rupture and
the compressive strength are expressed in psi. The following equation was recommended 5.2 for the prediction
of the tensile strength of normal weight concrete, as
measured by the modulus of rupture f,from the compressive strength as shown in Fig. 5.4
fr
= 11.7 &r psi

for 3000 psi < f,< 12,000 psi
c-
= 0.94 &r MPa

for 21 MPa <
f, < 83 MPa)
(5-2)
81
- \\
363R-25
q, MPa
0
I
2
I
4
I
6
I
f,.MPo
1200
q,MP*
4
6
0
I
1O
/
t; I MPa
20
40
0
4-x6"
60
80
(102mm r203mml
1000
Splitting
Tensile
800
Strength t;p
Modulus
Modulus of
Rupture
Rupture
f; , psi
f, , MPa
psi
600
400
OO
I
20
I
1
I
2000
6000
10000
Cylinder Strength t; . psi
/
/
I
I
40
R.psi
8o 100
I
14000
L
120
Fig. 5.5-Tensile strength based on split cylinder test 5.2

jected to repeated load varied between 66 and 71 percent
of the static strength for a minimum stress level of 1250
psi (8.6 MPa). The lower values were found for the
higher-strength concretes and for concrete made with the
smaller-size coarse aggregate, but the actual magnitude
5.6-Tensile splitting strength
Dewar 5.27 studied the relationship between the indirect of the difference was small. To the extent that is known,
tensile strength (cylinder splitting strength) and the com- the fatigue strength of high-strength concrete is the same
pressive strength of concretes having compressive as that for concretes of lower strengths.
strengths of up to 12,105 psi (83.79 MPa) at 28 days. He
concluded that at low strengths, the indirect tensile 5.8-Unit Weight
The measured values of the unit weight of highstrength may be as high as 10 percent of the compressive
strength but at higher strengths it may reduce to 5 per- strength concrete are slightly higher than lower-strength
cent. He observed that the tensile splitting strength was concrete made with the same materials.
about 8 percent higher for crushed-rock-aggregate concrete than for gravel-aggregate concrete- In addition, he 5.9-Thermal properties
The thermal properties of high-strength concretes fall
found that the indirect tensile strength was about 70 percent of the flexural strength at 28 days. Carrasquillo, within the a proximate range for lower-strength con5.21,5.26
Quantities that have been measured are
Nilson, and Slate 5.2 reported that the splitting strength cretes.
did not vary much from the usual range shown in Fig. specific heat, diffusivity, thermal conductivity, and co5.5, although as the compressive strength increases, the efficient of thermal expansion.
values for the splitting strength fall in the upper limit of
the expected range. The following equation for the pre- 5.10-Heat evolution due to hydration
The temperature rise within concrete due to hydration
diction of the tensile splitting strength &, of normal
depends on the cement content, water-cement ratio, size
weight concrete was recommended5.2
of the member, ambient temperature, environment, etc.
Freedman 5.15 has concluded from data of Saucier et al.
= 7.4 K psi
f SP'
in Fig. 5.6 that the heat rise of high-strength concretes
for 3000 psi c f, < 12,000 psi
will be approximately 11 to 15 F/l00 lb of cement/yd 3 (6
to 8 C per 59 kg/m 3 of cement). Values for temperature
(fJp = 0.59 g MPa
confor 21 MPa < f,< 83 MPa)
(5-3) rise of the order of 100 F (56 C) in high-strength
crete members containing 846 lb of cement/yd 3 (502
kg/m3) were measured in a building in Chicago as shown
5.7-Fatigue strength
5.16
The available data on the fatigue behavior of high- in Fig. 5.7.
strength concrete is very limited. Bennett and Muir.5.29
studied the fatigue strength in axial compression of high- 5.11-Strength gain with age
High-strength concrete shows a higher rate of strength
strength concrete with a 4-in. (102-mm) cube compressive
strength of up to 11,155 psi (76.9 MPa) and found that gain at earl a es as compared to lower-strength conafter one million cycles, the strength of specimens sub- crete5.1,5.2,5.13,5.15but at later ages the difference is not
Fig. 5.4-- Tensile strength based on modulus of rupture
test 5.2
ACI
363R-26
COMMITTEE
Temp. ,
F
40 0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time, hours
5.21
200
C o l u m n c3
150
yeroture.
,oo
,1
50
10
15
20
Age, days
Fig. 5.7-- Measured concrete temperatures at Water Tower

Place. 5.16
@---I
100 -
Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength
at 95 days
28
strength concrete and 0.7 to 0.75 for lower-strength c o n crete, while Carrasquillo, Nilson, and Slate5.2,5.9 found
typical ratios of 7-day to 95-day strength of 0.60 for
low-strength, 0.65 for medium-strength, and 0.73 for
high-strength concrete. It seems likely that the higher
rate of strength development of high-strength concrete at
early ages is caused by (1) an increase in the internal
curing temperature in the concrete cylinders due to a
higher heat of hydration and (2) shorter distance between
hydrated particles in high-strength concrete due to low
water-cement ratio.
5.12-Freeze thaw resistance
Information about air content requirement for highstrength concrete to produce adequate durability is
contradictory. For example, Saucier, Tynes, and Smith5.21
concluded from accelerated laboratory freeze-thaw tests
that, if high-strength concrete is to be frozen under wet
conditions, air-entrained concrete should be considered
despite the loss of strength due to air entrainment. In
contrast, Perenchio and Klieger5.24 obtained excellent
resistance to freezing and thawing of all of the highstrength concretes used in their study, whether air entrained or non-air-entrained. They attributed this to the
greatly reduced freezable water contents and the increased tensile strength of high-strength concrete.
Fig. 5.6-Temperature rise of high-strength field-cast 10 x
20 x 5-ft (3 x 6 x 1.5-m) blocks
REPORT
95
Age, days
Fig. 5.8-- Normalized strength gain with age for moist-cured

limestone concretes 5.2
significant (see Fig. 5.8). Parrott 5.26 reported typical
ratios of 7-day to 28-day strengths of 0.8 to 0.9 for high-
Little information is available on the shrinkage behavior of high-strength concrete. A relatively high initial
rate of shrinkage has been reported, 5.26,5.30
but after
drying for 180 days there is little difference between the
shrinkage of high-strength and lower-strength concrete
made with dolomite or limestone. Reducing the curing
period from 28 to 7 days caused a slight increase in the
shrinkage. 5.26 Shrinkage was unaffected by changes in
water-cement ratio5.15 but is approximately proportional
to the percentage of water by volume in the concrete.
Other laboratory studies 5.31 and field studies 5.16,5.22,5.28
have shown that shrinkage of high-strength concrete is
similar to that of lower-strength concrete. Nagataki and
Yonekuras 5.32 reported that the shrinkage of highstrength concrete containing high-range water reducers
was less than for lower-strength concrete.
5.14-- Creep
Parrott 5.26 reported that the total strain observed in
sealed high-strength concrete under a sustained loading
of 30 percent of the ultimate strength was the same as
that of lower-strength concrete when expressed as a ratio
of the short-term strain. Under drying conditions, this
ratio was 25 percent lower than that of lower-strength
concrete. The total long-term strains of drying and sealed
high-strength concrete were 15 and 65 percent higher, respectively, than for a corresponding lower-strength concrete at a similar relative stress level. Ngab et a1.5.31
found little difference between the creep of high-strength
concrete under drying and sealed conditions. The creep
of high-strength concrete made with high-range water

reducers is reported 5.32 to be decreased significantly. The
maximum specific creep was less for high-strength concrete than for lower-strength concrete loaded at the same
age. 5.16,5.20,5.31 An example is shown in Fig. 5.9. 5 . 2 8
However, high-strength concretes are subjected to higher
stresses. Therefore, the total creep will be about the
same for any strength h concrete. No problems due to
creep were found 5.22 in columns cast with high-strength
concrete. As is found with lower-strength concrete, creep
decreases as the age at loading increases,5.31 specific
creep increases with increased water-cement ratio,5.24 and
there is a linear relationship with the applied stress.5.31
This linearity extends to a higher stress-strain ratio than
for lower-strength concrete.
Some additional information on properties of highstrength concrete can be obtained from References 5.33
to 5.42.
,-
1.75
Unsealed
- Sealed
De-
1.50
yft;=48DD psi
1.25
Creep
Coefficient,
Cc
I.00
075
0.50
1000 psi = 6.895 M PO
= 0.45 in All Cases
0.25
0
0
15
Age at Loading = 2 Days

After 28 Days Curing
I
30
45
60
75
Time After Loading, days
Fig. 5.9-- Relationship between creep coefficient and time

for sealed and unsealed concrete specimens 5.31
5.1 Wischers, Gerd, Applications and Effects of
Compressive Loads on Concrete, Betontechnische
Berichte 1978, Betone Verlag GmbH, Dusseldorf, 1979,
pp. 31-56. (in German)
5.2. Carrasquiho, Ramon L.; Nilson, Arthur H.; and
Slate, Floyd O., Properties of High Strength Concrete
Subjected to Short-Term Loads, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 78, No. 3, May-June 1981, pp. 171-178, and
Discussion, Proceedings V. 79, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1982, pp.
162-163.
5.3. Wang, P.T.; Shah, S.P.; and Naaman, A.E.,
363R-27
Stress-Strain Curves of Normal and Lightweight

Concrete in Compression, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
75, No. 10, Nov. 1978, pp. 603-611.
5.4. Kaar, P.H.; Hanson, N.W.; and Capell, H.T.,
Stress-Strain Characteristics of High-Strength Concrete,
Douglas McHenry International Symposium on Concrete
and Concrete Structures, SP-55, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 161-185. Also, Research and
Development Bulletin No. 051.01D, Portland Cement
Association.
5.5. Shah, S.P.; Gokoz, U.; and Ansari, F., An
Experimental Technique for Obtaining Complete StressStrain Curves for High Strength Concrete, Cement,
Concrete and Aggregates, V. 3, No. 1, Summer 1981, pp.
21-27.
5.6. Shah, S.P., High Strength Concrete-A Workshop Summary, Concrete International Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 5, May 1981, pp. 94-98.
5.7. Shah, S.P.; Naaman, A.E.; and Moreno, J., Effect
of Confinement on the Ductility of Lightweight Concrete, International Journal of Cement Composites and
Lightweight Concrete (Harlow, Essex), V. 5, No. 1, Feb.
1983, pp. 15-25.
5.8. Holm, T.A., Physical Properties of High Strength
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete, Proceedings, 2nd International Congress on Lightweight Concrete (London,
Apr. 1980) Ci80, Construction Press, Lancaster, 1980,
pp. 187-204.
5.9. Carrasquillo, Ramon L.; Slate, Floyd 0.; and
Nilson, Arthur H., Microcracking and Behavior of HighStrength Concrete Subject to Short-Term Loading, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 78, No. 3, May-June 1981, pp.
179-186.
5.10. Ahmad, Schuaib, and Shah, Surendra P.,
Complete Triaxial Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete,
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 108, ST4, Apr. 1982, pp. 728-742.
5.11. Ahmad, S.H., and Shah, S.P., Stress-Strain
Curves Of Concrete Confined by Spiral Reinforcement,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 79, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1982,
pp. 484-490.
5.12. Thoman, William H., and Raeder, Warren, Ultimate Strength and Modulus of Elasticity of High
Strength Portland Cement Concrete, ACI J OURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 30, No. 3, Jan-Feb. 1934, pp. 231-238.
5.13. Smith, E.F.; Tynes, W.O.; and Saucier, K.L.,
High-Compressive-Strength Concrete, Development of
Concrete Mixtures, Technical Documentary Report No.
RTD TDR-63-3114, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Feb. 1964, 44 pp.
5.14. Nedderman, Howard, Flexural Stress Distribution in Very-High-Strength Concrete, MSc thesis,
University of Texas at Arlington, Dec. 1973, 182 pp.
7, Nov. 1970, pp. 28-32; No. 8, Dec. 1970, pp. 21-24; No.
Also, Publication No. lS176T, Portland Cement Association.
363R-28
5.16. High-Strength Concrete in Chicago High-Rise pression, Magazine of Concrete Research (London), V.
19, No. 59, June 1967, pp. 113-117.
5.30. Swamy, R.N., and Anand, K.L., Shrinkage and
5.17. Teychenne, D.C.; Parrott, L.J.; and Pomeroy, Creep of High Strength Concrete, Civil Engineering and
C.D., The Estimation of the Elastic Modulus of Con- Public Works Review (London), V. 68, No. 807, Oct. 1973,
crete for the Design of Structures, Current Paper No. pp. 859-865, 867-868.
CP23/78, Building Research Establishment, Garston,
5.31. Ngab, A.S.; Slate, F.O.; and Nilson, A.H.,
Watford, 1978, 11 pp.
Behavior of High-Strength Concrete Under Sustained
5.18. Ahmad, S.H., Properties of Confined Concrete Compressive Stress, Research Report No. 80-2, DepartSubjected to Static and Dynamic Loading, PhD thesis, ment of Structural Engineering, Cornell University,
University of IIIinois at Chicago Circle, Mar. 1981.
Ithaca, Feb. 1980, 201 pp. Also, PhD dissertation, Cornell
5.19. Martinez, S.; NiIson, AH.; and Slate, F.O., University, 1980, and Shrinkage and Creep of High
Spirally-Reinforced High-Strength Concrete Columns, Strength Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 78,
Research Report No. 82-10, Department of Structural
No. 4, July-Aug. 1981, pp. 255-261.
5.32. Nagataki, S., and Yonekura, A., Studies of the
Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, Aug. 1982.
5.20. Russell, H.G., and Corley, W.G., Time- Volume Changes of High Strength Concretes with SuperDependent Behavior of Columns in Water Tower Place, plasticizer, Journal, Japan Prestressed Concrete
Engineering Association (Tokyo), V. 20, 1978, pp. 26-33.
and Concrete Structures, SP-55, American Concrete
5.33. Ahmad, S.H. and Shah, S.P. Behavior of Hoop
Institute, Detroit, 1978, pp. 347-373, Also, Research and
Confined Concrete Under High Strain Rates, ACI
Development Bulletin No. RD052.01B, Portland Cement
JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 82, No. 5. Sept.-Oct. 1985, pp.
Association.
634-647.
5.21. Saucier, K.L.; Tynes, W.O.; and Smith, E.F.,
5.34. Research Needs for High-Strength Concrete,
High Compressive-Strength Concrete-Report 3, Sum- reported by ACI Committee 363, ACI Materials Journal,
mary Report, Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-520, U.S. Army Proceedings V. 84, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1987, pp. 559-561.
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
5.35. Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of HighSept. 1965, 87 pp.
Strength Concrete, Stavanger, Norway, June 15-18, 1987,
5.22. Pfeifer, Donald W.; Magura, Donald D.; Russell, Tapir, Publishers, N-7034 Trondheim-N7H, Norway, 688
Henry G.;, and Corley, W.G., Time Dependent Defor- PP.
mations in a 70 Story Structure, Designing for Effects of
5.36. Yogendram, Langan, Hagne and Ward, Silica
Creep, Shrinkage, Temperature in Concrete Structures,
Fume in High Strength Concrete, ACI Materials Journal,
SP-37, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, pp. V. 84, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1987, pp. 124-129.
159-185.
5.37. Carrasquillo, P., and Carrasquillo, R., Current
5.23. Shideler, J J., Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete Practice in Evaluation of High Strength Concrete,
for Structural Use, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 54,
ACI Materials Journal, V. 85, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., 1988, pp.
No. 4, Oct. 1957, pp. 299-328.
49-54.
5.24. Perenchio, William F., and Khieger, Paul, Some
5.38. Smadi, M.M., Slate, F.O., and Nilson, A.H.,
Shrinkage and Creep of High, Medium, and Low
Strength Concretes Including Overloads, ACI Materials
Journal, Proceedings V. 84, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp.
5.25. Kaplan, M.F., Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, 224-234.
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity, Poissons Ratio and the
5.39. Smadi, M.M., Slate, F.O., and Nilson, AH.,
Strength of Concrete Made with Thirteen Different High, Medium, and Low Strength Concrete Subject to
Sustained Loads-Strains, Strengths and Failure
Coarse Aggregates, RILEM Bulletin (Paris), New Series
Mechanisms, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 82, No. 5,
No. 1, Mar. 1959, pp. 58-73.
5.26. Parrot, LJ., The Properties of High-Strength Sept.-Oct. 1985, pp. 657-664.
5.40. Ahmad, S.H., and Shah, S.P., Structural
Concrete, Technical Report No. 42.417, Cement and
Properties of High Strength Concrete and Its ImpliConcrete Association, Wexham Springs, 1969, 12 pp.
5.27. Dewar, J.D., The Indirect Tensile Strength of cations on Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Journal of
Concretes of High Compressive Strength, Technical
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Nov.-Dec. 1985.
Report No. 42.377, Cement and Concrete Association,
5.41. Ahmad, S.H., and Shah, S.P., High Strength
Concrete-A Review, Proceedings of International SymWexham Springs, Mar. 1964, 12 pp.
5.28. Kaplan, M.F., Flexural and Compressive posium on Utilization of High Strength Concrete,
Strength of Concrete as Affected by the Properties of the Stavanger, Norway, June 15-18, 1987.
5.42. Shirley, T. Scott, Burg, G. Ronald, and Fiorato,
Coarse Aggregates, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 55,
E. Anthony, Fire Endurance of High Strength Concrete
No. 11, May 1959, pp. 1193-1208.
5.29. Bennett, E.W., and Muir, S.E. St. J., Some Slabs, ACI Materials Journal, Mar.-Apr. 1988, pp. 102Fatigue Tests of High-Strength Concrete in Axial Com- 108.
CHAPTER 6-STRUCTURAL DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
High-strength concretes have some characteristics and
engineering properties that are different from those of
lower-strength concretes. Internal changes resulting from
short-term and sustained loads and environmental factors
are known to be different. Directly related to these internal differences are distinctions in mechanical properties
that must be recognized by design engineers in predicting
the performance and safety of structures. These distinctions are increasingly important as strengths increase.
Tests of unreinforced high-strength concrete have shown,
for example, that such material in many cases may be
closely characterized as linearly elastic up to stress levels
approaching the maximum stress. Thereafter, the stressstrain curve of high-strength concrete decreases at a
much greater rate than lower-strength concretes.6.1-6.10
Extensive experimentation at several research centers
has provided a fundamental understanding of the behavior of high-strength concrete. While substantial information is now available on many aspects, some final recommendations must await the results of current and
future work.
In this chapter, the emphasis will be placed on design
of members and structures.6.11 Where recommendations
are made, they are based on the best current experimental information and in most cases must be considered
tentative.
6.2-Axially-loaded columns
Few columns in practice are subjected to truly axial
loads. Bending moments, due to eccentric application of
load or associated with rigid frame action, are usually
superimposed on axial loads. ACI 318-83 requirements
for design and ACI 318R-83 reflect this. However, it is
useful to look first at the behavior of columns carrying
axial load only.
6.2.1 Strength contribution of steel and concrete-The
attribute of main interest is the ultimate strength. Present
design practice, in calculating the nominal strength of an
axially loaded member, is to assume a direct addition law
summing the strength of the concrete and that of the
steel. The justification for this is seen in Fig. 6.1, which
superimposes typical stress-strain curves in compression
for three concretes with that for reinforcing steel having
60,000 psi (414 MPa) yield strength (the last curve is
drawn to a different vertical scale for convenience). The
usual assumption is made that steel and concrete strains
are identical at any load stage.
For lower-strength concrete, when the concrete
reaches the range of significant nonlinearity (about 0.001
strain), the steel is still in the elastic range and consequently starts to pick up a larger share of the load.
When the strain is close to 0.002, the slope of the concrete curve is nearly zero and it can be thought of as deforming plastically, with little or no increase in stress.
363R-29
70 r
1,s -60 c,
M PO
M PO
440
-2-o
O?
02
Strain,
04
06
JO
percent
Fig. 6.1-- Concrete and steel stress-strain curves

The steel reaches its yield point at about the same strain
in this case; thus, concrete is at its maximum stress, steel
is at fy, and the strength of the column is predicted by
P = 0.85 fc' Ac + fy As
where fc'
fy
Ac
As
(6-l)
= cylinder compressive strength of the concrete

= yield strength of steel
= area of concrete section
= area of steel
The factor 0.85 is used to account for the observed difference in strength of concrete in columns compared with
concrete of the same mix in standard compression-test
cylinders.
A similar analysis holds for high-strength concrete
columns, except the steel will yield before the concrete
reaches its peak strength. However, the steel will continue to yield at essentially constant stress until the
concrete is fully stressed. Prediction of strength may
therefore still be based on Eq. (6-l). Experimental
documentation also supports use of the factor 0.85 for
high-strength concrete.6.12-6.13
6.2.2 Effects of confinement steel-Lateral steel in
columns, preferably in the form of continuous spirals, has
two beneficial effects on column behavior: (a) it greatly
increases the strength of the core concrete inside the
spiral by confining the core against lateral expansion
under load, and (b) it increases the axial strain capacity
of the concrete, permitting a more gradual and ductile
failure, i.e., a tougher column.6.12-6.16
The basis for design of spiral steel under the 1977 and
later versions of ACI 318 is that the strengthening effect
of the spiral must be at least equal to the column
strength lost when the concrete shell outside of the spiral
spalls off under load. The ACI 318 equation for mini-
363R-30
mum volumetric ratio of spiral is
f'
ps = 0.45 2 - 1 -L
i E
I4
associated with increasing spacing of the spiral

wires. 6.13,6.17 Thus an improved version of Eq. (6-3a) is
P-2)
where ps
= ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to

volume of concrete core
=
gross
area of concrete section
Ag
= area of concrete core
r: = cylinder compressive strength of concrete
6 = yield strength of spiral steel
The increase in compressive strength of columns provided by spiral steel is based on an experimentally
derived relationship for strength gain
x - fcl = 4.oJy
where
(6-3a)
x = compressive strength of spirally reinforced concrete column

f, = compressive strength of unconfined concrete column
f.2' = concrete confinement stress produced by
spiral
This relationship can be shown to lead directly to Eq.

(6-2). The concrete confinement stress produced by spiral
f2' is calculated on the basis that the spiral steel has
yielded, using the familiar hoop tension equation.
or
2J4 f
f2' = ds
c
where ASP
4
S
= area of spiral steel

= diameter of concrete core
= pitch of spiral
and other terms are as already defined.

Recent work by Ahmad and Shah 6.14 has shown that
spiral reinforcement is less effective for columns of
higher-strength concrete and for lightweight concrete
columns. They found also that the stress in the steel
spiral at peak load for high-strength concrete columns
and lightweight concrete columns is often significantly
less than the yield strength assumed in the development
of Eq. (6-2).
These conclusions are consistent with results of experimental research at Cornell University.6.13 In the Cornell
research, an effective confinement stress f2 (1 - s/dc)
was used in evaluating results, where f2 is the confinement stress in the concrete, calculated using the actual
stress in the spiral steel, often less than fy . The term (1 s/dc) reflects the reduction in effectiveness of spirals
z - fc, = 4.Of, (1 - s/d,)
(6-3b)
Fig. 6.2 shows the results of the Cornell tests on

columns using different strength concretes. It is clear that
the strength gain predicted by Eq. (6-3b) is valid for normal weight concrete of all strengths for confinement
stress up to at least 3000 psi (21 MPa). A similar plot
based on Eq. (6-3a) shows a somewhat unconservative
prediction for higher confinement stresses, but it can be
shown that typical confinement stresses for practical
column spirals are seldom more than about 1000 psi (7
MPa). For this range Eq. (6-3a) gives good results. From
the strength viewpoint, the present ACI 318 equation for
minimum spiral steel ratio can be used safely for highstrength normal weight columns as well as for lowerstrength concrete columns.
Fig. 6.2 also shows that a spiral has much less confining effect in lightweight concrete columns. The lightweight concrete tends to crush under the spirals at heavy
loads, relieving the confining pressure.6.13 For lightweight
spirally reinforced columns, Martinez has suggested that
Eq. (6-3a) be replaced by
z - fcl = 1.8fi
(6-4a)
and Eq. (6-3b) be replaced by

x - fcl = 1.8 f2 (1 - s/d,)
(6-4b)
This important difference in behavior means that Eq.

(6-2) found in ACI 318 must be reexamined. It appears
that lightweight concrete columns would require about
2.5 times more spiral steel than corresponding normal
weight columns to satisfy strength requirements after the
cover spalls off, a requirement that is not reflected in
ACI 318. Whether or not such heavy spirals are practical
may be questioned.
There is not yet general agreement on the effectiveness of spiral steel for improving the ductility of highstrength concrete columns, that is, for increasing the
strain limit and flattening the negative slope of the
stress-strain curve past the point of peak stress. A paper
by Ahmad and Shah 6.14 indicates that confining spirals
are about as effective in flattening the negative slope of
the stress-strain curve for high-strength concrete columns
as for lower-strength concrete columns. However, the
Cornell work 6.13 showed significant differences. Fig. 6.3
shows experimental stress-strain curves for different
strengths of normal weight concrete columns with varying
spiral reinforcement. Three groups of curves are identified by the three concrete strength levels studied. Each
of these groups consists of three sets of curves corresponding to three different amounts of lateral reinforcement. Indicated in each set of curves with a short horizontal line is the average unconfined column strength
corresponding to that particular set of confined columns.
363R-31

Effective Confinement Stress f,(l- s/d,) , MPa
IO
5
I
I
Normal Weight Concrete
12 A High- Strength
. Medium - Strength
l Low- Strength
10 Lightweight Concrete
A High- Strength
a Medium - Strength
o Low- Strength
0
t
Strength
Incrememt
T,-
20
I
15
I
I
- 80
- 60
Strength
Increment
Tc-f
, )
MPa
f; ,
ksi
6 -
fc= f;t l.Bfe(l-s/d,) - 2 0
4 x 16 - in. (102 x 406 -mm) Cylinder

Stroke Rote: 12,000 p-in (0.30 mm)/min.
I
2000
3000
Effective Confinement Stress 1,(1-s/d,) , psi
Fig. 6.2-Strength increment provided by spiral reinforcement action on 4 x 16-in. columns
Normal Weight Spiral Columns

4 x 16 - in. (102 x 406 -mm) Cylinder
Stroke Rate: 12.000 p-in.(O 30mmtlnun
1; = Unconfined Column Strength
(2500) = Effective Ccnfinement
stress L, t- l/d&
Axial
Stress,
ksi
Axial
Stress ,
M Pa
Axial
Strain , in. / in.
Fig. 6.3-Experimental stress-strain curves of 4 x 16-in. normal weight spiral columns

Referring to Fig. 6.3, the curves for high-strength
concrete columns NC167 that had an effective confinement stress of 767 psi (5 MPa) are compared with the
curves for lower-strength concrete columns NC163 with
an effective confinement stress of 800 psi (6 MPa). Different behavior for comparable confinement stress is
evident. Not only is the strain at peak stress much less
for high-strength concrete, but the stress falls off sharply
just past the peak value. This last fact is seen to be true
even for columns NC169 with a very high confinement
stress of 2500 psi (17 MPa) (probably not attainable in
practical columns).
Based on the available evidence, one may conclude
that normal density high-strength concrete columns with
spiral steel show strength gain due to the spirals that is
predicted well by present equations, but that their properties past peak stress may be deficient compared with
lower-strength columns. The design of lightweight concrete columns with spiral steel should be approached very
carefully. 6.13,6.17
Another interesting and important observation relating
to spirally reinforced columns generally is that the level
of confinement stress corresponding to spirals designed
by ACI 318 is rather low for all columns. The confinement stress becomes significantly lower for larger diameter columns, assuming that the cover requirements remain constant. This follows directly from Eq. (6-2). For
larger columns, the ratio Ag/Ac becomes much smaller;
consequently the required spiral steel ratio becomes
smaller and the effective confinement stress becomes
363R-32
proportionately smaller. Confinement stress produced by

spirals designed to ACI 318 for lower-and high-strength
concrete, for 15 and 50 in. column core diameters are
compared in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1-Confinement stress produced by spirals
designed by ACI 318
f(1 - s/a,
4.
in. (mm)
A, /A
Ps*
psi (MPa)
s,
in. (mm)
strains associated with these stresses have a profound effect on the structural behavior. Such strains are directly
related to long-term deflection, losses in prestress force,
and cracking. Column strength may be reduced due to
sustained loading of high intensity. It may also be increased because of the capability of a concrete structure
to adjust itself to local high over-stresses through creep.
Creep may be described either in terms of the creep
coefficient
f, = 3000 psi (21 MPa) (#3 spiral bar)

15(38)
50( 172)
;:;:
0.0099
0.0028
238 (1.64)
83 (0.57)
2.96 (75)
3.17 (81)
f: = 10,000 psi (69 MPa) (#5 spiral bar)

5 0 ( 1 2 7 )
0.0330
0.0093
825(5.69)
263(1.81)
2.50(64)
2.67(68)
*Ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core

(out-to-out of spirals).
Cc =
creep strain
initial elastic strain
(6-5)
or by the coefficient of specific creep (unit creep coefficient)

6, = creep strain per unit stress
(6-6)
The two can be related through the modulus of elasticity

Tests show that for lower-strength concrete even the
reduction in confinement stress from 238 to 83 psi (1.64
to 0.57 MPa) obtained under ACI 318 wilI produce a column with very large strain capacity without significant
loss of resistance. For high-strength concrete, the
reduction of confinement stress from 825 to 263 psi (5.69
to 1.81 MPa) produces a column with virtually no postpeak strain capacity. Even the higher confinement stress
of 825 psi (5.69 MPa) produces a column with the undesirable characteristic of a sharp drop-off of resistance
immediately after peak stress.6.13
While some experimental data are available at this
time for high-strength concrete columns using lateral ties
rather than spirals,6.18,6.19 more work must be done for
such members.
6.2.3 Repeated loading-High-strength concrete is relatively free of internal microcracking, even close to ultimate load, when loaded monotonically.6.1 On the other
hand, high-strength concrete is reported to be more
brittle than lower-strength concrete,6.2 lacking much of
the ductility that accompanies progressive crack growth.
Some experimental research indicates that fatigue
strength is essentially independent of compressive
strength.6.20 Recent research indicates that failure of
concrete subject to repeated loading can be approximately predicted by the concept of the envelope curve, directly related to the short-term monotonic stress-strain
curve. 6.21 For high-strength concrete, each load application causes relatively less incremental damage. However, the number of cycles to failure may not be necessarily larger because of the greater negative slope of the
post-peak envelope curve.
While important work has been done,6.20,6.22,6.23 it is
clear that additional research is needed on all aspects of
high-strength concrete, with and without confinement
steel, subject to various repeated load regimens, before
design recommendations can be made.
6.2.4 Sustained loading-In most structures, concrete
is subjected to sustained loads. The time-dependent
cc = E,6,
(6-7)
There is general agreement that creep of high-strength

concrete is significantly less than that of a lower-strength
concrete6.7,6.24-6.27 The most recent information, for concretes with strength up to about 10,000 psi (69-MPa), indicates that high-strength concrete has a specific creep
only about 20 percent that of lower-strength concrete and
a creep coefficient about 30 percent as high.6.27
As a result, for axially loaded high-strength concrete
columns, creep shortening at a given stress level will be
less than that of lower-strength columns, a fact of possible significance in high-rise concrete structures.6.30 In
addition, the distribution of load between concrete and
steel of high-strength concrete columns will be less subject to change with the passage of time. Elastic distribution of stresses may be more nearly maintained. Loss
of stress in a prestressed member due to creep shortening will be much less at a given concrete stress level, but
this advantage may be largely canceled if higher sustained
load stresses are permitted.
6.3-Beams and slabs
The material properties described in Chapter 5 and in
Section 6.2 may effect the characteristic behavior of highstrength concrete beams.6.31-6.34 In some cases, improvements are seen; in other cases less satisfactory behavior
will result. In many ways, high-strength beams may behave according to essentially the same rules that have
been used to describe behavior of beams made of lowerstrength concrete. However, some questions remain to be
answered.
6.3.1 Compressive stress distribution-The compressive
stress distribution in beams is directly related to the
shape of the stress-strain curve in uniaxial compression.
Consequently, for high-strength concrete, which displays
differences in that shape, as shown in Fig. 6.1, it is
reasonable to expect differences in flexural compressive
stress distribution, particularly at loads approaching

ultimate.
In present U.S. practice as in ACI 318 and ACI 318R,
proportioning of beam sections is generally based on conditions at a hypothetical state of incipient collapse at
factored loads. Fig. 6.4(a) shows the generally parabolic
shape of the compressive stress distribution in a beam
made of lower-strength concrete. The nominal resisting
moment may be calculated knowing the internal forces T
and C and the internal lever arm between them. The actual shape of the compressive stress distribution at incipient failure, always highly variable even within a given
range of concrete strengths, may be considered irrelevant
if one knows (a) the magnitude of the compressive resultant C, and (b) the level in the beam at which it acts.
These may be established in terms of three parameters
characteristic of a given stress distribution [see Fig.
6.4(a)].
k 1 = ratio of average to maximum compressive stress
in beam
k 2 = ratio of depth to compressive resultant to neutral
axis depth
k 3 = ratio of maximum stress in beam to maximum
stress in corresponding axially loaded cylinder
For ordinary design purposes, it is convenient to work

with an equivalent rectangular compressive stress distribution, shown in Fig. 6.4(b), with magnitude of compressive resultant and line of action the same as before. Such
an equivalent distribution is specifically referenced and
permitted in ACI 318 and its Commentary, ACI 318R.
With the uniform value of concrete compression assumed
equal to 0.85fc', a single parameter PI is sufficient to
define both magnitude and line of action.
For high-strength concrete, the stress-strain curve is
more linear than parabolic. Therefore, there is reason to
suspect that the stress block parameters may be different.
Experimental research has confirmed that differences do
exist, and alternatives to the rectangular stress block have
been proposed, such as in Fig. 6.4(c).6.34 However, differences in calculated strength values for beams and eccentric columns depend on steel ratios and other factors.
ACI 318R suggests, based on an equivalent rectangular stress block, that the nominal flexural strength of a
singly reinforced beam that is under-reinforced can be
calculated by
= nominal moment strength at section,

in-lb
= area of tension reinforcement, in.2
= specified yield strength of reinforcement,
;
psi
= distance from extreme compression fiber
d
to centroid of tension reinforcement, in.
= ratio of tension reinforcement
= specified compressive strength of conif
crete, psi
The coefficient 0.59 can be shown to be equivalent to
k2/k1k3. The experimental variation of k2/k1k3 with concrete compressive strength based on research at several
centers is shown in Fig. 6.5. 6.6,6.31-6.35 While a detailed
study of the separate k values indicates that significant
differences in the separate values exist depending on
concrete strength, it is clear from Fig. 6.5 that the
differences are compensative and that the combined coefficient is well-represented by the constant value 0.59. This
statement is reinforced by the results shown in Fig. 6.6,
which compares flexural strength predictions obtained
using the usual rectangular stress block, a triangular
stress block, and a distribution based on experimentally
derived stress-strain curves with test data for beams of
varying reinforcement ratios and concrete strengths to
11,000 psi (76 MPa). Test values were best predicted
using actual stress-strain curves, but either the rectangular or triangular distributions gave acceptable lower
bounds to the experimental and theoretical values.6.36
Based on these and similar studies, it appears that, for
under-reinforced beams, the present ACI 318 methods
can be used without change, at least for concrete
strengths up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa). For over-reinforced
where Mn
C=k,k,f;bc
> T = Asfs
C-O.85 f,ab
drp-
C=$.f;bc
T=A,f,
Fig. 6.4-Concrete stress distributions for rectangular beams
363R-33
363R-34
Concrete Strength ,
Concrete Strength , M Pa
0
0.005 r
20
I
40
I
60
1
M Pa
80
I
l00
I
120
I
08
I
0.6
k2
-
k,
&
..
-
- 0.500
Rectangular
0.4
i
t
0001 t
0.2
0
0
12
16
20
Concrete Strength , ksi

0
I2
16
20
Concrete Strength , ksi
Fig. 6.5-- Stress block parameter k2/k1k3 versus concrete

strength
140
Test
Dato 0
-4.-
ACI Cods
Triangular
Stress Block --*-
Theoretical
I*--
100
Mu,
kip-ft
80
60
Fig. 6.7-- Ultimate concrete flexural strain Q, versus concrete compressive strength
energy release from the testing equipment. Fig. 6.76.5
shows the variation of concrete strain at failure at the
extreme compression face of singly reinforced concrete
beams or eccentrically loaded columns without lateral
confinement steel. The constant value of strain at extreme concrete compression fiber of 0.003 prescribed by
ACI 318 is seen to represent satisfactorily the experimental results for high-strength as well as lower-strength
concrete, although it is not as conservative for highstrength concrete.
6.3.3 Influence of confinement steel and compression
Steel-Considering the more limited strain capacity of
high-strength concrete in compression, it is necessary to
evaluate the ductility of beams made of high-strength
concrete. Deflection ductility index /1 will be defined
here as
4 0
20
0.5
Reinforcement Ratio p ,%
Fig. 6.6-- Comparison of flexural strength Mu , of beams for

several compressive stress distributions
beams, which are not allowed by ACI 318, or for

members combining axial compression and bending,
important differences may occur. 6.33
6.2.3 Limiting compressive strain-While high-strength
concrete reaches its peak stress at a compressive strain
slightly higher than that for lower-strength concrete, the
ultimate strain is lower for high-strength concrete, both
in uniaxial compression tests and in beam tests. 6.13,6.34 It
has been suggested that this result apparently is due to
where
= beam deflection at failure load

4, = beam deflection at the load producing yielding
of tensile steel
6.34
Tests by Pastor et al of beams made of relatively highstrength concrete are summarized in Table 6.2 (Series A)
and Table 6.3 (Series B). Beams of Series A were singly
reinforced with no compression steel and no confinement
steel. The series includes beams with concrete strengths
from 3700 to 9265 psi (26 to 64 MPa). For the highstrength beams, tensile steel ratio varied from 0.29 &, to
1.11 pb where ,,b = reinforcement ratio for balanced
strain conditions.
The results show a lower ductility for the beams with
363R-35
the higher concrete strengths. Based on these results, the

second series summarized in Table 6.3 was performed.
These beams included varying amounts of compression
steel (50 to 100 percent of tensile steel area) and lateral
confinement steel in the form of closed hoops at spacing
of 3, 6, and 12 in. (7.6, 15.2, and 30.5 mm). All beams
were of high-strength concrete and comparable to Beam
A4 of the first series, which had no ties and no compression steel.
Table 6.2-Deflection ductility index for Series A
beams 6.34
Ductility
index
PmfJl = 7 for fy in psi

Y
P#&=
Table 6.3-Deflection ductility index for Series B

b e a m s 6.34
Ductility
Beam
psi
p/p,
index
WA.
Bl
8534
8605
8578
8478
8516
8466
0.57
0.55
0.57
0.59
0.56
0.58
2.36
2.64
4.88
8.32
5.61
6.14
i:
E
B6
From Beams Bl and B2, compared with Beam A4, it

can be concluded that ties at 12 in. (30.5 mm) increased
the ductility index, but not significantly. Ductility index
increased markedly when the tie spacing was reduced to
6 in. (15.2 mm) in Beams B3 and B4, but showed no upward trend when the spacing was further reduced to 3 in.
(7.6 mm).
A comparison between Beams B3 and B4 indicates a
beneficial effect in adding more compression steel, although this trend is not clearly reflected in a comparison
of Beams B5 and B6.
6.3.4 Minimum tensile steel ratios-ACI 318 sets an
upper limit on the tensile steel ratio for beams at 75
percent of the balanced ratio to insure that failure,
should it occur, will be a gradual, yielding type. A lower
limit of tensile steel ratio is set to guard against sudden
failure of very lightly reinforced beams upon concrete
cracking, when the tension formerly carried by the concrete is transferred to the steel reinforcement.
The present ACI 318 expression for minimum steel
ratio
(6.10)
is derived on the basis that the resisting moment of the

cracked section should be at least as great as the moment
that caused the member to crack, based on the modulus
of rupture. Since the latter is known to be greater for
high-strength concrete than for lower-strength concrete, 6.2,6.12 it is evident that the strength of concrete
should be included in a revised version of Eq. (6.10).
With modulus of rupture taken at 7.5 &r (0.62 q), it
can be shown that
Pmi?a
*Ratio of tension reinforcement divided by reinforcement ratio producing
balanced strain conditions.
1.7 for 4 in MPa
_ i-7 $r
2 m/ly (1.38/f,)
(6.11)
would be an appropriate equation for all concrete

strengths from 3000 to 12,000 psi (21 to 83 MPa).6.28
6.3.5 Shear and diagonal tension-In current US. practice, design for shear is based on conditions at factored
loads. The total shear resistance is made up of two parts:
Vs provided by the stirrups and Vc, nominally the concrete contribution. The nominal concrete contribution
includes, in an undefined way, the contributions of the
still uncracked concrete at the head of a hypothetical
diagonal crack, the resistance provided by aggregate
interlock along the diagonal crack face, and the dowel
resistance provided by the main reinforcing steel.
High-strength concrete loaded in uniaxial compression
fractures suddenly and, in so doing, may form a failure
surface that is smooth and nearly a plane. 6.1-6.3 This is in
contrast to the rugged failure surface characteristic of
lower-strength concrete. In beams controlled by shear
strength, the state of stress is biaxial, combining diagonal
compression in the direction from the load point to the
support with diagonal tension in the perpendicular direction. Diagonal tension cracks in high-strength concrete
beams can be expected to have a smooth surface, likely
to be deficient in aggregate interlock.
Tests confirm that aggregate interlock decreases as
concrete strength increases. Thus, a shear strength
deficiency may be produced which is not accounted for
by present design equations. Data from Frantz 6.38,6.39 at
the University of Connecticut have indicated that the calculated concrete contribution Vc is ade uate for highstrength concrete. Data byNilson 6.40,6.41 at Cornell
University indicates that current design methods are not
conservative for high strength concrete. Experimental research by Ahmad et al. 6.42,6.43 indicates that the shear
strength contribution of the concrete is conservatively
predicted by ACI 318-83 Eq. (11-3) for shear-span ratios
of 2.5 or less, but for higher ratios, more typical in
ordinary construction, and for relatively low steel ratios,
the ACI equation may be unconservative. It was further
363R-36
shown by their research that the more complex ACI 31883 Eq. (11-6) is unconservative for high-strength concrete
beams with low steel ratios. Recent research by Russell
and Roller6.37 indicates that, for beams with high flexural
steel ratios, the current ACI Code equations are safe.
The beneficial effects of high-strength concrete for prestressed beams was demonstrated, using an analysis based
on truss models, by Kaufman and Ramirez.6.44 Higher
strength concrete increases the strength of the diagonal
truss members, resulting in increased efficiency of the
web reinforcement through the mobilization of more stirrups as well as increased load-carrying capacity of the
struts themselves. Currently, no research data are available regarding the minimum requirement of web reinforcement to prevent brittle failure resulting from the
formation of a critical diagonal crack.
6.3.6 Bond, anchorage, and development lengthPresent ACI 318 methods of design for development
length and anchorage of tensile steel are based on tests,
generally using concretes with compressive strengths not
greater than about 4000 psi (28 MPa). Although some information has recently become available for high-strength
concrete, not enough data have been obtained to permit
recommendations.
6.3.7 Cracking-The modulus of rupture, which is the
appropriate measure of concrete tensile strength for use
in predicting flexural cracking load, has been reported in
Chapter 5 to be 11.7 K for normal weight concretes
with strengths in the range from 3000 to 12,000 psi (21 to
83 MPa). It thus appears that the ACI 318 value of 7.5
g is too low. However, for curing conditions such as
seven days moist curing followed by air drying, a value of
7.5 K is probably fairly close for the full strength
range. It may, therefore, be recommended with no
change. The assumption of a modulus of rupture lower
than the actual value for a flexural member is neither
conservative nor unconservative but simply results in an
inaccurate prediction of cracking load. This will result in
inaccurate estimation of both elastic and creep deflections.
The direct tensile strength is seldom measured but is
of interest in studying web-shear cracking in prestressed
concrete members, for one example. Both modulus of
rupture and tensile splitting strength of high-strength
concrete are well above the corresponding values for
lower-strength concrete. In this respect, at least, empirically derived equations for flexural shear and torsional
shear strength could be used for high-strength concrete
calculations based on the lower-strength material. However, other aspects of concern are discussed in Section
6.3.5.
6.3.8 Elastic deflections--The main uncertainties in
predicting elastic deflections of reinforced concrete
beams are (a) elastic modulus Ec; (b) modulus of rupture
fr; and (c) effective moment of inertia, which depends on
the extent of cracking of the beam.
For the elastic modulus, the following equation of
Chapter 5 may be used unless actual values of modulus

are known.
Ec = 40,000 K + 1.0 x 106 psi
(Ec = 3320 K + 6900 MPa)
(6-12)
Eq. (6.12) should be modified by the correction factor

(w/c/145)1.5 [for SI units (wc/2300)1.5 for concrete densities
other than 145 lb/ft3 (2320 kg/m 3). 6.2,6.13,6.46
The modulus of rupture has been discussed in Section
6.3.7. For prediction of deflections a value of 7.5 E
may be used to calculate the flexural cracking moment of
the beam. The eauation for effective moment of inertia
Ie included in the ACI 318 is
(6-13)
where
Mcr
Ma
Ig
Icr
cracking moment
maximum moment
= gross moment of inertia of section
= moment of inertia of cracked transformed
section
=
This provides a basis for beam deflection calculation that

appears valid for high-strength concrete as well as normal
concrete beams, based on information currently availablee 6.34,6.47,6.48
6.3.9 Time-dependent deflections-Time-dependent deflections of beams due to creep and shrinkage are
presently calculated by applying multipliers to
o computed
elastic deflections. This procedure is generally valid for
high-strength concrete members, but experimental data
indicates that the multipliers may be significantly less
because of the lower creep coefficient typical of highstrength concrete. According to ACI 318, additional longterm deflections are obtained using the following multiplier
f
1 + 5Op
where
= reinforcement ratio for nonprestressed
compression reinforcement
= time-dependent factor
The time-dependent factor is given by Fig. 6.8, taken
from ACI 318R.
Research in progress,6.47,6.48 providing an indication of
long-term multipliers and their variation with time, is
summarized in Fig. 6.9. Results are currently available up
to about 1 year loading age, and clear trends are evident,
as follows:
0 1 3 6
12
18
24
30
48
36
60
Duration of Load , months
Fig. 6.8-ACI 318R Commentary multiplier for long-time

deflections of beams
Multiplier
fc=36w psi
I
l00
200
300
0
0
Duration of Load, days
Multiplier
f;=6500 psi
I
100
200
300
Multiplier
l00
200
300
Fig. 6.9-- Multipliers for long-term deflections for different

strength concrete beams
a. For 3600 psi (2.5 MPa) concrete beams, l-year multipliers of 0.85, 0.60, and 0.50 for beams with p/p, respectively, equal to 0, 0.5, and 1.0 are less than the ACI
318 l-year values of 1.40, 1.10, and 0.80, which were
determined for lower-concrete strengths.
b. For high-strength concrete beams, deflection multipliers are still lower than the ACI 318 values. For ex-
363R-37
ample, for high-strength beams with no compression

steel, the value of 0.55 at 1 year is only 40 percent of the
ACI 318 value and 65 percent of the experimental value
for lower-strength concrete.
c. The influence of compression steel may be less important for high-strength concrete beams than for lowerstrength beams. For beams of lower-strength concrete,
addition of compression steel having an area equal to
that of the tensile steel reduces l-year deflections by 41
percent. For high-strength concrete, the beam with compression steel shows about 35 percent reduction. This
could be expected because the role of compression steel
is mainly to reduce the creep of the concrete in the compression zone under sustained loads, the high-strength
concrete with lower creep coefficient needs less help in
this respect.
Deflection measurements are continuing in the research described. Results over a longer period of time
will be available as well as information for beams with
compressive strengths fc' to 12,000 psi (83 MPa). Concrete strength should appear as a parameter in equations
to predict long-term deflections. Concrete strength not
only influences long-term deflections directly because of
the lower creep coefficient but also influences the effectiveness of compression steel.
6.3.10 Repeated Loading-With reference to Section
6.2.3, it appears that high-strength concrete, because of
its relative freedom from internal microcracking at service loads, would be more resistant to repeated loading
consisting of a large number of cycles at relatively low
stress ranges such as in bridges. If ductility is an important consideration, as is the case in seismic resistant
design, it would be important to include lateral confinement steel in the form of closed hoop stirrups as well as
compression reinforcement. While the subject has been
thoroughly studied for lower-strength concrete,6.20,6.22,6.23
little information on high-strength concrete beams subject
to repeated loads is available at this time.
6.3.11 Prestressed concrete beams-Characteristics of
high-strength concrete, discussed previously in this
chapter in the context of axially loaded members and
reinforced concrete beams, affect the behavior of prestressed concrete beams in corresponding ways. Special
mention must be made, however, of the effects of a very
low creep coefficient.
At the same concrete stress levels, time-dependent
deflection of high-strength beams will be less. On the
other hand, low concrete creep may have little effect on
prestressed beam deflections because upward creep deflection due to prestress is, in many cases, canceled by
downward creep deflection due to sustained loads. This
results in only very small net deflections associated with
all sustained loads.
For a given level of concrete stress, loss of prestress
force due to creep could be expected to be much smaller
for prestressed beams using high-strength concrete.
Higher sustained concrete stress would negate this advantage.
363R-38
6.4-Eccentric columns
6.4.1 Compressive stress distribution-It was pointed out
in discussing beams in Section 6.3.1 that the shape of the
compressive stress distribution in high-strength concrete
beams is apt to be different from that in lower-strength
concrete beams, reflecting the different shape of the
compressive stress-strain curve as shown in Fig. 6.1. For
under-reinforced concrete beams, with strength controlled by the yield strength of the reinforcement, the
actual shape of the compressive stress block used in calculation of the nominal flexural strength is of little
importance so long as the internal lever arm to the compressive resultant is close to the true value. The conventional rectangular stress block and equations for determining nominal flexural strength based on the rectangular stress block will normally be satisfactory. Overreinforced beams are not permitted according to ACI
318, and so one concludes that present procedures will
produce adequate results for all beams designed under
provisions of ACI 318, whether lower- or high-strength
concrete is used.
In the case of combined bending and axial load, i.e.,
eccentric columns, members failing in flexural compression cannot be avoided. For members with relatively low
eccentricity, failure will be initiated by the concrete
reaching its limiting strain, while the steel on the far side
of the column may be well below tensile yielding or may
remain in compression at the failure load. For such cases,
a more accurate representation of the concrete compressive stress block could be important.
6.4.2 Interaction diagram for strength of short columnsLimited analytical studies have been made of eccentric
columns comparing the predictions of the current ACI
318R Commentary approach based on the equivalent rectangular stress block, with a trapezoidal concrete stress
distribution.6.49 The general shape of the trapezoid would
vary, ranging from nearly rectangular for lower-strength
concrete to nearly triangular for very-high-strength as
discussed in Section 6.3.1. Fig. 6.10 shows a comparison
of the strength interaction diagram relating axial load
capacity Pn and flexural capacity Mn for a 14 x 14 in.
column made of 12,000 psi (83 MPa) strength concrete.
Reinforcement is provided by four No. 11 comer bars
having yield strength fy = 60,000 psi (414 MPa). Strength
under combined axial load and bending was computed
first using the conventional rectangular stress block (solid
line), then using a variable-proportioned trapezoid
(dashed line).
For relatively large eccentricities, when moment dominates and failure is initiated by tensile reinforcement
yielding, the two curves are almost indistinguishable. For
intermediate to small eccentricities, ACI 318 results in
larger values for both moment and axial force at a given
eccentricity at failure than those obtained by the more
exact calculation. Differences of up to 15 percent in the
interaction diagram relating moment to axial load have
been found based on comparative calculations.6.49
ACI 318 procedures in corporate an assumed concrete
3000
2000
Nominal Axial
Load Strength
at given
Eccentricity
P n, kips
1000
0
0
200
400
500
Nominal M o m e n t Strength Mu,ff-klp
Fig. 6.10-- Comparative interaction diagrams for highstrength concrete column

strain limit in compression of 0.003. It has been shown in
Section 6.3.2 that this is less conservative for highstrength concrete than for lower-strength concrete. In the
presence of effective lateral confinement, such as provided by continuous spirals in normal weight concrete columns, the effective strain limit is larger than this value,
and strain compatibility analysis can be based on 0.003
strain. However, there is no apparent justification for increasing limiting strain assumptions above present values.
6.4.3 Slenderness effects-The moment magnification
method for dealing with slenderness effects in reducing
the strength of reinforced concrete columns appears to
be generally valid for high-strength concrete. An exception may be in the equations for calculating effective
flexural rigidity. Two alternative equations are given in
ACI 318 for flexural rigidity, both of which include factors to account for the effect of concrete creep in an
approximate way. The validity of these equations for
high-strength concrete may at least be questioned, recognixing the significantly lower creep coefficient for highstrength concrete. No experimental information is available at this time. In addition, calculations should
incorporate estimates of Ec as given by Eq. (6-12).
6.5-Summary
6.5.1 Review-A brief summary has been given of the
special characteristics of high-strength concrete as they
bear upon the behavior and design of reinforced concrete
members and structures.
For axially loaded columns, the direct addition of concrete and steel strength contributions is generally valid,
as for lower-strength concrete members. Lateral steel
plays a particularly important role in that it is necessary
to improve ductility and toughness. Of special concern is
the sharp drop-off of load after peak stress and the

apparent diminished effectiveness of lateral steel in
increasing ductility compared with lower-strength concrete columns. Further studies are needed. High-strength
concrete columns will exhibit less shortening under load
than lower-strength concrete columns because of the
higher elastic modulus and lower creep coefficient.
For beams, use of the conventional equivalent rectangular stress block appears to give satisfactory results
for under-reinforced members required by ACI 318 procedures. The compressive strain limit is less than found
for lower-strength concrete but still may be taken at
0.003. Confinement steel and compressive steel should be
used in designing concrete beams where ductility is important as for seismic resistant structures. Changes have
been recommended for ACI 318 values for minimum tensile steel ratio to reflect the influence of concrete
strength, as well as in the modulus of elasticity to be used
in deflection calculations. Significant changes should also
be considered in the calculation of long-term beam
deflections to reflect the much lower creep coefficient
and reduced effectiveness of compression steel in the
case of high-strength concrete beams.
The calculation of eccentric column strength may be
influenced by the shape of the compressive stress block
used, particularly for columns with relatively small eccentricity with neutral axis at failure close to an edge.
Limited trial calculations comparing rectangular stress
block with trapezoidal stress block indicate only small
differences. In determining slenderness effects, special
consideration should be given to the lower creep coefficient for high-strength concrete, as it affects the
effective flexural rigidity used in the calculations, and to
improved values of modulus of elasticity.
6.5.2 Research needs-The material of Chapter 6
should be considered to be subject to revision based on
future research results. Areas in which information is
lacking include shear, diagonal tension, torsion, bond,
anchorage, development length, and the effects of repeated loading. Research programs are now in progress
in several centers that are aimed at filling some of these
gaps. In this way, the research base will be expanded so
that the many advantages of high-strength concrete may
be used safely and with confidence based on thorough
documentation of material properties and behavioral
characteristics of members.
(See also Chapter l0--References)
Slate, Floyd O., Microcracking and Engineering Properties of High-Strength Concrete, Research Report No.
80-1, Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell
University, Ithaca, Feb. 1980, 254 pp.
Slate, Floyd O., Properties of High Strength Concrete
Subject to Short-Term Loads, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 78, No. 3, May-June 1981, pp. 171-178.
393R-39
6.3. Carrasquillo, Ramon L.; Slate, Floyd 0.; and

Nilson, Arthur H., Microcracking and Behavior of High
Strength Concrete Subject to Short-Term Loading, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 78, No. 3, May-June 1981, pp.
179-186.
6.4. High Strength Concrete in Chicago High-Rise
on High-Rise Buildings, 1977, 63 pp.
6.5. Kaar, P.H.; Hanson, N.W.; and Capell, H.T.,
Stress-Strain Characteristics of High-Strength Concrete,
Development Bulletin No. RD051.01D, Portland Cement
Association.
6.6 Perenchio, William F., and Klieger, Paul, Some
6.7. Shah, S.P., Editor, Proceedings, National Science
Foundation Workshop on High Strength Concrete, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Dec. 1979, 226 pp.
6.8. Wang, P.T.; Shah, S.P.; and Naaman, A.E.,
Stress-Strain Curves of Normal and Lightweight Concrete in Compression, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 75,
No. 11, Nov. 1978, pp. 603-611.
6.9. Research Needs for High-Strength Concrete,
reported by ACI Committee 363, ACI Materials Journal,
Proceedings V. 84, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1987, pp. 559-561.
6.10. Proceedings of Symposium on Utilization of HighStrength Concrete, Stavanger, Norway, June 15-18, 1987,
Tapir Publishers, N-7034 Trondheim-NTH, Norway, 688
pp.
6.11. Nilson, A.H., Design Implications of Current
Research on High-Strength Concrete, High-Strength
Concrete, SP-87, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1985, pp. 85-118.
6.12. Martinez, S., Nilson, AH., and Slate, F.O.,
Spirally-Reinforced High-Strength Concrete Columns,
Research Report No. 82-10, Department of Structural
Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, Aug. 1982.
6.13. Martinez, S., Nilson, AH., and Slate, F.O.,
Spirally-Reinforced High-Strength Concrete Columns,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 81, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1984,
pp. 431-442.
6.14. Ahmad, S.H., and Shah, S.P., Stress-Strain
Curves of Concrete Confined by Spiral Reinforcement,
ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 79, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1982,
pp. 484-490.
6.15. Fafitis, A., and Shah, S.P., Lateral Reinforcement for High-Strength Concrete columns, HighStrength Concrete, SP-87, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1985, pp. 213-232.
6.16. Yong, Y.K., Nour, M.G., and Nawy, E.G., Behavior of Laterally-Confined High-Strength Concrete
Under Axial Loads, Journal of Structural Engineering, V.
114, No. 2, Feb. 1988, pp. 332-351.
6.17. Slate, F.O., Nilson, A.H., and Martinez, S.,
363R-40
Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Lightweight

Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 83, No. 4, JulyAug. 1986, pp. 606-613.
6.18. Vallenas, J.; Bertero, V.V.; and Popov, E.P.,
Concrete Confined by Rectangular Hoops and Subjected
to Axial Loads, Report No. UCB/EERC-77/13, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, 1977.
6.19. Sheikh, S.A. and Uzumeri, S.M., Strength and
Ductility of Tied Concrete Columns, Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, V. 106, No. ST5, May 1980, pp. 10791102.
6.20. Bennett, E.W., and Muir, S.E. St. J., Some
Fatigue Tests on High Strength Concrete in Uniaxial
Compression, Magazine of Concrete Research (London),
V. 19, No. 59, June 1967, pp. 113-117.
6.21. Ahmad, S.H., Properties of Confined Concrete
Subject to Static and Dynamic Loading, PhD thesis,
University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Mar. 1981.
6.22. Bertero, V.V.; Bresler, B.; and Liao, H.,
Stiffness Degradation of Reinforced Concrete Members
Subject to Cyclic Flexural Moments, Report No. EERC69/12, University of California, Berkeley, Dec. 1969.
6.23. Bresler, B., and Bertero, V.V., Influence of High
Strain Rate and Cyclic Loading Behavior of Unconfined
and Confined Concrete in Compression, Proceedings,
2nd Canadian Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering, McMaster University,
Hamilton, June 1975, pp. 15-1 - 15-38.
6.24. Ngab, AS.; Slate, F.O.; and NiIson, A.H.,
Behavior of High-Strength Concrete Under Sustained
Compressive Stress, Research Report No. 80-2, Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell University,
Ithaca, Feb. 1980, 201 pp.
6.25. Ngab, Ali S.; NiIson, Arthur H.; and Slate, Floyd
O., Shrinkage and Creep of High Strength Concrete,
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 78, No. 4, July-Aug. 1981,
pp. 255-261.
6.26. Ngab, Ali S.; Slate, Floyd 0.; and Nilson, Arthur
H., Microcracking and Time-Dependent Strains in HighStrength Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 78, No.
4, JuIy-Aug. 1981, pp. 262-268.
6.27. Smadi, M.M.; Slate, F.O.; and NiIson, A.H.,
Time-Dependent Behavior of High-Strength Concrete
Under High Sustained Compressive Stresses, Research
Report No. 82-16, Department of Structural Engineering,
Cornell University, Ithaca, Nov. 1982.
Shrinkage and Creep of High-, Medium-, and LowStrength Concretes, Including Overloads, ACI Materials
Journal Proceedings V. 84, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp.
224-234.
High-, Medium-, and Low-Strength Concrete Subject to
Sustained Overloads--Strains, Strengths, and Failure
Mechanisms, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 82, No. 5,
Sept.-Oct. 1985, pp. 657-664.
6.30. Russell, H.G., and Corley, W.G., Time-
Dependent Behavior of Columns in Water Tower Place,

Development Bulletin No. RD052.01B, Portland Cement
Association.
6.31. Leslie, Keith E.; Rajagopalan, K.S.; and Everard,
Noel J., Flexural Behavior of High-Strength Concrete
Beams, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 73, No. 9, Sept.
1976, pp. 517-521.
6.32. Nedderman, H., Flexural Stress Distribution in
Very-High Strength Concrete, MSc thesis, University of
Texas at Arlington, Dec. 1973, 182 pp.
6.33. Zia, Paul, Structural Design with High Strength
Concrete, Report No. PZIA-77-01, Civil Engineering
Department, North Carolina State University, Raleigh,
Mar. 1977, 65 pp.
6.34. Pastor, J.A.; NiIson, A.H.; and Slate, F.O.,
Behavior of High Strength Concrete Beams, Research
Report No. 84-3, Department of Structural Engineering,
Cornell University, Ithaca, Feb. 1984.
6.35. Wang, Pao-Tsan; Shah, Surendra P.; and
Naaman, Antoine E., High Strength Concrete in Ultimate Strength Design, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 104, ST11,
Nov. 1978, pp. 1761-1773.
6.36. Discussion of Flexural Behavior of HighStrength Concrete Beams by Keith E. Leslie, K.S.
Rajagopalan, and Noel J. Everard, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 74, No. 3, Mar. 1977, pp. 140-145.
6.37. Russell, H., and Roller, J.J., Shear Strength of
High-Strength Concrete Beams, accepted for publication
in ACI Structural Journal.
6.38. Mphonde, A.G., and Frantz G.C., Shear Tests
of High and Low Strength Concrete Beams Without
Stirrups, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 81 No. 4, JulyAug. 1984.
6.39. Mphonde, A.G., and Frantz G.C., Shear Tests
of High- and Low-Strength Concrete Beams with Stirrups, High-Strength Concrete, SP-87, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1985, pp. 179-196.
6.40. El-Zanaty, AH., Nilson, AH., and Slate, F.O.,
Shear Capacity of Prestressed Concrete Beams Using
High-Strength Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V.
83, No. 3, May-June 1986, pp. 359-368.
6.41. El-Zanaty, A.H., Nilson, A.H., and Slate, F.O.,
Shear Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using
83, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1986, pp. 290-296.
6.42. Ahmad, S.H., Khaloo, A.R., and Poveda, A.,
Shear Capacity of Reinforced High-Strength Concrete
Beams, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings, V. 83, No. 2, Mar.Apr. 1986, pp. 297-305.
6.43. Ahmad, S.H., and Lue, D.M., Flexure-Shear
Interaction of Reinforced High-Strength Concrete
Beams, ACI Structural Journal, V. 84, No. 4, July-Aug.
1987, pp. 330-341.
6.44. Kaufman, M.K., and Ramirez, J.A., Re-evaluation of the Ultimate Shear Behavior of High-Strength
363R-41
Concrete Prestressed I-Beams, ACI Structural Journal,

Proceedings V. 85, No. 3, May-June 1988, pp. 295-303.
6.45. Treece, R.A., and Jima, J.O., Bond Strength of
Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Bars, ACI Materials Journal,
V. 86, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1989.
6.46. Pauw, Adrian, Static Modulus of Elasticity of
Concrete as Affected by Density, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 57, No. 6, Dec. 1960, pp. 679-688.
6.47. Leubkeman, C.H., Nilson, A.H., and Slate, F.O.,
Sustained Load Deflection of High-Strength Concrete
Beams, Research Report No. 85-2. Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, Feb. 1985,
164 PP.
6.48. Paulson, K.A., and Nilson, A.H., Deflections of
High-Strength Concrete beams Under Sustained
Loading, Research Report (in preparation), Department
of Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca.
6.49. Garcia, D.T., and Nilson, AH., A Comparative
Study of Eccentrically Loaded High-Strength Concrete
Columns, Research Report (in preparation), Department
of Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca.
amount of reinforcing steel equal to 4 percent of the

column area for a given load, whereas the same column
in 9,000 psi would require only 1 percent steel-the
minimum allowed by code."7.3
7.2-Cost studies
The Material Service Corporation 7.4 conducted a
pricing study that dramatically demonstrated the cost
advantage of replacing percentages of steel with highstrength concrete in short tied columns. This 1983 study
was made for a column supporting a design load (1.4D
+ 1.7L) of 1000 kips (4.45 MN) and based on the following prices:
$760/ton in place
$80/yd3 in place
$85/yd3 in place
$104/yd 3 in place
$129/yd 3 in place
$280/yd 3 in place
Reinforcing steel
7000 psi concrete
9000 psi concrete
11,000 psi concrete
14,000 psi concrete
Formwork
As Fig. 7.1 shows, using high-strength concrete with a

minimum of steel is the most economical solution.
CHAPTER 7-- ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
As earlier chapters have demonstrated, high-strength

concrete is a state-of-the-art material, and like most
state-of-the-art materials, it commands a premium price.
In some instances, the benefits are well worth the additional effort and expense; in others they are not. Before
the cost/benefit trade-offs in specific applications are
discussed, the economic considerations regarding the use
of high-strength concrete generally will be examined.
In many areas and for many uses, the benefits of highstrength concrete more than compensate for the increased costs of raw materials and quality control.
Basically, high-strength concrete will carry a compression
load at less cost than any lower-strength concrete.7.1
Chicago-based structural engineers William Schmidt and
Edward S. Hoffman compiled charts indicating the cost
of supporting 100,000 lb (445 kN) of service load comes
to $5.02 per story with 6000 psi (41 MPa) concrete, $4.21
with 7500 psi (52 MPa), and drops to $3.65 with 9000 psi
(62 MPa) concrete (which the authors report they had no
difficulty obtaining in the Chicago area).7.2
While the figures reflect 1975 costs, the ratio should
remain similar. The reason for these economies is that,
although the concrete itself is more costly than lowerstrength mixtures, the cost differential is offset by significant reduction in the given member size. This capability is particularly attractive for use in columns.
Since column size is so important for architectural and
rental reasons, the ability to limit the sixes for taller
structures often allows the use of a concrete solution in
lieu of one of structural steel.
In 1976, Architectural Record noted that ". . . a 30 x
30-in. column of 6,000 psi concrete might require an
30
Compressive Strength , MPa

60
80
I
I
Cost of 40 x 40 in.
Column per Foot of 20 Length per 1000
kips of Design Load
(1.4 D
+l.7L), $
10 _
0,
6
1
8
I
IO
I
12
14
Compressive Strength , ksi
Fig. 7.1-- Cost of columns

7.3-Case histories
Two examples might help translate this savings into
actual dollars.
7.3.1 Case history No. 1-In 1968, Philadelphias first
high-rise office building using 6000 psi (41 MPa) concrete
was designed. To meet the span requirements [approximately 30 ft (9m) square bays] while avoiding unacceptable oversized columns on the lower floors, the columns
of the first three floors were built of structural steel.
However, a comparison study made by the designing engineers for 8000 psi (55 MPa) concrete showed that
7.3.1.1- With the same column sixes as the original
unacceptable sixes, a 60 percent reduction in reinforcing
steel with the 8000 psi (55 MPa) concrete would have
been made. This would also have resulted in 24 fewer
splices per column, a side benefit in labor and time cost
savings.
7.3.12- With the same amount of reinforcing used
363R-42
as in the original column, the column size could have

been reduced from 36 x 46 in. (915 x 1170 mm) to 30 x
30 in. (760 x 760 mm). This size would have been acceptable to the architect and owner and would have
eliminated the need for an additional trade-structural
steel-on the job.
Rough calculations show that 8000 psi (55 MPa) concrete for the lower-floor columns with a stepped strength
reduction, as the building reached the upper floors, to
3000 psi (21 MPa) concrete at the top would have resulted in a column size that met the demands of the architect, owner, and rental agent. This would have saved
close to $530,000 in 1968 dollars.
7.3.2 Case history No. 2-- The economies of highstrength concrete were more dramatically demonstrated
in the construction of New York Citys first building
using 8000 psi (55 MPa) concrete, The Palace Hotel built
in 1979. The building was originally conceived using
structural steel for the lower floors, designated for
ballroom and restaurant functions, with a reinforced
concrete superstructure for the hotel facilities. However,
the engineers were able to convert the entire design,
except for two columns on the lowest four levels, to
reinforced concrete through the use of 8000 psi (55 MPa)
concrete. These ballroom and restaurant areas required
large column spacing. The common limitations of 6000
psi (41 MPa) concrete would have made the columns
prohibitively large and uneconomical. A presentation to
the New York City Building Department about the values of high-strength concrete, together with the proposed
controls to insure quality, resulted in its acceptance for
use in New York.
Concrete with compressive strengths of 8000 and 7000
psi (55 and 48 MPa) was used in the columns of the
building only. Lightweight concrete with compressive
strength of 3500 psi (24 MPa) was used for floor slabs,
and 5000 to 6000 psi (34 to 41 MPa) concrete was used
in wall construction. On the lower five levels of the hotel,
column sixes were reduced by approximately 25 percent.
Approximately 10 percent less reinforcing steel was used
because of the strength of the concrete. In addition, No.
11 reinforcing bars remained a viable size, avoiding the
need for mechanical connections between the reinforcing
bars, thus considerably reducing the floor-framing time
requirements. Further economies were realized by minimixing changes in column sixes and reducing column
reinforcement on the upper floors.
The ability to reduce the amount of costly reinforcing
steel without sacrificing strength is an attractive benefit
to owners, builders, and engineers, but the use of highstrength concrete in building columns has a corollary
economic benefit. It enables the lower floors of high-rise
buildings to maintain an acceptable column size, while at
the same time increasing the number of possible
stories7.1
This is a case of a relatively new material meeting the
needs of market economics. The Chicago Committee
study7. 5 noted The potential number of stories in
high-rise buildings is limited by the required large

columns if they were to be built with ordinary lowstrength concrete. Real estate properties in prime locations had to be developed with maximum rental floor
area. Architectural layout of apartment or condominium
units demanded flexibility, which is restricted by large
columns. High-strength concrete satisfied this condition
by allowing column sixes to be reduced to a minimum.
7.4-Other studies
In Ontario, Canada, the Richmond-Adelaide Centers
use of high-strength concrete columns enabled the architect to increase the use of the underground parking
garage by approximately 30 percent.7.6 In times when all
building construction is difficult to capitalize, a material
that both reduces construction costs and substantially
increases the amount of revenue-gathering space within
a building can be a tremendous factor in the decision to
build.
7.5-Selection of materials
The economic consequences of requiring fly ash may
vary. On The Royal Bank Plaza Project in Ontario, Canada, a 43-story building constructed from 1973-1976 (one
of the first to use fly ash in high-strength concrete), all of
the various strength concrete mixtures on the project
were converted to local fly ash. This resulted in a saving
of approximately $100,000 over the contract and produced concretes with extremely good fresh and hardened
properties. 7.6
The Scotia Plaza-A 68-story building in Toronto,
Canada, constructed in 1988--is one of the first buildings
to employ the use of silica fume in concrete as an element in increasing strength. Strengths of up to 10,000 psi
have been achieved. Two Union Square in Seattle employs 19,000-psi concrete containing silica fume-the
highest strength used to date in a conventional building.
7.6-Quality control
While selection of materials will influence costs, another factor, and one more exclusively the result of the
use of high-strength concrete, is the cost of the increased
testing, quality control, and inspection that the use of
high-strength concrete requires. The quality and consistency of the concrete is crucial, and additional steps must
be taken to insure that quality and consistency.
In the Royal Bank Plaza Project, a number of precautions were necessary. The supplier had to have a quality
control person at the site to control both the scheduling
of trucks and the consistency of the concrete at the time
it was delivered. For this central plant project, the supplier agreed that there would be no water added to the
trucks after they had come onto the site and that any
minor adjustments would be made prior to sending the
truck to the site. Regular visits were made to the batch
plant to check batching procedures and to obtain the test
samples. Furthermore, a full-time technician was employed to carry out sampling and testing on site. This was
found to be an essential feature of quality control.

On a later project, Richmond-Adelaide Center, Phase
II, Ontario, Canada, 1977-1979, by the same engineers,
not only did the supplier maintain full-time inspection on
the site to insure that the delivered material met requirements but the engineers employed by the owner also
maintained full-time inspection and regularly inspected
the batch plant. Often this type of stringent quality
control is required by regulation. For The Palace Hotel,
the New York City Building Department stipulated that
at least two suppliers of concrete prequalify the concrete
mixtures to strengths up to 8000 psi (55 MPa). The prequalification was to be performed by an independent
testing laboratory, and a full-time professional engineer
would be required to continuously inspect the progress of
the work, performing no other work during the construction.7.7 For hot weather concreting, the engineers required mixing water limited to no more than 50 F (10 C)
and the truck drums to be hosed down if standing in
direct sunlight. Further, all trucks were limited to 10 yd 3
(7.6 m 3) loads, despite capacities of 16 yd3(12.2 m3 ).
While the professional inspection does add to cost, the
continuing education of the suppliers and concrete subcontractors in the areas of quality control should ultimately create better concretes of all strengths and result
in better and more economical use of materials.
363R-43
premium material such as high-strength concrete for

slabs or beams.
Long-span bridges are another area where the qualities of high-strength concrete are proving themselves
economically attractive. High-strength concretes comparatively greater compressive strength per unit weight
and unit volume allows lighter, more slender bridge piers.
This provides improved horizontal clearances. In addition, the increased stiffness of high-strength concrete is
advantageous when deflections or stability govern the
bridge design. Increased tensile strength of high-strength
concrete is helpful in service load design in prestressed
concrete. 7.9
In bidding to build a cable-stayed bridge across the
Ohio River, a concrete deck proposal beat steel by 29
percent-roughly $10 million. The two-lane crossing between Huntington, West Virginia, and Proctorville, Ohio,
includes the first major asymmetrical stayed-girder structure in the United States. The bridge has a main span of
900 feet over one pier. The three bids to construct the
bridge using concrete ranged from $23.5 million to $29.7
million, all well below the lowest steel bid ($33.3 million).
The designer, Arvid Grant Associates, specified box girders only 5 ft (1.5 m) deep cast of 8000 psi (55 MPa)
high-strength concrete.7.8
7.8-Conclusion
7.7-Areas of application
In general, the economic advantages of high-strength
concrete are most readily realized when the concrete is
used in the columns of high-rise buildings. In this application, engineers may take full advantage of its increased
compressive strength: reducing the amount of steel, reducing column size to increase usable floor space, or allowing additional stories without detracting from lower
floors. These benefits overshadow the increased quality
control costs and possible higher cost of raw materials
discussed earlier. Yet the use of high-strength concrete
has also spread to other applications, primarily slabs,
beams, and long-span bridges. The economic considerations of these uses should also be examined.
Parking garages, bridge decks, and other installations
requiring improved density, lower permeability, and increased resistance to freeze-thaw and corrosion have
become prime candidates for consideration of the use of
high-strength materials.
The primary advantage of high-strength concrete in
slabs is the resulting reduction in dead load.7.8 However,
as Schmidt and Hoffman point out, significant economies
can be achieved only by reducing the thickness that is
required for stiffness; the additional reinforcement
required may offset the concrete savings. Used for rectangular beams, T-beams, and one-way slabs, highstrength concrete yields reduced section width or thickness and allows for longer spans, but (as with slabs) less
expensive lightweight concrete continues to perform this
job satisfactorily. Presently, there is no economic justification, under normal circumstances, for the use of a
The economic benefits of high-strength concrete are

just now becoming fully apparent. Certainly as the use of
high-strength concrete increases, additional and possibly
even greater benefits will be realized. In any case, those
projects that have led the way in the use of high-strength
concrete have clearly demonstrated its economic advantages. For now, it allows the profession to engineer most
cost effectively and space effectively. In the future, those
considerations may tip the balance on whether certain
projects are constructed at all.
(See also Chapter 10--References)

7.1. High Strength Concrete--Costs More in the
Truck, Costs Less in the Structure, PCA Concrete Technology Today, No. 4, Dec. 1980, p. 3.
7.2. Schmidt, William, and Hoffman, Edward S.,
9,000-psi Concrete-Why?, Why Not?, Civil Engineering
-ASCE, V. 45, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 52-55.
7.3. High-Strength Concrete Allows Bigger Loads on
Smaller Columns, Architectural Record, V. 159, No. 7,
June 1976, pp. 133-135.
7.4. Private correspondence from J. Moreno of
Material Service Corp. to Irwin G. Cantor, May 12, 1983.
7.6. Bickley, John A., and Payne, John C., High
Strength Cast-in-Place Concrete in Major Structures in
363R-44
7.7. Private correspondence from J. T. Walsh, Department of Buildings, New York, to Irwin G. Cantor, Aug.
11, 1977.
7.8. Concrete Beats Steel by 29%, Engineering
News-Record, V. 206, May 14, 1981, p. 16.
7.9. Carpenter, James E., Applications of High
Strength Concrete for Highway Bridges, Public Roads,
V. 44, No. 2, Sept. 1980, pp. 76-83.
CHAPTER 8-APPLICATIONS
Some specific applications of high-strength concrete

are described in this chapter. Separate sections describe
applications in buildings, bridges, and special structures.
The applications are not all-inclusive but demonstrate a
range of applications of high-strength concrete. Some potential applications for high-strength concrete are also
discussed.
8.2-Buildings
The largest application of high-strength concrete in
buildings has been for columns of high-rise structures.
The history of high-strength concrete columns in the
Chicago area has been described in Task Force Report
No.58.1 of the Chicago Committee on High-Rise Buildings. Since 1972, more than 30 buildings in the Chicago
area have been constructed with columns having a design
compressive strength of 9000 psi (62 MPa). The development of concrete for use in two buildings in Toronto has
been reported by Bickley and Payne. 8.2 Other applications have been reported in New York,8.3 Houston, 8.4,8.5
Minneaplis,8.6 Melbourne, Australia,8.7 Dallas, 8.25 and
Seattle.8.26 Information obtained from these and other
sources is summarized in Table 8.1.
8.3-Bridges
There have been many applications of high-strength

concrete in precast prestressed bridge girders. However,
published information on actual structures is limited.
Table 8.1-- Buildings with high-strength concrete
Total
Building
S.E. Financial center
Petrocanada Building
Lake Point Tower
1130 S. Michigan Ave.
Texas Commerce Tower
Helmsley Palace Hotel
Trump Tower
City Center Project
Collins Place
Larimer Place Condominium
499 Park Avenue
Royal Bank Plaza
Richmond-Adelaide Center
Midcontinental Plaza
Water Tower Place
River Plaza
Chicago Mercantile Exchange
Columbia Center
Interfirst Plaza
Eugene Terrace
311 S. Wacker Drive
900 N. Michigan Annex
Two Union Square
225 W. Wacker Drive
Scotia Plaza
Location
Miami
Calgary
Chicago
Chicago
Houston
New York
New York
Minneapolis
Melbourne
Denver
New York
Toronto
Toronto
Chicago
Chicago
Chicago
Chicago
Seattle
Dallas
Chicago
Chicago
Chicago
Seattle
Chicago
Toronto
Year*
1982
1982
1965
1981
1978
1981
1980
1975
1978
1972
1975
1976
1982
1983
1983
1987
1988
1986
1987
1988
1988
* Year in which high-strength concrete was cast.
t Avo experimental columns of 11,000 psi strength were included.

$ Two experimental columns of 14,000 psi strength were included.
~9,CN~psiakousedhflowskbroflowerkvek.
l * 19,000 psi indirectly specified to achieve a high modulus of elasticity.
53
34
70
75
53
68
52
44
31
27
43
33
50
79
56
40
76
72
44
70
15
62
30
68
Maximum
design
concrete
strength,
psi
7000
7250
7500
7500
7500
8000
8000
8000
8000
8000
8500
8800
8800
9000
9000
9Qw
g@m
9500
10,000
11,000
12,000 ss
14,000
14,000**
14,000
10,000
363R-45
Table 8.2-- Bridges with high-strength concrete
Year
San Diego to Coronado

8.13
Linn Cove Viaduct
Pasco-Kennewick Intercity
Coweman River Bridges 8.14
Huntington to Proctorville
Annicis Bridge
Nitta Highway Bridge
Kaminoshima Highway Bridge
Tower Road
Fukamitsu Highway Bridge
Ootanabe Railway Bridge
Akkagawa Railway Bridge
California
I North Carolina
Washington
Washington
W. Va. to Ohio
British Columbia
Japan
Japan
Washington
Japan
Japan
Japan
Maximum
span, ft
158
750
140
1967
1981
1969
1979
1978
981
1984
146
900
1986
1968
1970
1987
1974
1973
1976
180
1526
98
282
161
85
79
150
Maximum
design
concrete
strength,
psi
6,000
6,000
6,000 L*
6,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
8,000
8,500
8,500
9,000
10,000
11,400
11,400
* Lightweight concrete
Metric equivalent: 100 psi = 6.895 MPa
The effect of using high-strength concrete in four

different solid-section girders has been described by
Carpenter. 8.8 For integral deck bulb tees, span capability
for closely spaced girders increased with increase in
concrete strength. For wider spaced girders, capability
increased when concrete strength was increased up to
8000 psi (55 MPa). Above 8000 psi (55 MPa) compressive strength, span capability did not increase because
sufficient prestress forces could not be provided. Similar
results were obtained for other cross sections.
For post-tensioned box girder bridges, Carpenter reported that high-strength concrete can be used to increase span capability. However, for higher-strength concretes, maximum available prestress force again limited
maximum spans. For segmental box girder bridges, he
showed that high-strength concrete is feasible in regions
where member thickness is controlled by stress. However,
where thickness is controlled by other factors, highstrength concrete may not be beneficial.
Some actual bridges in which the use of high-strength
concrete has been reported are listed in Table 8.2. Perhaps the most significant application in the United States
is the Huntington, West Virginia, to Proctorville, Ohio,
crossing for which a compressive strength of 8000 psi (55
MPa) was specified.8.9 The bridge consists of an asymmetrical stayed-girder superstructure with a main span of
900 ft (274 m).
The use of concrete with compressive strengths up to
11,000 psi (76 MPa) in railway bridges in Japan has also
been reported. 8.10,8.11 Nagataki8.11 reports that strengths
of 11,400 psi (79 MPa) can be easily obtained in the field
in Japan.
8.4-Special applications
In 1948, concrete with a specified compressive strength

of 9000 psi (62 MPa) was used for precast panels for a
powerhouse at Fort Peck Dam, Montana. High-strength
concrete was specified to provide an extremely dense
concrete that would withstand the harsh exposure. Actual

compressive strengths of concrete were reported 8.15 to be
considerably higher than 9000 psi (62 MPa).
The use of 10,000 psi (69 MPa) concrete for prestressed concrete poles produced by spinning has been
described by Skrastins8.16 m 1970. High-strength concrete
was selected to reduce the size of the poles.
Copen 8.17 has indicated that the use of 10,000 psi (69
MPa) concrete in thin arch dams would usually result in
greater economy through reduced volume of concrete.
High-strength concrete would tend to reduce deflections
in a dam and may improve strength of construction joints
and permit earlier removal of formwork. Disadvantages
of high-strength concrete listed by Copen include development of stress concentrations, particularly in the
foundation for the dam; tendency toward more cracking
in concrete; increased temperature control problems; and
complications involved with openings through the dam
and railways over the dam.
The application of high-strength concrete in two
grandstand roofs has been described by Bobrowski8.18
Lightweight concrete with a density of 118 lb/ft3 (1.89
Mg/m 3) and a minimum cube strength of 7500 psi (52
MPa) at 28 days was used in the roof beams at Doncaster racecourse, England. Roof beams at Leopardstown
racecourse, Ireland, had 28 day cube compressive
strengths between 7200 and 8850 psi (50 and 61 MPa)
and an average density of 115 lb/ft3 (1.84 Mg/m3).
Anderson has reported8.19 the use of high-strength
concrete in piles for marine foundations in northwestern
United States. Measured 28 day compressive strengths
ranged between 7900 and 9900 psi (55 to 68 MPa). Highstrength concretes with compressive strengths up to 9400
psi (65 MPa) have also been used for decks of dock
structures in the northwestern United States.
In 1984, the Glomar Beaufort Sea I8.27 was placed in
the arctic, This exploratory drilling structure contains
about 12,000 yd3 (9200 m3) of high-strength lightweight
363R-46
Table 8.3-- Corrosion resistance data for selected high-strength concrete (data from reference 8.29)
(psi)
Strength
(mpa)
5,160
7,360
8,580
9,290
12,120
35.6
50.8
59.2
64.1
83.6
hficrosilicat
(wt. %)
0
15
15
8
15
Chloride
Permeability*
(Coulombs)
3,663
198
98
132
75
Electrical
Resistivity
(ohm.cm)
8
95
118
74
161
18 month Corrosion Data

%orl~
4
( pohm/cm)
(mv)
-456
22
-26
4
-53
4
-3
1
+53
4
t By weight of portland cement.

* Measured by AASHTO-T-227 rapid chloride permeability tat at 28 days age.
$ Corrosion potential measured with respect to a copper sulfate reference electrode.
Q F$ is the polarization current; its reciprocal is a measure of the rate of corrosion.
concrete with unit weights of about 112 lb/ft 3 (1794

kg/m3) with 56-day compressive strength of 9000 psi (62
MPa) and about 6500 yd3 (5000 m3) of high-strength normal-weight concrete with unit weights of about 145 lb/ft3
(2323 kg/m3) and 56-day compressive strengths of about
10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Field placements of high-strength, low-permeability,
and chemical-resistant concretes for industrial manufacturing applications were reported by Wolsiefer.8.20 Special applications have included several modular bank
vaults placed at slumps of 9 in. (230 mm) with measured
compressive strengths of 12,000 psi (83 MPa) at 45 days.
The protection of reinforcing steel from corrosion can
be expected to be enhanced when high-strength concrete
is used. The resultant low porosity should increase the
electrical resistivity and reduce the rate at which oxygen
reaches the steel, both of which will reduce corrosion
rates. Moreover, the ease with which chloride ions from
deicing salts can reach the steel and initiate corrosion is
also reduced.
Although there are many studies evaluating the corrosion of steel embedded in regular strength concrete, no
systematic studies in the influence of concrete strength
appear to have been reported. Published data for highstrength concrete can be extracted from studies investigating other factors, particularly the influence of silica
fume. The conclusions obtained with regular concretes
are also applicable to high-strength concrete: namely,
there is an increase in electrical resistivity 8.28,8.29 and a
reduction in chloride permeability 8.29,8.30 with increased
strength. Data linking these parameters with laboratory
corrosion data are given in Table 8.3. The corrosion behavior of a very high-strength mortar has also been reported.8.31 Useful discussions regarding the factors affecting the corrosion of steel in concretes with silica fume
are to be found in references.8.31,8.32,8.33
8.5-- Potential applications
Most applications of high-strength concrete have used

the strength property of the material. However, highstrength concrete may possess other characteristics that
could be used advantageously in concrete structures.
LeMessurier 8.21 proposed the use of high-strength concrete to satisfy the need for a high modulus of elasticity.
Similarly, high-strength concrete can be used in slabs to
allow early removal of formwork and avoid reshoring.8.22
This takes advantage of both the high modulus of elasticity and lower creep of high-strength concrete. Anderson 8.19 had suggested that the low creep of high-strength
concrete should be taken into account when considering
prestress losses. Since most of the prestress loss is attributable to creep and shrinkage, prestress losses for
high-strength concrete members should be less than for
lower-strength concrete members.
Rabbat and Russell 8.23 have reported that the maximum span capability of solid-section girders can be increased by 15 percent when the concrete compressive
strength is increased from 5000 to 7000 psi (34 to 48
MPa). Finally, Manning 8.24 has suggested that the relationship between high-strength concrete and high-quality
concrete may make high-strength concrete attractive not
for its strength but for its long-term service performance.
More recently, high-strength concrete has been specified for applications in warehouses, foundries, parking
garages, bridge deck overlays, dam spillways, and heavy
duty industrial floors. In these applications, high-strength
concrete is being used to provide a concrete with improved resistance to chemical attack, better abrasion resistance, improved freeze-thaw durability, and reduced
permeability.
8.2. Bickley, John A., and Payne, John C., HighStrength Cast-in-Place Concrete in Major Structures in
8.3. New York City Gets Its First High-Strength
Concrete Tower, Engineering News-Record, V. 202, Nov.
2, 1978, p. 22.
8.4. Pickard, Scott S., Ruptured Composite Tube
Design for Houstons Texas Commerce Tower, Concrete

International: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 7, July
1981, pp. 13-19.
8.5. Cook, James E., Research and Application of
High-Strength Concrete Using Class C Fly Ash, Concrete
International Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 7, July
1982, pp. 72-80.
8.6. Venema, T.P., and Regnier, H.J., Placement,
Batching, and Tests of High Strength Concrete for
Minneapolis City Center Project, submitted to ACI for
publication.
8.7. Day, K.W., Quality Control of 55 MPa Concrete
for Collins Place Project, Melbourne, Australia, Concrete
International Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 3, Mar.
1981, pp. 17-24.
8.8. Carpenter, James E., Applications of High
Strength Concrete for Highway Bridges, Public Roads,
V. 44, No. 2, Sept. 1980, pp. 76-83.
8.9. Concrete Beats Steel by 29%, Engineering
News-Record, V. 206, May 14, 1981, p. 16.
8.10. Stronger Concrete, EngineeringNews-Record, V.
189, June 8, 1982, p. 12.
8.11. Nagataki, Shigeyoshi, On the Use of Superplasticizers, Seminar on Special Concretes, 8th FIP Congress
(London, 1978), Federation Intenationale de la Precontrainte, Wexham Springs, 1978, 15 pp.
8.12. Concrete Box Girder Span Establishes U.S.
Record, Engineering News-Record, V. 208, No. 1, Jan. 7,
1982, pp. 22-25.
8.13. Pfeifer, Donald W., Development of the Concrete Technology for a Precast Prestressed Concrete
Segmental Bridge, Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 27, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1982, pp. 78-99.
8.14. Hurlbut, Roger, 146-ft Long Precast Prestressed
Bridge Girders in Washington State, Journal, Prestressed
Concrete Institute, V. 24, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1979, pp. 8892.
8.15. Unusual Strengths Attained in Precast Slabs
Used for Facing Power House Walls, Concrete, V. 57,
No. 5, May 10, 1949, pp. 9-10.
8.16. Skrastins, Janis I., Toward High-Strength Concrete, Modern Concrete, V. 34, No. 1, May 1970, pp. 4448.
8.17. Copen, Merlin D., Problems Attending Use of
Higher Strength Concrete in Thin Arch Dams, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 72, No. 4, Apr. 1975, pp. 138
140.
8.18. Bobrowski, J., and Bardham-Roy, B.K., Structural Assessment of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete,
Concrete (London), V. 5, No. 7, July 1971, pp. 229-234.
8.19. Anderson, Arthur R., Research Answers Needed
for Greater Utilization of High Strength Concrete,
Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 25, No. 4,
July-Aug. 1960, pp. 162-164.
8.20. Wolsiefer, John, Ultra High-Strength Field
Placeable Concrete with Silica Fume Admixtures, Con-
363R-47
crete International Design & Construction, V. 6, No. 4,

Apr. 1984, pp. 25-31.
8.21. Fischer, R.E., Round Table--Concrete in Architecture: A Current Assessment, Architectural Record,
Nov. 1982.
8.22. Nilson, AH., Structural Design Considerations
for High Strength Concrete, Proceedings, National
Science Foundation Workshop on High Strength Concrete, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Dec. 1979.
8.23. Rabbat, Basile G., and Russell, Henry G., Optimized Sections for Precast, Prestressed Bridge Girders,
Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 27, No. 4,
July-Aug. 1982, pp. 88-104.
8.24. Young, F.J., and Russell, H.G., Session V-Summary of Floor Discussion, Proceedings, National
Science Foundation Workshop on High Strength Concrete, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Dec. 1979.
8.25. Tower Touches Few Bases, Engineering NewsRecord, V. 210, No. 24, June 16, 1983, pp. 24-25.
8.26 Godfey, K.A., Jr., Concrete Strength Record
Jumps 36%, Civil Engineering, V. 57, No. 10, Oct. 1987,
pp. 84-88.
8.27. Fiorato, A.E., Person, A, and Pfeifer, D.W.,
The First Large-Scale Use of High Strength Lightweight
Concrete in the Arctic Environment, Second Symposium
on Artic Offshore Drilling Platforms, Houston, Texas, Apr.
1984.
8.28. Vennesland. O., and Gjorv, O.E., Silica Concrete-- Protection Against Corrosion of Embedded Steel,
Fly Ash, Silica Fume and Other Mineral By-Products in
Concrete, ACI SP-79, V. 2, 1983, pp. 719-730.
8.29. Burke, N.S., and Weil, T.G., Corrosion Protection Through the Use of Concrete Admixtures, Supplementary Paper, Proceedings, 2nd International Conference on Performance of Concrete in the Marine Environment, St. Andrews-by-the-Sea, New Brunswick, Aug.
1988.
8.30. Preece, C.M., Frolund, T., and Bager, D.H.,
Chloride Ion Diffusion in Low Porosity Silica Cement
Paste, Condensed Silica Fume in Concrete, Report BML
82.610, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim,
1982, pp. 51-58.
8.31. Preece, C.M., Frolund, T., and Bager, D.H.,
Electrochemical Behavior of Steel in Dense SilicaCement Mortar, Fly Ash, Silica Fume and Other Mineral
By-Products in Concrete, ACI SP-79, V. 2, 1983, pp. 785796.
8.32. Fidjestol, P., Reinforcement Corrosion and the
Use of CSF-Based Additives, Concrete Durability, ACI
SP-100, V. 2, 1987, pp. 1445-1458.
8.33. Scali, M.J., Chin, D., and Burke, N.S., Effect of
Microsilica and Fly Ash Upon the Microstructure and
Permeability of Concrete, Proceedings, Ninth International Conference on Cement Microscopy, International Cement Microscopy Association, Texas, 1987, pp. 375397.
363R-48
CHAPTER 9-- SUMMARY
The objective of this report was to present state-ofthe-art information on concrete with strengths in excess
of about 6000 psi (41 MPa) but not including concrete
made using exotic materials or techniques. This section
of the report presents a summary of the material contained in the previous chapters.
All materials for use in high-strength concrete must be
carefully selected using all available techniques to insure
uniform success. Items to be considered in selecting materials include cement characteristics, aggregate size, aggregate strength, particle shape and texture, and the effects of set-controlling admixtures, water reducers, silica
fume, and pozzolans. Trial mixtures are essential to insure that required concrete strengths will be obtained
and that all constituent materials are compatible.
Mix proportions for high-strength concrete generally
have been based on achieving a required compressive
strength at a specified age. Depending on the appropriate
application, a specified age other than 28 days has been
used. Factors included in selecting concrete mix proportions have included availability of materials, desired
workability, and effects of temperature rise. All materials
must be optimized in concrete mix proportioning to
achieve maximum strength. High-strength concrete mixes
have usually used high cement contents, low watercement ratios, normal weight aggregate, and chemical
and pozzolanic admixtures. Required strength, specified
age, material characteristics, and type of application have
strongly influenced mix design. High-strength concrete
mix proportioning has been found to be a more critical
process than the proportioning of lower-strength concrete
mixes. Laboratory trial batches have been required in
order to generate necessary data on mix design. In many
cases, laboratory mixes have been followed by field production trial batches.
Batching, mixing, transporting, placing, and control
procedures for high-strength concrete are not essentially
different from procedures used for lower-strength concretes. However, special attention is required to insure a
high-strength uniform material. Special consideration
should be given to minimizing the length of time between
concrete batching and final placement in the forms. Delay in concrete placement can result in a subsequent loss
of long-term strength or difficulties in concrete placement. Special attention should also be paid to the testing
of high-strength concrete cylinders since any deficiency
will result in an apparent lower strength than that actually achieved by the concrete. Items deserving specific
attention include manufacture, curing, and capping of
control specimens for compressive strength measurements; characteristics of testing machines; type of mold
used to produce specimens; and age of testing. In many
instances, strength measurements at early ages have been
made even though the compressive strength has not been
specified until 56 or 90 days.
Some research data have indicated that the modulus
of elasticity of high-strength concrete is lower than would

have been predicted from data on lower-strength concretes. However, values of Poissons ratio appear to be in
the expected range, based on lower-strength concretes.
The modulus of rupture for high-strength concretes is
higher than would have been anticipated. However, the
tensile splitting strength values appear to be consistent
with lower-strength concretes. Unit weight, specific heat,
diffusivity, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion have been found to fall generally within
the usual range for lower-strength concretes. Highstrength concrete has shown a higher rate of strength
gain at early ages as compared to lower-strength concrete, but at later ages the difference is not significant.
Information on creep and shrinkage of high-strength concrete has indicated that the shrinkage is similar to that
for lower-strength concrete. However, specific creep is
much less for high-strength concretes than for lowerstrength concretes.
In the area of structural design, it has been found that
axially loaded columns with high-strength concrete can be
designed in the same way as lower-strength columns. It
has also been identified that high-strength concrete columns exhibit less shortening under load than lowerstrength columns because of the higher modulus of elasticity and lower creep coefficients. For beams, use of the
conventional equivalent rectangular stress block appears
to give satisfactory results for under-reinforced concrete
members. The compressive strain limit of 0.003 appears
to be acceptable. However, changes have been recommended for present code values for minimum tensile
steel ratio, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity,
shear strength, and development length. Changes are also
needed in the area of calculating long-term beam deflections.
The economic advantages of using high-strength concrete in the columns of high-rise buildings have been
clearly demonstrated by applications in many cities. The
ability to reduce the amount of reinforcing steel in
columns without sacrificing strength and to keep, the
columns to an acceptable size has been an economic
benefit to owners of high-rise buildings. Consequently,
concrete with compressive strengths in excess of 6000 psi
(41 MPa) has been used in the columns of high-rise
buildings in cities throughout North America. Studies
have also indicated advantages in the use of high-strength
concrete in long-span concrete bridges. However, this application has yet to be fully implemented. There have
also been applications where high-compressive-strength
concrete has been needed to satisfy special local requirements. These have included dams, prestressed concrete poles, grandstand roofs, marine foundations,
parking garages, bridge deck overlays, heavy duty industrial floors, and industrial manufacturing applications.
Although high-strength concrete is often considered a
relatively new material, it is becoming accepted in more
parts of North America as shown by the many examples
of its usage. At the same time, material producers are
responding to the demands for the material and are

learning production techniques. As with many developments of new materials, research data supporting the
growth has also increased. However, the need for
additional research has been documented in ACI 363.1R.
Some research projects are underway to satisfy these
needs. However, further work is needed to fully use the
advantages of high-strength concrete and to affirm its
capabilities. This report has documented existing
knowledge of high-strength concrete so that the direction
for future development may be ascertained.
CHAPTER 10-REFERENCES
10.1-Recommended references
The documents of the various standards-producing organizations referred to in this document are listed below
with their serial designation.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
Quality of Water to be Used in Concrete
T-26
American Concrete Institute
116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
20l.lR Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
212.2R Guide for Use of Admixtures in Concrete
214
Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
Strength Test Results of Concrete
304
Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and
Placing Concrete
304.4R Placing Concrete with Belt Conveyors
305R Hot Weather Concreting
308
Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
309
318
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete
318R Commentary on Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete
American Society for Testing and Materials
Standard Method of Making and Curing ConC 31
crete Test Specimens in the Field
Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 33
C 39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed ConC 94
crete
C 109 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
of Hydraulic Cement, Mortars (using 2 in. or
50 mm cube specimens)
C 143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Portland
Cement Concrete
393R-49
C 150
C 192
Standard Specification for Portland Cement

Standard Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory
C 260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining
Admixtures for Concrete
C 311 Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing Fly
Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures
for Concrete
C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic
Cements
C 618 Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or
Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 684 Standard Method of Making, Accelerated
Curing, and Testing of Concrete Compression
Test Specimens
C 917 Standard Method for Evaluation of Cement
Strength Uniformity from a Single Source
C 989 Standard Specification for Ground Iron BlastFurnace Slag for use in Cement and Mortars
E 329 Standard Recommended Practice for Inspection
and Testing Agencies for Concrete, Steel, and
Bituminous Materials as Used in Construction
Canadian Standards Association
A 266.5-M1981 Guidelines for the Use of Superplasticizing Admixtures in Concrete
Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau
Concrete Plant Manufacturers Standards of the Plant
Mixer Manufacturers Division
The above publications may be obtained from the following organizations:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
333 N Capitol St. N.W.
Suite 225
Washington, D.C. 20001
American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 48219
American Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
Canadian Standards Association
178 Rexdale Blvd.
Rexdale, Ont.
Canada M9W 1R3
363R-50
ACI COMMlTTEE
Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau

900 spring St.
Silver Spring, Md. 20910
10.2-- Cited references
Cited references are provided at the end of each
chapter.
10.3-- Bibliography
The purpose of this bibliography is to call attention to

literature on high-strength concrete in addition to that
listed at the ends of chapters in this report. The entries
are organized alphabetically by author. Anonymous references are listed alphabetically according to their titles.
10.1. Abeles Paul W., Experience with High-Strength
Concrete in Combination with High-Strength Steel in
Precast Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, Materials
and Structures, Research and Testing (RILEM Paris) V. 6,
No. 36, Nov.-Dec. 1973, pp. 464-472.
10.2. Ahmad, S.H., and Shah, S.P., Complete StressStrain Curve of Concrete and Nonlinear Design, Progress
Report, National Science Foundation Grant PFR 78
22878, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Aug. 1979,
29 pp. Also, Nonlinear Design of Concrete Structures, University of Waterloo Press, 1980, pp. 61-81.
10.3. Aitcin, Pierre-Claude, How to Produce High
Strength Concrete, Concrete Construction, V. 25, No. 3,
Mar. 1980, pp. 222-230.
10.4. Albinger, John, and Moreno, Jaime, HighStrength Concrete, Chicago Style, Concrete Construction,
V. 26, No. 3, Mar. 1981, pp. 241-245.
10.5. Alexander, K.M.; Bruere, G.M.; and Ivanusec, I.,
The Creep and Related Properties of Very HighStrength Superplasticized Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 10, No. 2, Mar. 1980, pp. 131-137.
10.6. Anderson, Arthur R., Some Examples of Energy
and Resource Conservation Utilizing High-Strength Concrete, presented at the ACI Annual Convention, Milwaukee, Mar. 1979.
10.7. Bache, H.H., Compression Failure in Brittle
Materials. Fracture Hardening (Trykbrud I Skore Materialer), Nordisk Betong (Stockholm), No. 1, 1977, pp. 7-10.
(in Swedish)
10.8. Bazant, Z.P., High Strength Concrete: Discussion on Material Behavior Under Various Types of Loading, Proceedings, National Science Foundation Workshop
on High Strength Concrete, University of Illinois at
Chicago Circle, 1979, Report D-l, 13 pp.
10.9 Bennett, E.W., Fatigue in Concrete, Concrete
(London), May 1974, pp. 43-45.
10.10. Berntsson, L.; Hedberg, B.; and Malinowski, R.,
Triaxial Deformations by Uniaxial Load on Heat-Cured
and High-Strength Concrete (Triaxiala Deformationer
Till Foljd av Enaxlig Tryckbelastning pa Varmerhardad,
hoghallfast betong), Cement-och-Betonginstitutet, V. 45,
No. 2, May 1970, pp. 205-224. (in Swedish)
10.11. Berry, E.E., and Malhotra, V.M., Fly Ash for
Use in Concrete-A Critical Review, ACI J OURNAL ,
REPORT
Proceedings V. 77, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1980, pp. 59-73.

10.12. Bertero, Vitelmo V., Inelastic Behavior of
Structural Elements and Structures, Proceedings, National Science Foundation Workshop on High Strength
Concrete, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1979,
Report E-l, 70 pp.
10.13. Bickley, J.A., Concrete Optimization, Concrete
International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 6, June
1982, pp. 38-41.
10.14. Billington, C.J., Underwater Repair of Concrete Offshore Structures, Proceedings, 11th Annual Offshore Technology Conference (Houston, 1979), Offshore
Technology Conference, Dallas, 1979, V. 2, pp. 927-937.
10.15. Bloss, D.R.; Hubbard, S.J.; and Gray, B.H.,
Development and Evaluation of a High-Strength Polyester Synthetic Concrete, Technical Report No. M-2, U.S.
Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory,
Champaign, Mar. 1970, 70 pp.
10.16. Bremer, F., Prestressed Concrete Pressure Vessels for Nuclear Reactors, Technical Session on Design
and Construction of Nuclear Power Plants, 7th FIP Congress (New York, 1974), Federation Internationale de la
Precontrainte, Wexham Springs, 1975, pp. 34-40.
10.17. Bromham, S.B., Superplasticizing Admixtures
in High Strength Concrete, Symposium on Concrete in
Engineering: Engineering for Concrete (Brisbane, Aug.
1977), National Conference Publication No. 77/8, Institution of Engineers, Australia, Brisbane, 1977, pp. 17-22.
10.18. Brooks, J.J., and Neville, AM., Predicting
Long-Term Creep and Shrinkage from Short-Term
Tests, Magazine of Concrete Research (London), V. 30,
No. 103, June 1978, pp. 51-61.
10.19. Brown, Colin B., A Discussion on the Micromechanics of Achieving High Strength and Other Superior Properties, National Science Foundation Workshop
on High Strength Concrete, University of Illinois at
Chicago Circle, Dec. 1979, Report No. B-l, 5 pp.
10.20. Carrasquillo, R.L.; Nilson, A.H.; and Slate,
F.O., High-Strength Concrete: An Annotated Bibliography 1930-1979, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V.
2, No. 1, Summer 1980, pp. 3-19.
F.O., The Prediction of High-Strength Concrete, Report
No. 78-1, Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell
University, Ithaca, May 1978, 91 pp. Also, MSc thesis,
Cornell University, Ithaca, May 1978, 90 pp.
F.O., Very High-Strength Concrete-An Annotated Bibliography 1930-1976, Report No. 367, Department of
Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, Apr.
1977, 46 pp.
10.23. Carrasquillo, Ramon L., and Slate, Floyd O.,
Micro-cracking and Definition of Failure of High- and
Normal-Strength Concretes, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 5, No. 1, Summer 1983, pp. 54-61.
10.24. Chernobaev, V.I., Investigation of the Carrying
Capacity of High Strength Concrete Flexible Columns
(Issledovanie Nesush-ehei Sposobnosti Gibkikh Kolonn
353R-51
Iz Vysokoprochnykh Betonov), Beton i Zhelezobeton

Consistency, Setting, and Strength Gain Characteristics
(Moscow), No. 4, Apr. 1975, pp. 9-11. (in Russian)
of a Low Porosity Portland Cement Paste, Cement and
10.25. Chung, H.; Hayashi, S; and Kokusho, S., Concrete Research, V. 8, No. 5, Sept. 1978, pp. 613-621.
Experimental Study on the Shear Strength of High
10.39. Dikeou, J.T.; Kukacka, L.E.; Backstrom, J.E.;
Strength Concrete Beams, Transactions, Japan Concrete
and Steinberg, M., Polymerization Makes Tougher ConInstitute, Tokyo, V. 2, 1980, pp. 233-240.
crete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 66, No. 10, Oct.
10.26. Chung, H.; Hayashi, S.; and Kokusho, S., 1969, pp. 829-839.
Reinforced High Strength Concrete Columns Subjected
10.40. Erntroy, H.C., and Shacklock, B.W., Design of
to Axial Forces, Bending Moments and Shear Forces, High Strength Concrete Mixes, Reprint No. 32, Cement
and Concrete Association, London, 1954.
Transactions, Japan Concrete Institute, Tokyo, V. 2, 1980,
10.41. Federal Complex Strikes Low-Key Note,
pp. 335-342.
10.27. Colaco, Joseph P.; Ames, Jay B.; and Dubinsky, Building Design and Construction, V. 22, No. 11, Nov.
Eli, Concrete Shear Walls and Spandrel Beam Moment 1981, pp. 92-94.
Frame Brace New York Office Tower, Concrete Interna10.42. FIP 7th Congress (New York, 1974), Proceedtional Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 6, June 1981, pp.
ings, V. 2, Lectures and General Reports, Federation
Internationale de la Prewntrainte, Wexham Springs,
23-28.
10.28. Collepardi, Mario, and Corradi, Mario, Influ- 1975, 137 pp.
ence of Naphthalene-Sulfonated Polymer Based Super10.43. Fintel, Mark, Creep, Shrinkage and Temperaplasticizers on the Strength of Ordinary and Lightweight ture Effects in Tall Buildings, Concrete Industry Bulletin,
Concretes, Superplasticizers in Concrete, SP-62, American
V. 14, No. 3, Mar. 1974, pp. 4-11.
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1979, pp. 315-336.
10.44. French, P.J.; Montgomery, R.G.J.; and Robson,
10.29. Collins, A.R., The Principles of Making High- T.D., High Concrete Strength Within the Hour, ConStrength Concrete, Civil Engineers Review, V. 4, Maycrete (London), V. 5, No. 8, Aug. 1971, pp. 253-258.
June 1954, pp. 172-176, 203-206. Also, Civil Engineering
10.45. Fukuchi, Toshio, and Ohama, Yoshihiko, Proand Public Works Review (London), V. 45, No. 524, Feb.
cess Technology and Properties of 2500 kg/cm2--Strength
1950, pp. 110-112, and No. 525, Mar. 1950, pp. 170-171, Polymer-Impregnated Concrete, Proceedings, 2nd Inter180.
national Congress on Polymers in Concrete (Austin, Oct.
10.30. Concrete Strength Secret: Dry Mix, En1978), University of Texas at Austin, 1979, pp. 45-56.
gineering News-Record, V. 189, June 15, 1972, p. 3.
10.46. Fukuchi, Toshio, et al., Effect of Course
10.31. Coppetti, G.; Cambini, F.; and Tognon, G., Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Polymer-ImpregUse of Very High-Strength Concrete for the Manufac- nated Autoclaved Concrete, Proceedings, 22nd Japan
ture of Centrifuged Piles (Impiego Di Calcestruzzi Ad Congress on Materials Research (Kyoto, Sept. 1978),
Altissime Resistenze Per la Producione De Pali Centri- Society of Materials Science, Kyoto, 1979, pp. 373-376.
fugati), Industria Italiana del Cemento (Rome), V. 50,
10.47. Funakoshi, M., and Okamoto, T., The Shear
No. 2, Feb. 1980, pp. 121-130. (in Italian)
Strength of Prestressed Beams for which Very High
10.32. Craven, M.A., High-Strength and Lightweight Strength Concrete is Employed, Transactions, Japan
Concrete Institute, Tokyo, V. 2, 1980, pp. 271-278.
Concretes for Prestressing, New Zealand Concrete Construction (Wellington), V. 11, No. 3, Mar. 1967, pp. 40-41.
10.48. Gallagher, J.E., Acrylic-Latex Additives Create
10.33. Cross, Hardy, Design of Reinforced Concrete Extra Strength New Concretes, Architectural Record,
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Mar. 1967, pp. 199-200.
10.49. Galwey, AK., et al., Relatively High Strength
V. 26, No. 2, Dec. 1929, pp. 157-169.
10.34. Crow, L.J., and Bates, R.C., Strengths of Sul- of a Chalk-Aggregate Concrete, Journal of Applied
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Chemistry, May 1966, pp. 159-162.
Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C., 1970, 21 pp.
10.50. Garas, F.K., Research and Development in
10.35. Dawson, P., Design and Construction of a Pre- Support of the Design of a Prestressed Concrete Pressure
stressed Concrete Pressure Vessel for a Working Pres- Vessel for a Working Pressure of 69 N/mm2 (10,000 psi),
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sure of 69 N/mm2 (10,000 psi), Transactions, 4th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor 3, May-June 1980, pp. 233-244.
Technology (San Francisco, Aug. 1977) Committee of the
10.51. Gaynor, R.D., Producing High Strength AirEuropean Communities, Luxemburg, 1977, Volume H, Entrained Concrete, unpublished discussion paper. For
detailed information of the test data, see Gaynor,
Paper H l/5, 13 pp.
10.36. Desov, A.E., Basic Principles of High Strength Richard D., High Strength Air-Entrained Concrete,
Joint Research Laboratory Publication No. 17, National
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10.37. Development of Prestressed Concrete High crete Association, Silver Spring, Mar. 1968, 19 pp.
10.52. Ghosh, R.S., and Malhotra, V.M., Use of
Strength Concrete, Concrete and Constructional EnSuper-plasticizers as Water Reducers, Cement, Concrete,
gineering (London), V. 57, No. 7, July 1962, p. 268.
10.38. Diamond, Sidney, and Gomez-Toledo, Carlos, and Aggregates, V. 1, No. 2, 1979, pp. 56-63.
353R-52
ACI
COMMlTTEE REPORT
10.53. Givens, J.J., Jr., and Carter, G., Rehabilitation

of Offshore Platforms, Civil Engineering-- ASCE, V. 40,
No. 4, Apr. 1970, pp. 47-49.
10.54. Golikov, A.E., The Effect of High-Strength
Concrete Moulding Technology on the Physico-Mechanical Properties, Beton i Zhelezobeton (Moscow), No. 9,
1967, pp. 34-35. (in Russian)
10.55. Green, Arthur N., Low Dosage Super Water
Reducer, presented at the International Symposium on
Superplasticizers in Concrete, Ottawa, May 1978.
10.56. Gupchup, V.N.; Jayaram, S.; and Kulkarni, J.A.,
Effect of Admixtures on Properties of High-Strength
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53, No. 12, Dec. 1979, pp. 331-335.
10.57. Guy, I.N., Editor, Advances in Concrete (Symposium Proceedings, University of Birmingham, Sept.
1971), The Concrete Society, London, 1972.
10.58. Hanson, J.A, Shear Strength of Lightweight
Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 55, No. 3, Sept. 1958, pp. 387-403.
10.59. Harris, Alan, Optimization of Concrete Hulls,
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10.60. Hattori, Kenichi, Experiences with Mighty
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37-66.
10.61. Hattori, K., Properties of Admixtures for High
Strength Concrete and Their Water Reducing Meehanism, Concrete Journal (Tokyo), V. 14, No. 3, 1976, pp.
12-19. (in Japanese)
10.62. Hester, Weston T., High Strength, Superplasticized Concrete: The Significance of Mix Water-Cement
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1982.
10.63. High-Strength Concrete, Building (London),
V. 211, No. 6436, 1966, pp. 129-130.
10.64. High-Strength Concrete-Crushed Stone Aggregate Makes the Difference, National Crushed Stone
Association, Washington, D.C., Nov. 1974, 31 pp.
10.65. Hognestad, E., and Perenchio, W.F., Developments in High-Strength Concrete, Proceedings, 7th
FIP Congress (New York, 1974), Federation Internationale de la Prewntrainte, Wexham Springs, 1975, V.
2, Lectures and General Reports, pp. 21-24.
10.66. Hollister, S.C., Urgent Need for Research in
73, No. 3, Mar. 1976, pp. 136-137.
10.67. How Super are Superplasticizers?, Concrete
Construction, V. 27, No. 5, May 1982, pp. 409-415.
10.68. Hughes, B.P., Temperature Rises in Low-Heat
Cement Concrete, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 97, ST12, Dec.
1971, pp. 2807-2823.
10.69. Ikenaga, Hirotake, and Oshima, Hisaji, Study
on the Relation between an Age of Concrete and Shrinkage, Creep, and Strength--Study of Mixing Design of
Site Concrete Preventing from Cracking Due to Shrinkage and Creep, Transactions, Architectural Institute of
Japan (Tokyo), V. 215, Jan. 1974, pp. 13-30. (in Japanese
with English abstract)
10.70. Innovation in Concrete, Progressive Architecture, V. 59, No. 5, May 1978, pp. 100-109.
10.71. In Sub-Freezing Weather: Bridge Deck
Repaired with Quick-Set Gunned Concrete, Better
Roads, V. 45, No. 5, May 1975, p. 44.
10.72. James, Robert M., High-Strength Concrete
Does Have Its Problems, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings, V.
75, No. 2, Feb. 1978, p. N8.
10.73. Johnston, Colin D., Fifty-Year Developments
in High Strength Concrete, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 101,
C04, Dec. 1975, pp. 801-818.
10.74. Kageyama, H.; Nakagawa, K.; and Nagafuchi,
T., High-Strength Concrete Made With Special Cement
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10.75. Kar, Anil K., Underwater Structures, Bulletin,
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures
(Madrid), No. 50, Dec. 1972, pp. 49-56.
10.76. Karlsson, Inge, High-Strength Concrete (Hoghallfast Betong), Nordisk Betong (Stockholm), No. 4,
1977, pp. 19-22. (in Swedish)
10.77. Kemi, Toroa, et al., Experiment of Grouting by
Special Super High Early Strength Cement Paste, Review
of the 31st General Meeting-Technical Session, Cement
Association of Japan, Tokyo, May 1977, pp. 218-221.
10.78. Kennedy, Henry, High Strength Concrete, Proceedings, 1st United States Conference on Prestressed
Concrete, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1951, pp. 126-135.
10.79. Klieger, Paul, High Strength Concrete, presented at the 3rd Symposium on Modern Concrete Technology, Caracas, Nov. 1976, 29 pp.
10.80. Kobayashi, Masaki, and Tanaka, Hiroshi, On
Frost Resistance of High-Strength Concrete, Review of
the 28th General Meeting- Technical Session, Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo, 1974, pp. 173-174.
10.81. Krishna, Raju N., Compressibility and Modulus
of Rupture of High-Strength Concrete, Journal of the Institute of Engineering (India), Civil Engineering Division,
V. 52, No. 3, Part C12, Nov. 1971, pp. 98-101.
10.82. Law, Sheldon M., and Rasoulian, Masood, Design and Evaluation of High Strength Concrete for Girders, Report No. FHWA/LA-80/138, Louisiana Department of Transportation, Baton Rouge, 1980, 50 pp. Also,
PB81-151 623, National Technical Information Service.
10.83. Lawrence, C.D., The Properties of Cement
Paste Compacted Under High Pressure, Research Report
No. 19, Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham
Springs, June 1969, pp. 1-20.
10.84. Lobanov, A.T., et al., Practice of Prefabrication
of High-Strength Concrete Columns for Buildings (Opyt
Izgotovleniya Kolonn Iz Vysokoprochnyky Betonov Dlya
Zhilykh Domov), Beton i Zhelezobeton (MOSCOW ), No.
12, Dec. 1976, pp. 14-15. (in Russian)

10.85. Machida, F.; Nakahara, S.; Hirose, T.;
Kumonda, T.; Miyasaka, T.; and Ishikawa, H., Design
and Execution of Prestressed Concrete Girder Using
High Strength Concrete, Journal, Japan Prestressed
Concrete Engineering Association (Tokyo), V. 16, No. 4,
1974, pp. 30-36, and No. 5, 1974, pp. 36-45. (in Japanese)
10.86. MacInnis, Cameron, and Kosteniuk, Paul W.,
Effectiveness of Revibration and High-Speed Slurry
Mixing for Producing High-Strength Concrete, ACI
J OURNAL , Proceedings V. 76, No. 12, Dec. 1979, pp.
1255-1265.
10.87. MacInnis, Cameron, and Thomas, Donald V.,
Special Techniques for Producing High Strength Concrete, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 67, No. 12, Dec.
1970, pp. 996-1002.
10.88. Malhotra, V.M., Development of Sulphur-lnfiltrated High-Strength Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 72, No. 9, Sept. 1975, pp. 466-473.
10.89. Malhotra, V.M., Superplasticizers in Concrete,
Modern Concrete, V. 41, No. 12, Apr. 1978, pp. 38-43.
10.90. Malhotra, V.M.; Painter, K.E.; and Soles, J.A.,
Development of High-Strength Concrete at Early States
Using a Sulphur Infiltration Technique, Mines Branch
Internal Report No. MPI (A) 74-4, CANMET, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, July
1974, 13 pp.
10.91. Mather, Bryant, High-Compressive-Strength
Concrete, A Review of the State of the Art, Technical
Documentary Report No. AFSWC-TDR-62-56, Air Force
Special Weapons Center, Kirtland Air Force Base, Aug.
1962, 90 pp.
10.92. Mather, Bryant, High Strength Concrete,
Seminar on Control of Quality of Concrete and Construction Practice, ACI Canadian Capital Chapter, Ottawa,
1968, 56 pp.
10.93. Mather, Bryant, Tests of High-Range WaterReducing Admixtures, Superplasticizers in Concrete,
SP-62, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1979, pp.
157-166.
10.94. Mather, Katharine, High Strength, High Density Concrete, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62, No. 8,
Aug. 1965, pp. 951-962.
10.95. Matsumoto, Y., et al., Precast Prestressed
Concrete Truss Railway Bridge Using Extremely High
Strength Concrete, Final Report, 10th IABSE Congress
(Tokyo, 1976), International Association for Bridge and
Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1976, pp. 433-438.
10.96. Matsushita, H., Studies on High-Strength Concrete with Superplasticizer, Abstract of 31st General
Meeting, Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo, 1977, pp.
191-192. (in Japanese)
10.97. Mattison, E.N., and Beresford, F.D., Studies of
the Production of High Strength Concrete, 4th Symposium on Concrete Research and Development 1970-1973,
National Conference Publication No. 73/6, Institution of
Engineers, Australia, Sydney, 1973, pp. 5-10.
10.98. Maxson, Orwin G., and Achenbach, Gary D.,
3S3R-53
Properties of Concrete with Pressured Hydrocarbons

and Seawater, Proceedings, 8th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 1976, paper OTC2662,
V. 3, pp. 507-512.
10.99. McBee, William C., and Sullivan, Thomas A.,
Development of Specialized Sulphur Concretes, Report
No. 8346, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C., 1979,
21 pp.
10.100. Melnik, R.A., and Patsula, A.Y., Investigation
of the Nonlinear Creep of High Strength Concrete (Issledovanie Nelineinoi Polzuchesti Vysokoprochnykh
Betonov), Beton i Zehelzobeton (Moscow), No. 3, Mar.
1973, pp. 39-40. (in Russian)
10.101. Mix Design for Pre-Mixed Concrete 50-55
MPa, Boral Resources (Vic) Pty Limited, Boral Concrete, Abbotsford, Australia, 11 pp.
10.102. Moe, Johannes, Feasibility Study of Prestressed Concrete Tanker Ships, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 71, No. 12, Dec. 1974, pp. 617-626.
10.103. Moreno, Jaime, Sixteen Years of HighStrength Concrete in the Chicago Area, presented at the
ACI Annual Convention, Atlanta, Jan. 1982.
10.104. Morgan, Austin H., High-Strength ReadyMixed Concrete, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Jan. 1971, 18 pp.
10.105. Morin, A.L.; Tkachuk, V.M.; and Korytnyuk,
Y.V., Investigation of the Eccentrically Compressed
Structural Components Built by Using High-Strength
Concrete (Issledovaniya Vnetsen-trenno Szhatykh Elementov Iz Betonov Vysokikh), Beton i Zhelezobeton
(Moscow), No. 1, Jan. 1974, pp. 39-41. (in Russian)
10.106. Muguruma, Hiroshi, and Tanaka, Shinzo,
Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Concrete,
Review of the 27th General Meeting-Technical Session,
Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo, May 1973, pp. 140143.
10.107. Nagataki, S., The Properties of High-Strength
Concrete, Concrete Journal (Tokyo), V. 14, No. 3, 1976,
pp. 38-41. (in Japanese)
10.108. Nagataki, S., and Imai, M., Some Experiments
on High-Strength Concrete, 27th Annual Meeting, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, 1972, pp. V-187-190.
(in Japanese)
10.109. Nasser, George D., Are We Headed Towards
Very High-Strength Concretes?"Concrete Products, V. 70,
Oct. 1967, pp. 53-54.
10.110. Nasser, George D., Bibliography on High
Strength Concretes, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 64,
No. 10, Oct. 1967, pp. 690-691.
10.111. Nilson, A.H., and Slate, F.O., Properties of
High Strength Concrete, presented at the Session on
Inelastic Response of Normal, Lightweight, and High-S
trength Concrete, ASCE Fall Convention, Chicago, Oct.
1978.
10.112. Nilson, A.H., and Slate, F.O., Structural
Properties of High-Strength Concrete, presented at the
ACI Annual Convention, Milwaukee, Mar. 1979.
10.113. Nishi, H.: -Ohshio, A.: and Fukuzawa, K.,
363R-54
ACI
COMMlTTEE REPORT
Autoclave-Cured High Strength Concrete and Piles,

Cement and Concrete, No. 299, Cement Association of
Japan, Tokyo, 1972, pp. 23-29. (in Japanese)
10.114. Okada, Kiyoshi, and Azimi, M. Azam,
Strength and Ductility of Reinforced High Strength
Concrete Beams, Memoirs, Faculty of Engineering,
Kyoto University, V. 43, Part 2, Apr. 1981, pp. 304-318.
10.115. Okada, Kiyoshi, and Kobayashi, Kazuo, Effects of Addition of Gypsum and Super Water-Reducing
Agent on Mechanical Properties of Blast-Furnace Slag
Cement Mortar, Proceedings, 21st Japan Congress on
Materials Research (Tokyo, Oct. 1977), Society of
Materials Science, Kyoto, 1978, pp. 209-213.
10.116. Parrot, L.J., High-Strength Concrete, Concrete (London), V. 4, No. 2, Feb. 1970, pp. 83-84.
10.117. Parrot, L.J., The Production and Properties of
High-Strength Concrete, Concrete (London), V. 3, No.
11, Nov. 1969, pp. 443-448.
10.118. Parrott, L.J., The Selection of Constituents
and Proportions for Producing Workable Concrete with
a Compressive Cube Strength of 80 to 110 n/mm 2 (11,600
to 15,900 lbf/in2), Technical Report No. 416, Cement and
Concrete Association, Wexham Springs, 1969, 12 pp.
10.119. Pastor, J.A.; Nilson, A.H.; and Slate, F.O.,
Strength and Deformation of High Strength Reinforced
Concrete Beams, Research Report, Department of Structural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca (in preparation).
10.120. Perenchio, W.F.; Whiting, D.A.; and Kantro,
D.L., Water Reduction, Slump Loss, and Entrained Air
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10.121. Pollet, Henri M., Attainment of Very High
Strength Concrete-eater than 1000 kg/cm 2 (Realisation de Betons a Tres Haute Resistance-Supreiure a
1000 kg/cm2), Annales, Institut Technique du Batiment
et des Travaux Publics (Paris), No. 214, Oct. 1965, pp.
1425-1426. (in French)
10.122. Popovics, Sandor, Strength Relationships for
Fly Ash Concrete, ACI, JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 79, No.
1, Jan.-Feb. 1982, pp. 43-49.
10.123. Precasting Efficiency Pays Off on Long
Bridge," Construction Equipment, V. 64, No. 1, Aug. 1981.
10.124. Pyachev, V.A.; Pyachev, G.E.; and Kokhaev,
N.F., Raw Materials in Cement Manufacture for Producing High-Strength Concrete (Tsementy Dlya Vysokoprochniykh Betonov), Tsement (Leningrad), No. 1, Jan.
1974, pp. 21-22. (in Russian)
10.125. Rayner, Johnathan, Floating Docks in Vancouver Need Continuous Pour of New High-Strength
Concrete, Engineering and Contract Record (Don Mills),
V. 89, No. 9, Sept. 1976, pp. 22-24.
10.126. Reigstad, Gordon H., Energy Conservation in
Buildings: A Prestressed Concrete System, Professional
Engineer, V. 47, No. 4, Apr. 1977, pp. 27-28.
10.127. Richart, F.E., A Study of the Economics of
High Strength Concrete in Building Construction, ACI
JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 32, No. 4, Mar.-Apr. 1936, pp.
459-472.
10.128. Roy, Della M., and Gouda, G.R., High
Strength Generation in Cement Pastes, Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 3, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1973, pp.
807-820.
10.129. Roy, D.M.; Gouda, G.R.; and Bobrowsky, A.,
Very High Strength Cement Pastes Prepared by Hot
Pressing and Other High Pressure Techniques, Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 2, No. 3, May-June 1972, pp.
349-366.
10.130. Ryaboshapko, Y.I.; Vaslavskii, V.F.; and
Olginskii, A.G., Experience in the Application of HighStrength Concrete with Acid FIy Ash Admixture (Opyt
Primeneniya Vysokomarochnogo Betona S Prisadkoi Kisloi Zoly-Unosa), Beton i Zhelezobeton (Moscow), No. 5,
May 1974, pp. 12-13. (in Russian)
10.131. Ryell, John, High Strength Concrete, Tenth
Annual School of Concrete Technology, Ready Mixed
Concrete Association of Ontario, Toronto, Apr. 1969, 19
pp.
10.132. Ryell John, High Strength Concrete, Canadian Pit and Quarry (Don Mills), Jan. 1970, pp. 16-19,
and Feb. 1970, pp. 26-28.
10.133. Saito, T.; Ohshio, A.; Goto, Y.; and Omori, Y.,
High Strength Concrete. Part 2, Strength Properties,
Durability, and Thermal Characteristics, Journal of
Research, Onoda Cement Co., V. 28, 1976, pp. 12-27. (in
Japanese)
10.134. Saucier, Kenneth L., High-Strength Concrete,
Past, Present, Future: Concrete International Design &
Construction, V. 2, No. 6, June 1980, pp. 46-50.
10.135. Saucier, Kenneth L., Determination of Practical Ultimate Strength of Concrete, Miscellaneous Paper
No. C-72-16, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, June 1972, 29 pp.
10.136. Savage, E.S., Deep-Bed Filtration Lengthens
Filter Runs, Lowers Backwash Water Needs, American
City, V. 88, No. 1, Jan. 1973, p. 44.
10.137. Schrader, Ernest K., and Munch, Anthony V.,
Fibrous Concrete Repair of Cavitation Damage, Proceedings, V. 102, C02, June 1976, pp. 385-399.
10.138. Shah, S.P., and Ahmad, S.H., Effective Confinement on High-Strength Concrete, presented at the
ACI Annual Convention, Atlanta, Jan. 1982.
10.139. Shah, S.P.; Gokoz, UIker; and Ansari, Farhad,
Experimental Technique for Obtaining Complete StressStrain Curves for High Strength Concrete, Cement,
Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 3, No. 1, Summer 1981, pp.
21-27.
10.140. Schukla, S.N., and Mittal, M.K., Short-Term
Deflection in Two-Way Reinforced Concrete Slabs After
Cracking, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V. 73, No. 7, July
1976, pp. 416-419.
10.141. Slate, F.O., and Nilson, A.H., High-Strength
Concrete-Preliminary Results on Microcracking and
Creep, presented at the ACI Annual Convention,
Milwaukee, Mar. 1979.
10.142. Southworth, George, and Scott, Norman L.,

Special Concretes, Concrete Construction, V. 26, No. 3,
Mar. 1981, pp. 229-233, 275-279.
10.143. Soviet Concrete Not So Tough?, Engineering
News-Record, V. 166, No. 22, June 1, 1961, p. 47.
10.144. Stachiw, J.D., Concrete Deep Submergence
Hollow Shell Structures, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, ST
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10.145. Stamenkovic, Hrista, Causes, Mechanisms and
Control of Surface Voids, Concrete (London), V. 7, No.
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10.146. Structural Trends in New York City Buildings, Civil Engineering-- ASCE, V. 53, No. 1, Jan. 1983,
pp. 30-37.
10.147. Superplasticizers in Concrete, SP-62, American
10.148. Swamy, R.N., and Anand, K.L., Shrinkage and
Creep Properties of High Strength Structural Concrete,
Civil Engineering and Public Work Review (London), V.
68, No. 807, Oct. 1973, pp. 859-868.
10.149. Swamy, R.N., and Anand, K.L., Structural Behavior of High Strength Concrete Beams, Building
Science, V. 9, No. 2, June 1974, pp. 131-141.
10.150. Swamy, R.N., and Ibrahim, A.B., Shrinkage
and Creep Properties of High Early Strength Structural
Lightweight Concrete, Proceedings, Institution of Civil
Engineers (London), V. 55, Sept. 1973, pp. 635-646.
10.151. Swamy, R.N.; Ibrahim, A.B.; and Anand, K.L.,
The Strength and Deformation Characteristics of High
Early Strength Structural Concrete, Materials and
Structures, Research and Testing (RILEM, Paris), V. 8,
No. 48, 1975, pp. 413-423.
10.152. Symposium on Concrete for Engineering, Engineering for Concrete (Brisbane, Aug. 1977), National
Conference Publication No. 7718, Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Brisbane, 1977.
10.153. Tapping Concretes Potentials, Building
Design and Construction, V. 20, No. 10, Oct. 1979, pp.
63-93.
10.154. Thaulow, Sven, Tensile Splitting Test and
High Strength Concrete Test Cylinders, ACI JOURNAL ,
Proceedings V. 53, No. 7, Jan. 1957, pp. 699-706.
10.155. The Worlds Tallest Concrete BuildingsToday and Yesterday, Concrete Construction, V. 28, No.
2, Feb. 1983, pp. 91-100.
10.156. Tognon, G.; Copetti, G.; and Ursella, P., Very
High Strength Concretes for Precasting: Production
Technology and Characteristic Properties, Proceedings,
9th International Congress of the Precast Concrete
Industry (Vienna, Oct. 1978), BIBM, Linz/Donau, 1978,
pp. 1-39-I-46.
10.157. Tognon, G.; Ursella, P.; and Copetti, G.,
Design and Properties of Concretes with Strength over
1500 kg/cm2, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 77, No. 3,
May-June 1980, pp. 171-178.
10.158. Towles, Thomas T., Advantages in the Use of
High Strength Concretes, ACI JOURNAL , Proceedings V.
28, No. 9, Apr. 1932, pp. 607-612.
363R-55
10.159. Undersea Restaurant Uses 25,500-psi Concrete, Engineering News-Record, V. 190, July 13, 1972, p.
17.
10.160. Valore, R.C.; Kudrenski, W.; and Gray, D.E.,
Application of High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
in Steam Cured Cement-Fly Ash Concretes, Superplasticizers in Concrete, SP-62, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1979, pp. 337-373.
10.161. Vivesaraya, H.C.; Desay, P.; and Babu, Shri
K.H., High Strength Concrete Mix Design, A Case
Study, Special Publication No. SP-2, Cement Research
Institute of India, New Delhi, Mar. 1970, 28 pp.
10.162. Walz, K., The Production of High Strength
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ACI 363R-92

State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Concrete

Members responsible for individual chapters

ACI Committee 363 Members Balloting 1992 Revisions

Chapter l-Introduction, pg. 363R-2

Keywords: bibliographies; bridges (structures); buildings; conveying;

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices,

Chapter 2-Selection of materials, pg. 363R-3

c 1992, American Concrete Institute.

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Although high-strength concrete is often considered a

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

have specified compressive strengths for design of 6000

knowledge regarding material selection and provides a

Fig. 2.1-Effects of cement on concrete compressive

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

water-reducing admixtures plus an accelerating admixture

is 10 to 20 lb/ft3 (160 to 320 kg/m3); however, it is also

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

2.5.1 General - Both fine and coarse aggregates used

gregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100 percent

with distilled water, or it may be more convenient to

(See also Chapter 10-References)

2.13. High Strength Concrete, Manual of Concrete

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

tors, inspection agencies, and environmental conditions.

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

MPa) in 7 days could average 10,000 psi (69 MPa) in 90

in lower strength ranges not requiring early strengths or

crete- The relationship between water-cement ratio and

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

A, D, F, and G chemical admixtures have usually been

Fig. 3.2-- Strength versus water-cement ratios of various

Specific information pertaining to the range of values

The cement quantity proportioned into a high-strength

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

Added Air , percent

Fig. 3.4--Strength reduction by air entrainment 3.26

the completeness of the testing programs, but particular

ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT

3.5.3 Limiting factors-There are several factors which

requirements even though the net volume of the sand

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

Table 3.1-Volume of coarse aggregate per unit of

*Table 3.1 Taken from ACI 211.1.

the amount of these aggregates passing certain sieve sixes

ment content. In those cases where a net increase in the

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

been found to be required in high-strength concretes,

time placement procedures, vibration techniques, and

Companys Experience with Class C Fly Ash, Publication

ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT

No. 17, National Sand and Gravel Association/National

control, handling, and storage of materials need not be

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

cations, such as 1 min for 1 yd 3(0.75 m3) plus /4 min for

discharge gate and vibrators mounted on the body are

ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

portions of the work. There should be ample vibration

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

4.7-- Quality assurance

ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT