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Materials Science Group, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India
b Physics Department, Regional Engineering College, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India
Received 14 March 2002; received in revised form 9 May 2002; accepted 7 June 2002
Abstract
Titanium dioxide, predominantly in the anatase phase with an average grain size of 510 nm, has been synthesized by the hydrazine
method. These nanocrystalline particles show a blue shift in the absorption edge of the diffuse reflectance ultraviolet spectrum of about
10 nm compared to that of commercially available titania. Synthesized samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction and transmission
electron microscopy for their structural properties and UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy for the bandgap studies. The absorption spectra
show a linear fit for the direct transition. The optical and electrical properties of the samples have been studied and the Arrhenius plots
of electrical conductivity both for the as-prepared anatase TiO2 and the one subsequently reduced in hydrogen atmosphere at 673 K
show a distinct difference in the activation energy. The hydrogen-annealed sample shows a typical semiconducting behavior whereas the
as-prepared sample indicates a phonon contribution to the conductivity around 300 K.
2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Anatase titanium dioxide; Nanoparticles; Blue shift; Optical properties; Bandgap
1. Introduction
Titanium dioxide TiO2 is a material with excellent merits in solar energy transferring and photocatalysis of poison
compounds in environment [1]. Further, the strong oxidizing
power of the photogenerated holes, the chemical inertness,
and the non-toxicity of TiO2 has also made it a superior
photocatalyst [24]. The use of TiO2 as a pigment in paints
and the global oil crisis has inspired a variety of scientists
and renewed interest in this material, and to the problem of
using TiO2 for splitting of water, based on the principles of
photo-electrochemistry [5]. This material is known to exist
in several forms, among them the most abundant are anatase,
rutile and brookite [6]. The brookite phase is stable only at
very low temperatures and hence not so useful practically.
Rutile is the one that is obtained after high temperature calcination and its fundamental properties like the electrical,
optical and thermal properties are well studied [7,8]. In contrast, the properties of the anatase form are not so well understood. The reason could be that the anatase, which is a
comparatively low temperature stable phase, has gained significance only after nanostructured materials and their synthesis started playing a major role in materials science.
Nanostructuring of materials has opened up a new dimension and made size as a parameter to be considered for
the phase diagrams in addition to the existing ones. The
properties of nanosized semiconductor particles have been
known to depend very sensitively on the particle size [9].
The physical properties of semiconductor nanocrystals are
dominated by the spatial confinement of excitations (electronic and vibrational). Quantum confinement that manifests
itself in widening of HOMO LUMO gap or the bandgap increase with decreasing crystallite size and its implications on
the electronic structure and photophysics of the crystallites
has generated considerable interest [10]. In order to synthesize nanoparticles and retain the size and morphology, it is
mandatory to try and maintain sufficiently low temperatures
during synthesis, processing and also in the course of application. In recent years anatase titania has also attracted
a lot of interest because of its technological applications in
paints, pigments and as a photocatalyst with promising efficiency but its application has been restricted because of the
difficulty in synthesizing it in pure anatase form.
2. Experimental
TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared by dropwise addition
of 2 ml of 20% titanium tetrachloride (Loba Chemie) in hydrochloric acid to 500 ml of deionized water with vigorous
stirring. Subsequently, 1.4 ml of hydrazine hydrate (100%)
0254-0584/02/$ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 5 4 - 0 5 8 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 3 4 3 - 7
240
Fig. 1. XRD plot showing the peak shift for all the three samples.
(1 0 1) peak in the samples of TiO2 whose diffraction features are qualitatively identical, reveals the peak shift from
= 12.615 to 12.640 and 12.662 for samples C, H and
N, respectively, corresponding to decreasing crystallite size.
A clear shift of the peak to higher scattering angles with
decreasing particle size is observed (Table 1).
Applying the DebyeScherrer formula [11] and the full
width at half maximum (FWHM) to the (1 0 1) reflection,
typical values of crystallite sizes have been calculated to be
in the range of 510 nm for the synthesized particles and as
for the commercial sample it is about 39 nm. These are in
agreement with the sizes estimated from scanning electron
micrographs (SEMs) and TEMs. Fig. 2 shows a typical TEM
of the nanoparticles of titanium dioxide with average particle
size around 1015 nm compared to the commercial one with
particle size around 3540 nm.
To substantiate our results an attempt is also being made
to estimate the size dependent bandgap shift, Eg from the
following equation [12], using the average value of crystal-
Table 1
Tetragonal crystallite size, peak position and lattice parameters value for
the C, H and N titania samples
Sample
name
C
H
N
Crystallite size
DXRD (nm)
39
7.9
6.8
Peak position
of (1 0 1) ( )
12.615
12.640
12.666
Lattice
parameter ()
a
3.790
3.786
3.782
9.625
9.559
9.484
241
Fig. 2. TEMs (magnification 80K) of the TiO2 nanoparticles (scale bar = 50 nm).
Eg =
1.786
+
0.248ERY
mh
R
2R 2 me
(1)
242
Fig. 3. Diffused UV absorption spectra of commercial (C), as-prepared (N) and hydrogen-annealed (H) samples.
Fig. 4. Plot of 1/2 versus Ephot for indirect transition. Bandgaps Eg are obtained by extrapolation to = 0.
243
Fig. 5. Plot of (Ephot )2 versus Ephot for direct transition. Bandgaps Eg are obtained by extrapolation to = 0.
two samples. These data, which is a much better fit than the
corresponding indirect bandgap fit, result in values of Eg estimated from the = 0 extrapolation as 3.36 eV for sample
N and 3.32 eV for sample H.
As can be seen from the different Eg values, the bandgap
shifts estimated for the synthesized nanoparticles from the
plots for indirect transition are too large and therefore it
could be inferred that the direct transition plots are more appropriate. This could be one reason to suggest that the direct,
and not indirect transition, is more favorable in anatase TiO2
nanoparticles. As opposed to this, there are a few reports
where the nanoparticles have also been reported to follow
an indirect transition as well [15].
For direct bandgap semiconductors, electronic transition
from the valence band to the conduction band is electrical
dipole allowed and the electronic absorption as well as emission is usually strong. For indirect bandgap semiconductors,
the valence band to the conduction band electronic transition
is electrical dipole forbidden and the transition is phonon assisted, i.e., both energy and momentum of the electronhole
pair are changed in the transition. Both their absorption and
emission are weaker compared to those of direct bandgap
semiconductors, since they involve a change in momentum.
Hence a direct bandgap transition would result in a more efficient absorption of solar energy and therefore much better
photovoltaic devices. Hence, any indication in this direction
would direct towards a more favorable material for the applications envisaged.
244
Fig. 6. log versus (1/T) plot for electrical conductivity of nano-TiO2 (N) and hydrogen-annealed TiO2 .
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, we have the following results:
References
[1] M.R. Hoffmann, S.T. Martin, W. Choi, D.W. Bahnemann, Chem.
Rev. 95 (1995) 69.
245