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Civil
Chapter 5
Spatial Features & Data Structures
Definition of a Spatial Object
Types of Objects
Surfaces
Types of Points
Entity pointidentifies the location of point or line features such as buildings, wells,
utility poles, etc. As such, the accuracy of the location of entity points is important
Label pointused for displaying text associated with map features. The position of the
point is solely a cartographic concern
Area pointdenotes a position within an area feature, and is used to carry the attribute
information associated with the area feature. For example, a point representing the
centroid of a lake may be assigned the statistics for the entire lake
Civil
Point Features
Point features. Features that either represents the location of a feature that has no
dimensions or a feature that has width and length but whose perimeter cannot be mapped at
the defined map scale. Elevation control points. Stream gagging stations, oil wells and small
buildings are examples of point features.
A zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X, Y co-ordinate. A point
normally represents a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a line or area; for
example, the location of a building location on a small-scale map, or the locations of a
service cover on a medium scale map.
Besides the X, Y coordinate, other data must be stored to indicate what kind of point it is and other
information associated with it. Fig. Shows a typical point data stored in GIS.
North
38.996000
38.994000
38.992000
38.990000
38.988000
38.986000
38.984000
38.982000
38.980000
38.978000
38.976000
8.720000
8.740000
8.760000
East
8.780000
8.800000
Civil
Line Features
Liner features. Sets of connected points that represent a feature that either has no width
of that has width but is shown by a single line at the scale of the map being used. Rivers
railroad tracks utility lines and roads are examples of linear features.
A set of ordered co-ordinates that represent the shape of geographic features too narrow to be
displayed as an area at the given scale (contours, street centrelines, or streams), or linear features
with no area (county boundary lines). A line is synonymous with an arc.
Civil
Simplest line required the storage of begin point and end point. (Two X, Y coordinates plus a
possible record). An arc, a chain or string is asset of n X, Y coordinate pairs describing a
continuous complex line.
Shorter the line segment and larger the no. of X, Y coordinate pairs, the closer the chain will
approximate a complex curve.
Civil
Civil
Disadvantages
Civil
Raster data
Raster data records spatial information in a regular grid or matrix organized as a set of rows and
columns. Each cell within this grid contains a number representing a particular geographic
feature, such as soil type, elevation, land use, slope, etc.
Raster data is commonly, but not exclusively, used to store information about geographic features
that vary continuously over a surface, such as elevation, reflectance, groundwater depths, etc.
ARC/INFO grids are raster data. Image data is a form of raster data in which each cell or pixel
stores a value recorded by an optical or electronic device. Raster data records spatial information
in a regular grid or matrix organized as a set of rows and columns. Each cell within this grid
contains a number representing a particular geographic feature, such as soil type, elevation, land
use, slope, etc.
Raster data is highly dependent on the resolution of the regular grid in which it is recorded. The
size of the cells in the grid is fixed, so as you zoom in on raster data displayed on a view, you
will eventually see the shape of the cells.
Civil
Civil
Simulation is easy because each spatial unit has same size and shape
Disadvantages:
Civil
Spatial Interpolation
Spatial Interpolation is the process of using points with known values to estimate values
at other points
Through Spatial Interpolation, We can estimate the precipitation value at a location with
no recorded data by using known precipitation readings at near by weather stations.
Control Points.
Type of Spatial Interpolation.
Control Points
Also called known points, sample points, or observations, control points provide the data
necessary for the development of interpolator(e.g.. Mathematical equation) for spatial
interpolation.
The number and distribution of control points can greatly influence the accuracy of
spatial interpolation.
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Civil
Trend Surface Models: An inexact method, trend surface analysis approximates points
with known values with a polynomial equation. The equation or the interpolate or can
then be used to estimate values at other points.
Where the attribute value z is a function of x and y coordinates. The b coefficients are estimated
from the known points
Example
Figure below shows the five weather stations with known values around point 0 with an
unknown value. The table below shows the x,y-coordinates of the points, measured in
row and column of a raster with a cell size of 2000 meters, and their know values
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Civil
The least squares method is commonly used to solve for the coefficients of b0,b1 and b2 in
the above equations:
x2
y2
69
76
20.82
4761
5776
59
64
10.91
3481
4096
75
52
10.38
5625
2704
86
73
14.6
7396
5329
88
53
10.56
377
318
67.27
7744
2900
7
2809
2071
4
point
sum
z2
433.4
724
119.0
281
107.7
444
213.1
6
111.5
136
984.9
185
xy
5244
3776
3900
6278
4664
2386
2
xz
1436.
58
643.6
9
778.5
1255.
6
929.2
8
5043.
65
yz
1582.
32
698.2
4
539.7
6
1065.
8
559.6
8
4445.
8
Using the values of five known points, we can calculate the statistics and substitute the statistics
in to the equation
12
5
377
318
5
377
5
377
318
3004254990
5
377
2933303868
Civil
377
29007
23862
377
29007
67.27
5043.65
286071973
4445.80
2
67.27
284697522
5043.65
0
318
23862
20714
318
23862
318
23862
28607197
20714
32
318
29440601
23862
06
67.27
510034062.6
5043.65
4445.8
67.27
26707.96
5043.65
532989178.
8
377
530428398
29007
23862
377
29007
51045256
3.3
318
52532340
23862
4.1
20714
318
23862
5
377
318
40419246635
5
377
41009063951
377
29007
382718012
23862
63
377
383032046
29007
10
67.27
5043.65
39994301
4445.8
209
67.27
39386760
5043.65
620
605159171
60466302
3.9
63187710
8.2
1355260
522370830.5
13680072.3
644796603
2
620513683
601757881.
5
470125.16
b0
b1
b2
-10.094
0.020
0.347
13
1=
2=
1=
2=
1=
2=
1=
2=
87256944
54
87243391
94
15658125
73
15657858
65
1.18685E
+11
1.18699E
+11
18546187
98
18541486
73
Civil
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Civil
Example
point
A
B
C
D
E
F
x
1
4
2
3
2
2
y
2
2
1
1
3
2
z
1
4
3
4
1
?
3.5
3
2.5
2
Coordinate (m)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
X Coordinate (m)
15
4.5
Civil
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