Distributed Generation: Benefits & Issues: Johan Driesen K.U.Leuven - Esat/Electa WWW - Esat.kuleuven - Be/electa

Distributed Generation:
Benefits & Issues

Johan Driesen
K.U.Leuven ESAT/ELECTA
http://www.esat.kuleuven.be/electa
K.U.Leuven - ESAT/Electa
Traditional low voltage grid
Limited number of loads

Energy supplied top-down
Increased loading
Increased power quality &
from central power station
reliability problems: due to

non-linear (power
electronic) and sensitive
loads
2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06
2/52
Why are grids changing?

3 technological drivers
Power Electronics (PE) becomes ubiquitous in loads,

generators and grids
More power produced (and stored) near consumers:
Distributed Energy Resources (DER)
Increased importance of Power Quality (PQ): more
disturbances and more sensitive devices
3 socio-economic tendencies
Liberalization of energy markets: free choice of supplier

More sustainable energy (renewable and high-quality)
Less guaranteed security of supply
3/52
Definition of Distributed Generation

Distributed Generation (DG)
connected directly to the distribution

system or installed at the customer's
side of the meter;
non-dispatched by the network
operators;
not centrally planned;
small-scale generators ( 50 MW).
Distributed Energy Resources

(DER)
also including storage, active loads
4/52
DER technologies
Distributed Generation:
Reciprocating engines
Gas turbines
Micro-turbines
Fuel cells
Photovoltaic panels
Wind turbines
Energy Storage
Batteries
Flywheels
Supercapacitors
Rev. fuel cells
Superconducting coils
Rotor
Armature
Winding
Holders
CHP configuration
Powder Iron
Toroids
Field
Winding
& Bobbin
Housing
Endcap
5/52
Current DG penetration
Forecast: 7.2% DG share in 2004 to 14% in 2012
(WADE)
Wind target in EU: 40,5 GW at present

to 75 GW in 2010 (EWEA)
6/52
Grid of tomorrow ?
Local generation
Local storage
Controllable loads, DSM
(NegaWatts)
Power quality and reliability
is a bigger issue
Systems future structure & size?
Growth (?):
o
o
o
Consumption rises annually by several %

Investments in production: very uncertain due to
liberalisation
Limited or no grid expansions are accepted by the public
Balancing:
o
o
Short-term: make balance by introducing DG?

Long-term: more storage and/or activate loads?
7/52
Power electronic dominated grids
Source: KEMA
8/52
SmartGrids Vision
EU Technology Platform
preparing FP7
Involving specialists from
industry, academia,
Vision paper published in
2006
9/52
SmartGrids Future Network Vision
10/52
Enabling Technologies
Active Distribution Networks

Improved power flow: FACTS, WAMS, WAPS
Power electronic technologies
Smart Metering
Communication for DSM, on-line services,
energy management
Stationary energy storage
11/52
Concepts for the future
Virtual Utilities:
Configure and
deliver ->
Internet model
12/52
Concepts for the future
Microgrids:
Low voltage
networks with DG
sources, local
storage and
controllable loads,
automatic islanding
13/52
Microgrid idea
Technically, parts of the
grid may even separate

from central supply
A Microgrid is a collection
of small generators for a
collection of users in close
proximity
No net power exchange,
total autonomy (Energy
Island) ?
14/52
Is a Microgrid new ?
History of electricity networks:
It all started that way, before interconnection
Today, are they a new concept?
No ?
o
o
The grid behind certain UPS systems are driven like a

microgrid with one generator
Multiple UPS units in parallel is not impossible, but not often
implemented due to complexity (control, earthing, )
Yes !
o
o
Intended for longer term operation, not just emergencies

Scope of the idea is wider: from a single dwelling to parts of
the distribution network (longer connections, multitude of
connections, )
15/52
What makes a Microgrid

difficult to operate?
Ancillary Services are all to be delivered internally
Balancing the active and reactive power:

electricity produced - system losses
= electricity consumed storage
Stabilizing the grid: frequency, voltage amplitude and

phase angle
Providing quality and reliability: unbalance, harmonics,
Black-start capability
Can a Microgrid become fully separate and deliver

these services?
How to organize (system operator fully distributed) ?

How to reward financially ?
16/52
What is an optimal deployment

of DG technology ?
Distribution grid was never built for local power

injection, only top-down power delivery
Technical difficulties:
Power Quality & reliability

Efficiency
Safety
Control
Economic aspects
DG%
Are there optima for the size and location of
DER units (generation, storage, active load) ?
17/52
Power quality & reliability
Problem:
Bidirectional power flows

Distorted voltage profile
Vanishing stabilizing inertia
More harmonic distortion
More unbalance
Technological solution:
Power electronics may be configured to

enhance PQ
DG units can be used as backup supply
18/52
Voltage fluctuation with PV

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
PV power is calculated from 5-s

average irradiance data measured
in Heverlee (B)
P (kW)
Q (kVar)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Time (min)
1.06
Power variation causes voltage

fluctuations
Voltage (p.u.)
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
1
0.99
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Time (min)
19/52
Example: MV cable grid
Substation
connecting
to HV-grid
Location:
LeuvenHaasrode,
Brabanthal +
SME-zone
20/52
10
Impact of wind turbine

SUB
SUB
101
101
102
102
201
103
103
104
104
202
202
203
203
301
301
105
105
402
402
205
205
204
204
303
303
302
401
401
106
106
403
403
404
404
206
206
108
108
207
207
304
304
405
405
107
107
406
109
111
111
110
110
208
208
305
305
407
408
409
21/52
Voltage Rise Problem

SUB
101
102
201
201 202
301
301
401
103
104 105
205
203
203 204
303
302
402
403
106 107
404
405
206
304
406
407
108
109 110
207
111
208
208
305
305
408
409
9Generally, power injected by DG improves

voltage profile
Voltage profile along feeder 4
9Over-voltage may occur at high level of power

injection (especially, synchronous machines)
9Little impact on the voltage rise with the
generators operating as induction machine
9 Synchronous DG raises system voltage
higher due to additional reactive power
Connect one DG unit at node 406
injection
record system voltage profile at different power injections of DG unit
Voltage Power factor relationship at node 406

22/52
11
Voltage dips
Voltage at node 2 branch 1-2 open
Voltage dips at node 2 with synchronous DG case
SUB
101
102
103
201
201 202
301
301
104
105
203
203 204
Voltage dips at node 2 with induction DG case
106
205
303
302
107
108
206
304
304
109
207
110
111
208
208
305
305
An induction generator starts up (node 108)

401up causes
402
403
A large induction DG starts
severe404 405
voltage dips at connected node and nearby nodes
affect sensitivity loads
407
406
408
409
A soft-start circuit is needed for large induction DG

23/52
Voltage stability limit

Zline
Es
Ur
Ur
Pload + jQload
Zload
Normal Operating Point
Critical Point
Voltage stability margin
Pmax
Pload
24/52
12
Voltage stability limit @ node 111,

impedance load
Synchronous DG cases
SUB
101
102
103
104
105
SUB
106 2 107
108 104 109 110
101 102
103
105 106 107 108
201
201 202
301
301
201
201 202
301
301
203
203 204
302
303
205
205
203
203 204
302
206
401
404
402 207
403
303
206
304
304
208
208
405
406 407
Induction
DG
304
304
305
305
111
110
109
207
111
208
208
305
305
408
409
cases
408 409
401 402
406 407
403on 404 405
9DG Location has significant
impact
voltage stability limit.
DG unit: 3 MW
9Synchronous DG unit has better
Calculate
contribution to
voltage voltage
stability stability
limits. limit at node 111, is the furthest
point from substation (considered to be weakest bus in terms of

voltage stability)
25/52
Control, or the lack of

Problem:
Generators are NOT

dispatched in principle
o
o
o
Weather-driven (many
renewables)
Heat-demand driven (CHP)
Stabilising and balancing in
cable-dominated distribution
grids is not as easy as in HV
grids
active power
frequency
reactive power
voltage
26/52
13
Networked system operations

Solutions:
Higher level of control required to coordinate balancing, grid

parameters ?
Advanced control technologies
Future technologies, under investigation
Distributed stability control
Market-based control
o
o
Contribution of power electronic front-ends (see example)

Scheduling local load and production, by setting up a micro-exchange
(see example)
Management of power quality
Alternative networks
o
o
Customize quality and reliability level

E.g. stick to 50/60 Hz frequency ? Go DC (again) ?
Rely heavily on intensified communication: interdependency

27/52
Example: fully decentralized control

Standard method: droop control
KUL method: Virtual Impedance method
Emulate a voltage source with internal

tunable impedance in the time domain
Ref.: K.De Brabandere et al. @ PESC04
Advantage: seamless transition from

grid-connected to island and reconnect
28/52
14
Experimental results: connection of

two independent grids (islands)
voltage before
voltage after
current before
current after
29/52
Example: tertiary control on local market

DG units locally share loads dynamically based on marginal
cost functions, cleared on market
MC
P1old P1new
MC
P2new P2old
equal marginal cost
P
MC
translated & mirrored

translated
30/52
15
Safety
Problem:
Power system is designed for top-down

power flow
Local source contributes to the short-circuit
current in case of fault
o
o
Bidirectional flows
o
Fault effects more severe

Difficult to isolate fault location
Selectivity principle in danger: no
backup higher in the grid for failing
protection device
G
Conservative approach on unintentional

islanding
Solution:
New active protection system necessary
31/52
SUB
SUB
Short-Circuit Current
101
101
102
102
201
201
- 3 syn. gen.: 3 MVA

(high penetration at a
feeder)
202
202
301
301
- 3-phase short circuit
401
401
kA
103
103
104
104
203
203
106
106
205
205
204
204
303
303
302
402
402
105
105
403
403
404
404
107
107
206
206
108
108
207
207
304
304
405
405
406
109
111
111
110
110
208
208
305
305
407
408
409
kA
4.0
0.40
3.5
With DG connection
0.35
Base case
0.30
With DG connection
3.0
Base case
2.5
0.25
2.0
0.20
1.5
0.15
1.0
0.5
0.0
99.5
0.10
s
100.0
100.5
101.0
101.5
102.0
s
99.5
100.0
100.5
101.0
101.5
102.0
32/52
16
Societal issues
Problems:
Environmental effects
o
Global: more emissions due to

non-optimal operation of
traditional power plants
Local effects as power is
produced on-the-spot, e.g. visual
pollution
Making power locally often

requires transport infrastructure
for (more) primary energy
o
Solution:
Problem is shifted from electrical

distribution grid to, for instance,
gas distribution grid!
Multi-energy
vector approach
Open debate on
security of supply
33/52
Economic issues
Problems:
Pay-back uncertain in liberalized

market
o
o
System costs
o
o
Chaotic green and efficient power

production
Reliability or PQ enhancement difficult
to quantify
More complicated system operation
Local units offer ancillary services
Solution:
System losses generally increase

Who pays for technological
adaptations in the grid ? Who will
finance the backbone power system?
o
Too much socialization causes public

resistance
Interdisciplinary
regulation, not
only legal
Need some real
deregulation
34/52
17
System losses example

Load distributed along feeder cable
DG
introduction
does not mean
lowered losses
Optimum is 2/3
power at 2/3
distance
Other
injections
generally
cause higher
system losses
HV subst.
DG
Power flow along cable
Before DG
Zero point
After DG
35/52
Evolution of losses
8
Penetration level of DG
DG
x 100
P loss (%)
PLDG
P
(%) =
P
Induc PF 0.9
Con PF 1.0
Syn PF 0.9
5
4
3
2
1
First:
0
0
PLDG increases Losses decrease

Then
PLDG increases Losses increase
9Synchronous DG units have the

largest influence on the reduction of
power losses.
Reactive-voltage drop (%)
80
40
60
80
100
Penetration level (%)
120
140
160
120
140
160
Induc PF 0.9
Con PF 1.0
Syn PF 0.9
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
20
40
60
80
100
Penetretion level (%)
36/52
18
Balancing question, again

Fundamental electrical power balance,
at all times is the boundary condition:
Electricity produced - system losses

= electricity consumed storage
All sorts of reserves will decrease in the future

Role of storage? Storage also means cycle losses!
Next step in enabling technologies
Usable storage
Activated intelligent loads (demand response technology), also
playing on a market?
Boundary condition: minimize losses
37/52
How far can we go?
Large optimization exercise, making following

considerations:
Optimal proliferation, taking into account local

energetic opportunities, e.g. renewables options?
Unit behavior towards grid: technology choice?
Control responsibilities?
Is the same level of reliability still desired ?
Level of introduction of new additional
technologies (storage, activated loads)?
38/52
19
Looking for the optimal solution

Where to place DER?
B?
A?
C?
Optimization goals:
o
o
o
o
voltage quality penalty

minimum losses
minimum costs
Optimization
Constraints:
o
o
o
o
non-convex
multiple objectives
mixed discrete-continuous
long term vs. short term interactions
net balance
load flow equations
acceptable voltage profile
39/52
DER Planning
Single objective
Min (Energy Loss)
very straightforward
does not represent the real problem
Multi-objective
Weight factors single objective

Min ( Energy Loss + Voltage penalty + Installation Costs)
value of weight factors?
useful if objectives are comparable, e.g. all costs ()
True multi-objective trade-offs

Min {Energy Loss; Voltage penalty; Installation Costs}
selection based on Pareto ranking
40/52
20
DER Planning
Long term planning problem efficiently handled by
using Genetic Algorithms
Optimization based on evolutionary computing techniques

Able to deal with mixed discrete (placement) continuous (sizing) problem
Global optimum not guaranteed!! Rather a target-oriented tool
Often difficult to obtain sufficient data sets use Markov models
Gen A
Gen B
Node i
Network topology
41/52
Test case
2 generator types used: PV & CHP

each represented by a 5-string bit
network chromosome = 20 x 2 x 5 = 200 bits
(240 siting options)
42/52
21
Test case
Load data are based on actual measurements
residential buildings
period of 1 year
on a 15-minute basis
4 load scenario types are available

each scenario consists of 4 typical one-day load profiles
5 times repeated over the 20-node grid
Summer,
high load
43/52
Test case
low load
(e.g. weekend)
winter
summer
high load
(e.g. working day)
44/52
22
Test case
Evolution of total power loss in the optimal solution of
each generation in the SummerLow scenario
Optimal and stable solution reached after 100 generations
45/52
Test case
Optimal solution in the Summer-Low scenario
46/52
23
Test case
Cross-comparison test :
use solution of scenario i
in fitness function of scenario j
Total power loss

[kWh]
Using
optimal
DG of
scenario
Load scenarios
SH
SL
WH
WL
SH
23.4
17.5
130.2
13.9
SL
26.9
13.1
160.0
18.8
WH
59.1
52.9
48.1
74.7
WL
36.9
19.7
107.7
11.9
63.5
30.9
219.9
40.4
No DG
47/52
DER Planning
Instead of single-objective optimization, the use of true multiobjective optimization is proposed
Single objective
Multi-objective
only one optimal solution

significance?
Decreasing objective value with

each generation
pool of solutions
trade-offs between objectives
insight in the potential of the grid
which objectives are conflicting?
Pareto front between conflicting objectives

48/52
24
DER Planning
What is a trade-off?
f1
f2
Pareto front
f2
feasible
translation from
variable space to
objective space
trade-offs
unfeasible
x1 , x2
f1
Rank topologies according to dominance:

If topology A is at least equal in all objectives compared to B
and better in at least one objective,
then topology A dominates topology B
Aim of the optimization:
Identify as much non-dominated topologies as possible
49/52
DER Planning
Fitness of a DER topology is calculated by running
a scenario with assumed loads and grid topology
What if
9 Storage is to be optimized?
9 Load has an elastic behavior?
9 Production is dispatchable?
Control?
Demand Response?
Forecasting?
What if Local Markets exist?

Long-term planning interacts with short-term planning problem!!
primary control
secondary control
economic optimum
50/52
25
Conclusion
Current grid:
Interconnection
Higher PQ level required
DER looking around the corner
History repeats: after 100 years the idea of locally supplied,

independent grids is back
Microgrids, being responsible for own ancillary services
Maximum (optimal?) level of penetration of DER

= difficult optimization exercise
Whose optimum?
ancillary services are a challenge
role of loads?
Special (technological) measures are necessary

o
e.g. in system control, balancing
Not only technology push, but also customer pull required

51/52
more information:
http://www.esat.kuleuven.be/electa
check publications sections, e.g.:
Pepermans G., Driesen J., Haeseldonckx D., Belmans R., Dhaeseleer W.:
Distributed Generation: Definition, Benefits And Issues, Energy Policy, Elsevier,
Vol.33, Issue 6, April 2005, pp. 787-798
or contact
johan.driesen@esat.kuleuven.be
Thank you!
(now, let
lets discuss)
26

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Distributed Generation:

Benefits & Issues

Traditional low voltage grid

Limited number of loads

from central power station

reliability problems: due to

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Why are grids changing?

Power Electronics (PE) becomes ubiquitous in loads,

Liberalization of energy markets: free choice of supplier

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Definition of Distributed Generation

connected directly to the distribution

Distributed Energy Resources

also including storage, active loads

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Wind target in EU: 40,5 GW at present

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Systems future structure & size?

Consumption rises annually by several %

Short-term: make balance by introducing DG?

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Power electronic dominated grids

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

SmartGrids Future Network Vision

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Active Distribution Networks

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Concepts for the future

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Concepts for the future

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

grid may even separate

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

It all started that way, before interconnection

Today, are they a new concept?

The grid behind certain UPS systems are driven like a

Intended for longer term operation, not just emergencies

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

What makes a Microgrid

Ancillary Services are all to be delivered internally

Balancing the active and reactive power:

Stabilizing the grid: frequency, voltage amplitude and

Can a Microgrid become fully separate and deliver

How to organize (system operator fully distributed) ?

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

What is an optimal deployment

Distribution grid was never built for local power

Power Quality & reliability

Are there optima for the size and location of

DER units (generation, storage, active load) ?

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Power quality & reliability

Bidirectional power flows

Power electronics may be configured to

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Voltage fluctuation with PV

PV power is calculated from 5-s

Power variation causes voltage

2nd Int. Conf. on Energy Innovation / 6-7-'06

Example: MV cable grid