People

CHAPTER12

Tra ining
12.1 INTRODUCTION

Training provides skills and/or knowledge for the current job. Many people must be
trained in a variety of areas in order for a process safety management (PSM) program to function properly. This includes operators, mechanics, safety personnel,
engineers, supervisors, managers, administrators, contractors, and others. The type
of training required includes skills-based, technical, managerial, and awareness.
Forms of training include: classroom, using presentations and/or videos; computerbased and web-based; simulators; and on-the-job.
There are many human factors issues that affect training. This includes the design, form, quality, and use of training materials; alignment of training with actual
jobs; instructor performance; instructional methods; frequency and content of training; use of training time; training validation; and the training environment. Guidelines that address these issues are provided below for establishing a training program and designing and delivering training.

A company did an extensive research project and found that the accident rate for
the first six months of a new work assignment was six times higher than after the
first six months. They also found that this applied to new employees as well as
employees changing their job function within the company. Therefore, it is extremely important to provide both new employees and those changing their job
functions with a comprehensive training program extending over those first six
months, with at least part of that program addressing any important human factor
issues that may need reinforcement.

12.2 GUIDELINES FOR TRAINING PROGRAMS

An overall training program should be established as part of an organization's management system. Key guidelines for the program are:
The program must address regulatory requirements and industry standards.
Management must believe the training is important and be willing to send
personnel to training.
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Training requirements for employees should be established for both initial

and on-going refresher training.
Job descriptions should be correlated with training requirements.
Performance requirements and standards for trainees should be established.
A method must be specified for trainees to demonstrate that they have mastery of the training.
Standards for instructors should be established.
Training should be designed for the specific functions and jobs to be performed.
Site-specific training should be used when appropriate.
Periodic refresher training should be provided, and it should emphasize skills
that are not practiced routinely such as diagnosis and response to upsets.
Refresher training should not be the same as initial training, and it should
vary from one delivery to the next.
The training should incorporate new knowledge and information, changes,
and lessons learned.
Records should be maintained.
Examples of operator, maintenance, and technical staff training programs have
been published (CCPS, 1992).

12.3 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING AND DELIVERING TRAINING

An example of a typical design cycle for training is provided in Figure 12- 1.
Preparation
Pre-training study materials should be provided and attendees should be encouraged to complete the assignment and given the time to do so.
Trainees
Trainees should meet established prerequisites. Trainees should be analyzed to determine appropriate training content based on their education, experience, current
skills, and knowledge, previous training and related skills, and attitudeimotivation.
Training should address diverse learner groups, as appropriate.
Instructors
Trainers should have appropriate training skills and knowledge of the topic
Logistics
Ideally, training locations should be in the workplace or simulate it.

12.3 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING AND DELIVERING TRAINING

79

Figure 12-1: Example of a Design Cycle for Training.

Design and Structure

Training should target those meeting the minimum prerequisites. Generally, training should be structured to provide an introduction, content presentation, practice in
application by trainees, practice monitoring by trainers, provision of feedback to
trainees from trainers, and a summary. The structure of the job should be followed.
Appropriate media should be selected and the duration of training determined.
Audio-visual materials and job aids to be used, and job equipment needed should be
identified. Training content should be sequenced appropriately, generally going
from the known to the unknown, the simple to the complex, and the concrete to the
abstract. Pilots should be conducted to refine new training.

Content
The best available subject matter experts who are doers rather than supervisors
should be consulted and managers should help determine content. Task analysis and
content analysis should be used. Task analysis identifies actions needed. Content
analysis identifies knowledge needed to perform the actions. The level of detail provided should target trainees meeting the minimum prerequisites for the training.

Objectives
Actions required of trainees when performing a task should be specified, including
the conditions under which the task is performed and the standards that must be met
for successful performance.

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Instructional Methods
A variety of instructional methods and media should be used. Instructional methods
should be selected that allow the trainees to reflect on the content and determine
how it applies to their job, see the task being performed, be physically active and
perform the task, hear instructions spoken, read materials, take notes, reason
through real-life situations, and interact with each other.

Materials
Instructor guides, presentation materials, course manuals, handouts, job aids, and so
on. should be prepared. Formats should be varied and the most efficient formats
used.
Delivery
The focus should be on tasks that are important and difficult to learn while ensuring
the basics are understood. One-third of the training time should be spent on presentation and two-thirds on application and feedback. Reviews and summaries should
be provided frequently.
Practice Methods
Tasks should be practiced wherever possible. Exercises should be as realistic and
job-like as possible. They should include equipment, materials, procedures, and so
on. that will be used on the job, as applicable.
Feedback
Concrete, specific, and objective feedback should always be provided to trainees
and given immediately after applications. Positive feedback from the instructor, and
other trainees, should be provided whenever possible.
Tests
Methods should be devised to assess whether learning objectives have been met.
This may include qualification or certification of trainees to work. There should be
a procedure for retraininghetesting and a clear protocol for disqualifying trainees
with unacceptable performance.
Developing valid tests and the means to verify understanding of training can be
challenging and the people who do so should be suitably qualified.
Validation
The performance of representative trainees on the job should be observed and any
performance problems identified. Training should be modified accordingly.

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81

Evaluation and Revision

Trainees should always be requested to provide course evaluations using brief
evaluation forms and input should be sought from supervisors on the post-training
performance of trainees. Feedback should be used to revise the training, as appropriate.

Environment
The training environment should be chosen to facilitate learning.

Post Training
Trainees should work with an experienced employee who observes performance
and provides feedback. Performance reviews should be conducted and the results
factored back into the training program.

Operator training at a company was targeted at an average operator. The company found that some operators had a higher-than-expected error rate in operating
the process. They were those in the lower half of the class. The training program
was revised to address the least qualified operators.

12.4 TOOLS

Training needs analysis is used to help determine what training is needed (McConnell, 2003). Task analysis (Jonassen, et al., 1998) can help in numerous ways:
Formulation of training objectives.
Use in designing tests.
Help in selecting training methods.
Assisting in structuring training content and developing materials.
Helping determine validation and evaluation methods.
Ensuring nothing is missed.
Providing feedback to improve procedures.
Educating management on the complexity of jobs.
Job hazard analysis helps to identify hazards of jobs and any special requirements
for performing the job safely (Swartz, 2001). Guidance is available on establishing
training programs and designing, delivering, and evaluating training (Goad, 1982;
Greber, 1989; Greber, 1990; Rossett and Gautier-Downes, 1991; Stonewall, 199 1;
CMA, 1993; Wilson, 1994; Kirkpatrick, 1998).

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12.5

TRAINING

REFERENCES

CCPS (1992), Plant Guidelines for Technical Management of Chemical Process Safety
(NY: AICHE Center for Chemical Process Safety).
CMA (1993), Operations Training Guide for Process Safety (Washington, DC: Chemical
Manufacturers Association, now American Chemistry Council).
Goad, T. W. (1982), Delivering Effective Training (San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and Company).
Greber, B. (1989), Evaluating Training (Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Publications).
Greber, B. (1990), Designing Training (Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Publications).
Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M. and Hannum, W. H. (1998), Task Analysis Methods for Instructional Design (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1998), Evaluating Training Programs, 2nd ed. (San Francisco, CA:
Berrett-Koehler).
McConnell, J. H. (2003), How to Identify Your Organizations Training Needs: A Practical
Guide to Needs Analysis (NY: American Management Association).
Rossett, A. and Gautier-Downes, J. (1991), A Handbook of Job Aids (San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer).
Stonewall, L. (1991), How to Write Training Materials (San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and Company).
Swartz, G. (2001) Job Hazard Analysis, A Guide to Identifying Risks in the Workplace
(Rockville, MD: Government Institutes).
Wilson, J. B. (1994), Applying Successful Training Techniques (Irvine, CA: Richard
Chang Associates).