ESDEP Vol0404A

Section 4A: CORROSION PROTECTION
Lecture 4A.1:
General Corrosion
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To give young architects and engineers a basic understanding of the corrosion process and the practical means of protecting structural steelwork.
PREREQUISITES
None
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the theory of corrosion in a very simple way. The galvanic series and galvanic
corrosion are covered briefly. The question of why structural steel requires protection against corrosion
is discussed and the fundamental considerations relating to protection are described, e.g. establishing
the environment, the choices of protective coatings, surface preparation options and other considerations, e.g. chemical cleanliness.
1. INTRODUCTION
The more common metals exist in nature as metallic compounds. The principal compounds or ores are
oxides and sulphides.
The extraction process is:
Compound Metal
Metals spontaneously react with any liquid or gaseous environment in which they are placed and a corrosion product is produced which is very similar to the original ore from which the metal was obtained.
Thus:
Iron Ore = Iron Oxide
Rust = Iron Oxide plus chemically bonded water.
Corrosion processes are chemical reactions taking place at the surface of the metal. They obey well
established chemical laws - which is fine if you know them! Most of us do not need to know them
because we are not dealing with corrosion problems daily. The purpose of this lecture is to describe
the main types of corrosion met in ordinary buildings, structures, plant, factories, etc.
Corrosion products may act as a barrier between the metal and its surroundings, effectively slowing
down the corrosion rate. This phenomenon is frequently observed when metals corrode in air, a process
known as dry corrosion. It cannot be expected to happen when the corrosion products are soluble
and the corrosion is taking place in an aqueous environment, i.e. wet corrosion. For example, in a dry
environment
Zinc + Oxygen Zinc Oxide + Water + Oxygen
Nothing much happens!
But add acid condensate (as frequently occurs in industrial environments) and,
Zinc Oxide + Sulphuric Acid Zinc Sulphate + Water Eases away, exposing Zinc.
1.1 Dry Corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a very thin oxide layer as a result of the metal's reaction with
oxygen in the atmosphere. Metals subjected to heating may well carry a heavier layer, or the layer may
detach. For example, steel which has been hot-rolled has a complex oxide layer which is physically
unstable but still has a protective value provided the steel remains in air and as long as the layer
remains a continuous layer.
Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
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ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES
Zinc in air carries a fairly protective film of zinc oxide, which increases in thickness very slowly. Aluminium carries a thin, highly protective oxide layer.
Dry corrosion may seem unlikely. However, it is worth remembering some corrosion takes place even
under completely dry conditions. It needs removing before applying any form of protective coating.
1.2 Wet Corrosion
Wet corrosion takes place in wet environments, i.e. where relative humidity exceeds 60%. These environments can be neutral, acid or alkaline.
There may be uniform destruction of the metal, e.g. oxidation or, localised destruction, i.e. pitting and
stress corrosion. The destruction can be concentrated at areas adjacent to a more noble metal or, at
points where the oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is electro-chemical. When a metal is immersed in a conductive liquid (sulphur compounds
in water in an industrial atmosphere or sodium chloride in water in a marine environment) some areas
have a different electrical resistance from the rest of the surface (Figure 1). A positive electric current
flows from the negative (-) anode to the positive (+) cathode areas and this leads to the dissolving or
corroding of the anode (Figure 2). In other words, a corrosion cell is, broadly speaking, the same
as a car battery.
Figure 1 Local electro-chemical action on wet steel surface
Figure 2 Corroding of the anode
In corrosion prevention literature the terms galvanic and the galvanic series are frequently used.
Galvanic corrosion is the destruction of the less-noble of a pair of metals joined together, e.g. in sea
water zinc is less noble than mild steel and the zinc wastes away rapidly.
The galvanic series is a list of metals arranged in order of their corrosion potential with the most easily
corroded as the first one, and the least active as the last one. The simplified listing which follows
shows why aluminium and zinc are used as coatings to protect mild steel and, stainless steel to replace
it in certain circumstances.
Aluminium;
Zinc;
Iron
Mild Steel
Stainless Steel
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold
Platinum
The most active metals, e.g. zinc and aluminium, are described as having negative electrical potentials.
They may be referred to as anodic. The least active, e.g. gold and platinum are referred to as noble or,
cathodic.
When dissimilar metals are connected in the presence of an electrolyte the more noble (cathodic) one
tends to be protected while the more active (anodic or negative) corrodes rapidly.
As the potential difference between two dissimilar metals increases so does the possibility for galvanic
corrosion.
To sum up, the corrosion of metals is simply a reversion of their extraction process. 90% of marine and
industrial corrosion is electro-chemical and the reaction is similar to that which takes place in a car battery.
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Section 4A: Corrosion Protection
1.3 Why Protect Steel?

Basically steel is an alloy iron and carbon, other elements being added depending upon the processing
method and the final performance required. Structural steels (medium carbon steels) contain 0,12%
to 0,24% carbon. It was noted above that iron ore is iron oxide and rust is iron oxide plus chemically
bonded water. Steel is man-made and unstable. It combines readily with oxygen and water, producing
an iron oxide not unlike the original iron ore prior to refining.
Electro-chemical corrosion can be highly concentrated at certain points. If this occurs, a high rate of
destruction at points representing no more than 1% of the total surface area can destroy the usefulness
of a steel component. There are a number of reasons why local corrosion can be so concentrated:
The first reason is related to the presence of mill scale (Figure 2). Much of the structural steel
which is use is hot-rolled. The white hot steel is formed into structural sections by passing it
through compressing rollers. In some parts of the process, water is poured upon the forming
steel. Both these operations cause an oxide layer to be built-up on the steel's surface.
The oxide layer on hot-rolled mild steel is called mill scale. As noted earlier it is physically unstable. It is
a separate entity from the steel in much the same way as is a coat of paint.
Second, the mill scale is not a continuous layer and does not represent a protective barrier.
Third, the mill scale is cathodic and the steel anodic. If there are a few breaks in the scale layer,
a little condensation with dissolved impurities to act as the electrolyte, and perhaps some dissolved oxygen, then a corrosion cell is formed in which the steel dissolves (corrodes) away.
Fourth, small bare areas of steel in large patches of intact mill scale, i.e. large cathodic areas,
give rise to intense attack and severe pitting of the steel (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Pitting in the presence of mill scale

Fifth, cold bending, welding, etc. can produce highly stressed areas with adjacent anodic (-) and
cathodic (+) patches (Figure 4).

Sixth, crevice corrosion occurs in the low oxygen concentration areas of a corrosion cell (Figure 5).
Seventh, even cold-formed steel has anodic and cathodic areas allowing electro-chemical corrosion to occur (Figure 6).
Figure 4 Influence of cold bending on local

electro-chemical action
-
Figure 5 Example of crevice corrosion

+
Figure 5 Example of crevice corrosion

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2. PROTECTING STRUCTURAL STEELWORK

There are some fundamental practical considerations.
2.1 Effect of Environment and Surface Conditions
Corrosion is most likely to occur when one or more of the following is present:
High humidity - which provides the essential water, i.e. humidity above about 60%.
Atmospheric pollution - to provide impurities, e.g. sulphides and chlorides.
The presence of mill scale with breaks or discontinuities - the scale becomes the positive (cathode)
pole and the steel the negative, dissolving or corroding (anode) pole in the corrosion cell.
Before deciding how to protect any steel, one must answer the question From what? Table 1 gives
general environments. Answering the following will help produce the answer:
a) What is the general environment?
b) Is the environment likely to change in the foreseeable future? If it is, what is the cause and how
will it alter the general environment?
c) Is there local pollution, e.g. sulphur dioxide, which could make the environment more aggressive
than is first apparent?
d) In terms of environment must the project be divided into different parts when determining the
protective system(s) or can the worst case be applied everywhere to simplify matters?
e) What special conditions apply, e.g., watersplash, residual pools, which may exclude the use of
specific coatings?
f) Can the protective system chosen be maintained effectively and economically throughout the
required life of the structure/plant?
2.2 Protect with What?
The most practical way to protect steel is by applying another coat either to act as an anode (i.e. dissolving in preference to steel), as a barrier, or both. The common protective coatings are paints, hot dip
galvanising, zinc or aluminium metal spray and any of the last three overcoated with paints. Their main
features are summarised in Appendix 1. They are discussed in Lecture 4A.2.
2.3 Surface Preparation
Surface preparation is a major influence in determining the protective value of a coating system. For
metallic coatings it is usually an integral part of the manufacturing process and is included in the relevant
national and European standards. For paints the type and standard of surface preparation should be
specified as a part of the protective coating treatment.
The importance of removing mill scale is well established. The methods used for this purpose and, to
remove rust, etc. are as follows:
Weathering
Because the layer of mill scale is a physically unstable separate entity which breaks up before it leaves
the rolling mills, the practice of leaving the steel to weather still exists. Unfortunately, the duration of
weathering necessary to remove the scale from structural steel depends on the local climate, the type
of mill scale, its thickness, the shape and thickness of the section and, when weathering takes place
after the steel is erected, by the position of the individual structure. The time necessary to remove 90%
of mill scale from 9mm thick plates of mild steel varies from about six months in industrial atmospheres
in Europe to more than five years in certain overseas areas. Even in the most aggressive environments
complete descaling by weathering of a structure could not be guaranteed within a year. Remember too
it is in the aggressive marine or industrial environments where the chemical impurities which dissolve
in water to form good electrolytes are found!
Weathering is not recommended as a preparatory method.
Chipping, Scraping and Wire Brushing
Chipping, scraping and wire brushing are by far the least effective methods. They do not remove deepseated rust, or tightly adhering mill scale.
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Mechanical wire brushes and scrapers give better results than manual tools, but the standards achieved
are inferior to the alternative methods below.
Pneumatic descaling pistols
A bunch of hardened steel needles is held loosely in the collar of the pistol. Operated by compressed air,
the needles move backwards and forwards in the collar to pound, literally, the surface. This preparatory
tool is particularly useful around nuts, bolts and rivet heads. It is extremely slow to use and will not remove
deep-seated rust or thin mill scale.
Flame cleaning
An intensely hot oxy-acetylene flame is played on the surface. Differential expansion causes the mill
scale to detach. The process is extremely slow, but it can be effective. It will nor remove tight mill scale. It
cannot be used upon steel which is less than 5mm thick, because it may cause buckling. In addition, it
may burn-in chemicals deposited on the surface causing premature paint failures. Its use as a preparatory method is diminishing.
Acid pickling
This is a factory process for use on new steel before erection. The steel is immersed in hot sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid; after rinsing it may be dipped in a weak phosphoric acid solution which deposits
a thin crystaline phosphate coating upon the surface of the steel. This coating gives a very low level
of protection against corrosion for a limited period. This form of acid pickling is one of the cheapest
and most effective ways of removing all mill scale and rust. It is not a satisfactory form of surface
preparation for use beneath sophisticated primers.
Cold site-applied pickling solutions are not effective.
Abrasive blast cleaning
This is an extremely effective method of removing mill scale and rust. Chilled iron grit or shot is projected
by air or, centrifugally from a wheel. When carried out in the factory it is a relatively cheap process, but
it can be expensive on site. It is not always practicable on erected steel.
Properly undertaken the process leaves the steel in an excellent condition to receive paint systems and
metal spray. Its advantage is the profile which is produced and upon which the applied coating keys.
Other Considerations
Surface Cleanliness in terms of how effectively mill scale and rust have been removed is covered by
the pictorial illustrations in ISO 8501 [1].
Surface Roughness is important in respect of the profile produced by abrasive blasting, which roughens
the surface of steel. ISO 8503 Part 1 specifies comparator panels as a means of specifying surface
roughness [2]. These panels are used to make visual and tactile comparisons with the blast-cleaned
surface.
Chemical Cleanliness too often is confused with surface cleanliness by the specifier. Rust formed in
industrial or marine environments can contain soluble salts. These salts are often found in corrosion pits
and are rarely removed by abrasive blast cleaning and never by mechanical or hand cleaning. If overcoated they lead to rapid coating failure. Wet abrasive blast cleaning or washing with potable water are
both used as a means of cleaning chemically contaminated steelwork. Unfortunately standard methods
are not available for the qualitative or semi-quantitative determination of the levels of chlorides, sulphates
or soluble iron salts on freshly blast-cleaned steel. Methods are being developed and may be included
in ISO 8502 and 8504 [3, 4].
2.4 Cathodic Protection
The phenomena of galvanic corrosion and the galvanic series are the basis of Cathodic Protection (CP),
a system in which the structure to be protected is made the cathode. For example if iron and copper are
connected in sea water the iron corrodes; connect a piece of zinc into the system and a current flows
from the zinc to the iron and copper and turns the iron into a cathode, i.e. the non-corroding pole in the
electrochemical cell.
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes is established for the protection of steelwork under immersed
conditions. For large installations, e.g. marine jetties, an impressed current system is often used. In this
system the anode is inert, e.g. graphite or titanium, and a DC supply provides the voltage.
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Setting up a cathodic protection system on an immersed or semi-immersed structure requires expert

advice. There are however three points to remember when considering a CP system.
a. To do their job, sacrificial anodes must corrode! They require regular inspection to ensure they
are replaced before they disappear completely.
b. There must be sufficient anodes to give the correct current density over the complete surface to
be protected.
c. In systems using an external DC supply the polarity of the electrical connection is vital. Reversed
connections can cause extremely rapid corrosion of the item the system is supposed to protect!
2.5 Stainless Steel
In buildings and plant stainless steels can be used for interior decoration, facades, cladding, fasteners and
equipment. The resistance to atmospheric corrosion associated with stainless steel stems largely from its
chromium content which helps to form a thin protective oxide layer which is also aesthetically pleasing.
There are three types of stainless steel currently used in buildings and it must be said that in-service
failures are more often due to mis-specification than to inherent weaknesses in the products (see Lectures 18). Stainless steels do corrode!
The three grades have different mechanical properties which affect forming, welding and performance
in service. To make the best choice for a particular application, the environment, the likely frequency of
cleaning, e.g. by rainwater, the mechanical properties needed during fabrication, and the required performance in service need to be known.
Stainless steel components are expensive (x 10 the cost of carbon steel) and merit careful consideration
before specifying to ensure their full potential is realised.
2.6 Weathering Steels
These steels contain only 1-2% of alloying additions, e.g. copper, chromium, nickel, phosphorus. They
can be more corrosion resistance than similar unalloyed steels. But the protective coating only forms when
the steel is subject to regular wetting and during cycles. Wet interiors, immersed or buried conditions are
unsuitable environments in which to use weathering steels. Undoubtedly specialist advice from the steel
industry is required before this type of steel is specified. There are a number of general considerations:
a. for long life a corrosion allowance must be considered because the actual loss varies with the
environment.
b. crevices and other water/dirt traps must be designed out.
c. as the steel begins to weather iron hydroxides may run to adjacent surfaces and cause straining.
d. fasteners should be made of weathering steel.
e. specific low alloy welding rods are needed.
f. to obtain even weathering, blasting overall may be necessary.
g. these steels are unsuitable for use in marine and aggressive industrial environments.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Corrosion follows established chemical laws. In 'dry' conditions it is generally inactive. In 'wet'
condition it is highly active.

The 'wet' conditions in which corrosion can take place can range from acid, neutral through to
alkaline.
Corrosion also occurs between dissimilar metals, the less noble (anodic) being the one destroyed.
Steel needs to be protected in 'wet' conditions to prevent corrosion (re-oxidization) occurring.
The environment around the steel controls the rate of corrosion and the degree of protection
required; accessibility controls the type of corrosion prevention treatment adopted.
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4. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrates before the application of paints and related products
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1:- Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates
after overall removal of previous coatings,
Part 2: Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of previous
coatings (in course of preparation).
[2] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1: Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products;
Part 2: Laboratory determination of chloride on clean surfaces;
Part 3: Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method);
Part 4* Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application (in
course of preparation).
[3] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrates.
Part 1: Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of
abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces;
Part 2: Methods for the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel. Comparator
procedures;
Part 3: Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of
surface profile - Focusing microscope procedure;
surface profile - Stylus instrument procedure.
[4] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
Part 1: General principles;
Part 2: Abrasion blast-cleaning;
Part 3: Hand and power tool cleaning.
[5] ISO 12944 Protective paint systems for steel structures (in course of preparation)
Part 1: General Introduction
Part 2: Classification of Environments
Part 3: Types of Surface and Surface Preparation
Part 4; Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products
Part 5: Performance Testing
Part 6: Workmanship
Part 7: Design
Part 8: Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance
5. ADDITIONAL READING
[1] Uhlig, H. H., Corrosion and Corrosion Control, 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley & Sons.
[2] Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric
Corrosion, ECSC Report 620.197, 1983.
[3] Controlling Corrosion, series of booklets published by the Department of Industry - Committee on
Corrosion.
[4] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by
British Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA) British Steel (BS), Paint Research
Association (PRA) and Zinc Development Association (ZDA)).
[5] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989 (Published jointly by
BCSA and BS).
[6] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by
BCSA, BS, PMA and ZDA).
[7] BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against corrosion.
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[8] DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic coatings Part 5
Coating materials and protective systems.
[9] Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
[10] ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings.
[11] ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
APPENDIX 1
Characteristics of Paint and Metal Coatings
The features of hot dip galvanizing and metal spray to be considered:
a. Life predictable if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Single application systems (plus sealing in some cases).
c. Short in-shop time.
d. Good abrasion resistance.
e. Sacrificial protection of steel provided at areas of damage.
f. Good corrosion resistance.
g. Should not be used unpainted outside the pH range of 5-12 for zinc and 4-9 for aluminium, or,
where the metal is subject to direct attack by specific chemicals.
Hot dip galvanizing has additional features:
h. The alloying action provides a good metallurgical bond.
i. Full coating on sharp corners and edges. Thickness is influenced by the composition of the steel.
j. Adhesion problems can occur between the zinc and subsequently applied paint. These problems
can be overcome by the use of special pretreatments, primers or specially formulated direct application paints.
Additional features for metal spraying:
k. Can be site applied.
l. Coating thickness can be built up as desired.
m. Virtually any size of structure and plant can be coated.
n. Often a better substrate for paint systems than hot dip galvanizing.
o. Should be sealed if to be over-painted.
p. Irrespective of environment aluminium-sprayed metal is best supplied sealed ex-works.
q. Where exposure is unlikely to be aggressive, zinc sprayed steel need not be sealed. If there
is any likelihood it will need painting or sealing at a later date, then it should be sealed initially
to prevent the formation of zinc corrosion products.
The main features of paint systems are:
a. Predictable life if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Does not affect the mechanical properties of steel.
c. Suitable for shop and site use.
d. Can be applied to complex structures and plant.
e. Systems are available to protect against most environments and conditions.
f. Painting facilities are widely available.
g. Most paints are easy to repair and maintain.
h. Wide colour ranges are available for safety and decoration.
i. High performance paints require high standards of surface preparation (usually abrasive blast
cleaning) and can be intolerant of poor painting conditions.
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Lecture 4A.2:
Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To expand upon Lecture 4A.1, giving the practical means of protecting steelwork at a level suitable
for young architects and engineers.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LRCTURES
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the assessment of the required life design for the successful use of protective systems
and surface preparation. The coatings commonly used to protect steel are described and the use of stainless and weathering steels are briefly discussed. Finally a general discussion of maintenance is given.
1. LIFE EXPECTANCY
Table 1 classifies the principal types of environment that have a significant influence on the life expectancy
of steel.
In dry, heated buildings, e.g. offices, hospitals, warehouses, the corrosion rates of carbon steel are
usually very low. Steel can be used without protection in such environments when it is hidden. Elsewhere
it is coated for aesthetic or hygienic reasons.
Many interiors are not dry however and steelwork requires protection in these situations, as well as in
exterior environments.
Structures and plant usually have a design life. If after execution of the structure access is impossible,
the initial protective system needs to have the same life as the steel. Economic pressures often increase
the functional life of plant significantly beyond the design life. Changes in expectation usually occur
after the initial protective system is in place. It is sensible therefore to consider this possibility at the start
of every new project.
1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance
Table 2 gives in column (a) typical lives in the general environment quoted to prevent deterioration of
the steel using various coating systems. Column (b) gives the likely time to first refurbishment where
good appearance and the maintenance of a readily cleaned surface are important. Neither set of
figures can allow for the influence of local conditions, e.g. heavy overnight condensation due to the unplanned shutting down of ventilating systems to save money.
Protective systems require regular inspection allowing unexpected local failures to be repaired. Ideally
the base steel should never be exposed. If the first coat of the system is zinc galvanising or metal spray
then it should be considered part of the structure, the paint coats being refurbished at intervals which
ensure it remains unexposed.
1.2 Life between Maintenances
When there is data on the performance of a protective system on similar structures or plant, prediction
of the intervals to maintain the top coat(s) is fairly easy. Since the initial failure of a protective system
may be sooner than anticipated, the estimation of the interval for some breakdown to bare steel can be
complicated.
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork
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1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement

It may be necessary to assess each part of a structure separately. For each assessment the following
points should be taken into account:
a. Required life of structure/plant.
b. Decorative and hygienic requirements. The decorative life of a coating (and its ability to be
readily cleaned) is rarely as long as the protective life of the system, see Table 2.
c. Irreversible deterioration if scheduled maintenance is delayed.
d. Difficulty of access for maintenance.
e. Technical and engineering problems in maintenance.
f. Minimum acceptable period between maintenance.
g. Total maintenance costs, including plant shut-down, closure of roads, access, etc.
2. DESIGN
The design of structures and plant is based largely on data and functional requirements which can be
quantified, e.g. 'the steelwork supports plant manufacturing a specific product and has a life expectancy
of 25 years'. The selection of a protective system involves many factors; these factors vary widely according to the type of structure, its complexity, its function, the general environment, (see Table 1) the influence of microclimates and the effects of possible environmental changes (natural and otherwise) which
may occur during the required life.
Other factors affecting selection are quantitative, e.g. time to first maintenance, planned maintenance
schedule to cover the required life of the structure or plant, thickness of coatings, etc. They should be
viewed with caution because the degree of variation may differ between one coating system and another.
Quotations may vary considerably for the same system irrespective of whether it is hot dip galvanising,
metal spray or paint. Great care is necessary to ensure quotations for apparently identical products or
services do cover the same materials, application with the same degree of control, and comparable
quality of finish in terms of both required durability and appearance.
Some of the critical conditions and circumstances that have to be taken into account before selecting a
protective system are listed in question form in Appendix 1. Not every question is relevant to a particular
job and the importance of the relevant questions varies. The order of relevant questions might be modified in the light of answers to later questions. The list should be studied as a whole before the questions
are considered in detail.
2.1 Design for Protective Systems
The design of structures and plant can influence the choice of protective system. It may be appropriate
and economic to modify the design to suit the preferred protective system. The following points should
be noted:
a. Provide safe and easy access to and around the structure to facilitate maintenance.
b. Design the elements:
i. to avoid pockets and recesses in which water and dirt can collect, see Figures 1 - 5.
ii. to eliminate sharp edges and corners, see Figure 6.
iii. to provide clear access for painting e.g. to allow space to use a paint brush or spray gun,
see Figure 7.
c. Any areas which are inaccessible after erection require a coating system designed to last the
required life of the structure. Is this feasible or should the design be modified?
d. Certain structural sections are more suited to some coating systems than others, e.g. hollow
section are more easily wrapped than structural shapes.
e. The method or size of fabrication may preclude or limit some protective systems, e.g. friction
grip bolts, galvanising.
f. If bimetallic corrosion is possible, additional protective measures are necessary, see Figure 8.
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Figure 1 Design of parts easily accessible

to paint and maintain
Figure 2 Design to avoid formation of humid and

dusty zones: Drainage with holes and openings
a>30mm to drain moisture and dirt
Figure 3 Avoiding entrapment of moisture and dirt and Figure 4 Avoiding stiffeners, entrapment of moisture and
corrosive elements on or between parts of structures: dirt: Design steel structures without edges and corners
Hermetic sealing of hollow sections, drainage holes
where moisture and dirt collect
between inclined members and stiffeners
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Figure 5 Examples of good design of structures
Figure 6 Structures with rounded angles to avoid

corrosion. Edges and corners are corrosion
sensitive points even when protected by coatings
Figure 7 Examples of good design for coating and control of surfaces
g. Where steel is likely to be in contact with other building materials, special precautions may be
necessary e.g. oak timbers.
h. For steel structures in water, cathodic protection may be the best solution, see Figure 9.
2.2 Where to Apply Protection
In this case where means should the protective coating system be applied on or off site.
Protective system is more durable when applied in the fabrication shop or steel mill. Where there is a
likelihood of substantial damage occurring during transportation and erection specifiers may prefer
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the final one or two coats of protection to be applied on site. Paints specified for site use must be tolerant
of delay and a measure of intercoat contamination. The specification should state clearly who is responsible for quality control at each stage of fabrication and processing.
Where the total system is applied off-site, the specification must cover the need for care at all later stages
to prevent damage to the finished steel and set out repair procedures for the coatings once the steelwork is erected.
2.3 Special Areas
The protective treatment of bolts, nuts and other parts of the structural connections require careful consideration. Ideally their protective treatment should be of a standard at least equal to that specified for
the general surfaces.
Figure 8 Avoiding contact with other materials using an insulation material

Protection against galvanic corrosion
Figure 9 Steel structures in water

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Where high performance paint systems are to be used, it is worth considering hot dip spun galvanised
or stainless steel fasteners.
The mating surfaces of connections made with high strength friction grip bolts require special treatment,
see Appendix 2 in Lecture 4A.3.
3. SURFACE PREPARATION
The surface preparation of the steelwork has a major influence in determining the protective value of
the coating system.
For galvanising and metal spraying, surface preparation is an integral part of the process and is included in national standards for these operations. With paint systems there is usually a choice of preparatory methods. Therefore the actual method chosen for a specific job must be specified as part of
the protective coating treatment.
The choice between blast-cleaning and manual cleaning is partly determined by the nature of the coatings to be applied. Coatings applied to a degreased blast-cleaned surface always last longer than similar
coatings applied to manually cleaned surfaces. However, some short-life coatings do not warrant the
high cost of blast-cleaning as required for long-life coatings. Details of methods for blast cleaning surfaces are given in ISO 8504 [5].
3.1 Degreasing
Grease and dirt are best removed by proprietary emulsion cleaners followed by a thorough rinsing with
water, by steam-cleaning, or by controlled high pressure water jets.
Where it is necessary to use white spirit or similar solvents to remove oil or grease, the use of detergent
or emulsion cleaner should follow before completing the operation by thorough rinsing with clean fresh
water.
Degreasing by washing with solvent is not recommended because it can lead to the spreading of a thin
film of oil or grease over the surface.
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust
Mill-scale is made up of the surface oxides produced during the hot-rolling of steel. It is unstable. On
weathering, water penetrates fissures in the scale and rusting of the steel surface occurs. The mill-scale
loses adhesion and begins to shed. It is an unsatisfactory base and needs to be removed before protective coatings are applied.
In general, rusted steel surfaces are not a satisfactory base for the application of protective coatings,
although some primers have a limited tolerance to residual rust left on steel surfaces after manual cleaning. The means of removing rust and scale are described below.
3.3 Blast Cleaning
Abrasive particles are directed at high velocity against the metal surface. They may be carried by compressed air or high-pressure water, or thrown by centrifugal force from an impeller wheel. For some open
blasting, high pressure water without abrasives may be used. The various methods are listed in Table 3.
Commonly used abrasives for cleaning steelwork are listed in Table 4 with notes on their advantages
and disadvantages.
The choice of blast-cleaning method is determined by the following factors.
a. Shape and size of steelwork
Centrifugal methods are economic for plates and simple sections; they can also be used for large
prefabricated sections, e.g. bridge sections, but only in specially designed plants. 'Misses' discovered by inspection can be cleaned with open-blast techniques. For large throughput of shaped
items, e.g. pipes, both open and vacuum blasting techniques can be used in continuous and
automatic plants.
b. Effect of the stage at which cleaning is carried out
For blast-cleaning on site, open or vacuum-blasting methods have to be used as on large fabricated sections. It is usually impractical to use centrifugal methods.
478
c. Throughput
Centrifugal plants are economic for a high throughput, but even with a low throughput the
method may still be preferable to large-scale open cleaning.
d. Environmental conditions
Despite its relatively high cost, vacuum blasting may be necessary to avoid contamination of
the immediate area with abrasive. It should be ensured that the blast-cleaning process does
not affect adjacent materials.
e. Types of surface deposit to be removed
Wet-blasting methods, with abrasives, are particularly suitable for removing entrapped salts in
rust and for abrading old, hard painted surfaces, e.g. two-pack epoxies, before recoating.
On new work, blast cleaning can be carried out before or after fabrication. When it is before fabrication
a blast or holding primer is applied to prevent corrosion during fabrication. Areas damaged during
fabrication, e.g. by welding, require re-preparing and priming as soon as possible.
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard
ISO 8501-1 1988 is a visual standard which shows different degrees of blast cleaning on steel of four
levels of rusting [1]. The reference prints are in colour and the standard is based on the widely used
Swedish Standard SIS055900 [2]. It is used to specify and control the standard of abrasive blast cleaning required.
3.5 Surface Roughness
Because blasting roughens the surface, some control of the profile produced is important. If the distance
between the highest peak and the deepest trough is too much then the peaks may not be protected
adequately, Figure 10. ISO8503-1 1988 is a standard for surface comparators [3]. Visual comparison
between the comparator, Figure 11, and blasted surface allow the latter to be graded Fine, Medium
or Coarse profile. The peak to valley distance for each grade is specified in the standard; shot and grit
blasted profiles are different and there is one comparator for grit and one for shot blasting.
Figure 10 Influence of surface roughness on effectiveness of coating
ISO8501-1 [1] is intended for use with previously unpainted steel. ISO8501-2 [1] is being prepared and
relates to the treatment of previously painted steelwork.
In both the above standards the term Surface Cleanliness is used. This is slightly misleading because
although it refers to how effectively mill scale and rust have been removed, it sometimes is assumed to
include chemical cleanliness. This is not so. Tests for assessing the surface cleanliness are given in
ISO 8502 [4]. ISO 8502-1 gives details of site tests for soluble iron corrosion products and ISO 8502-3
provides a method for the assessment of dust on the surface and these are the only standards of real
use at present. ISO 8502-2 gives a method of determining in a laboratory the presence of chlorides and
further part giving guidance on the estimation of condensation is in course of preparation.
479
Figure 11 Use of surface roughness comparators (ISO 8503-2)
3.6 Flame Cut Edges

Flame cut edges have to be smooth and corners ground in order to make a durable paint coating. A
sharp corner creates a thin film and a starting point for corrosion.
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation
Manual cleaning, possibly using power assisted tools, is the method most frequently used for practical
or economic reasons, although it is the least effective. In due course Part 3 of ISO 8504 [5] will cover
hand and power tool cleaning but at present the only relevant standard is ISO8501-1 [1] which contains
two visual preparation grades for scraping and wire-brushing [2].
4. SURFACE COATINGS
As indicated in Lecture 4A.1, the common methods of protecting steelwork are paints, galvanising, zinc
or aluminium metal spray or duplex systems where one of the last three is over-coated with paint. The
main characteristics of the three groups are given in Lecture 4A.1. Appendix 1.
4.1 Paint Systems
Paints have three main components, a resinous components which literally glues them together and is
best referred to as the film former, pigment to give colour, weather resistance and in some cases
corrosion inhibition and, solvents to produce the correct consistency for application, control of the drying
rate, etc.
It is the film former which influences a paint's main properties, e.g. hardness, flexibility, water resistance.
For convenience the paint types listed in Appendix 2 are divided into three families, drying oil based
paints, one pack chemical resistant paints and 2-pack varieties. In each case the main film formers and
pigments are indicated, together with typical end uses for each broad family.
Usually there are three components, 'primer', 'undercoat' and 'finish' in a paint system.
Primers. Their functions are to promote adhesion and protect from corrosion. Since film thickness is a
very important in protection, two coats are frequently specified - sometimes three when the last two
are applied by brush.
Occasionally specifiers refer to the second and third coat of primer as 'primer undercoat'. Frequently this
misleads the contractor because the branded products freely available never feature this latter term
in the product description. The specifier is advised to label the system 'First coat', 'Second coat', etc.,
following with the appropriate generic description.
Undercoats. On steel, traditional undercoats provide the right colour base for the finish; they adhere to
the primer and little else. The high performance undercoat is more accurately described as an 'Inter480
mediate coat'. It is a second barrier should the steel be bared by damage or erosion. Often coats used
for this function can stand in their own right as finishes.
One important feature is to provide dry film thickness. A traditional undercoat gives about 25m per coat;
those used on steel in other than a being environment must give a minimum of 50m, with heavier duty
types producing 100m plus.
Finishes. They supply the required colour, gloss or sheen level and resist weathering, abrasion, and
chemical attack, as appropriate. More than one coat may be required depending on product type, exposure, environment, colour, etc. Dry film thicknesses per coat vary from 25m for a simple oil based
product to 100m or more for two pack epoxy coatings.
4.2 Metallic Coatings
a. Hot Dip Galvanising
The process deposits about 85m on the surface of the structural steel. Thicker films can be obtained in some circumstances. Galvanising must not be confused with Sheradising which achieves
no more than 30m zinc thickness or electroplating which deposits even less thickness.
b. Strip Mill Galvanising
Strip mill galvanising utilises sophisticated plant to clean, pickle and plate strip with non-ferrous metals
under carefully controlled conditions. The exterior surface of proprietary branded products, e.g. building cladding is likely to be finished with a 20-25m protective layer of zinc or zinc/aluminium (the
latter varying from 5 to 55%). This layer may be overcoated on the same production line with highly
durable organic finishes of varying dry film thicknesses.
4.3 Metal Spraying
The usual methods of applying zinc and aluminium are gas combustion and electric arc. Very high
standards of blasting and surface cleanliness are essential. Metal spraying and sealing are carried out
by specialist contractors. Inspection must be undertaken by qualified metal spraying inspectors.
All grades of steel can be metal sprayed and there is no size limit. Work can be undertaken at works or
on site. Aluminium is rarely applied at thicknesses greater than 150m. In polluted or immersed conditions zinc is applied at 200-250m.
Sprayed aluminium should be sealed. Zinc spray must be sealed if it is to be painted or during maintenance. Sealers are applied immediately after metal spraying and should not increase the thickness
of the metal coating. There are many sealers and it is wise to ask the paint manufacturer for a specific
recommendation for each job.
Both zinc and aluminium spray have good heat resistance, zinc up to 100C and aluminium to 500C.
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems
Galvanising and paint. The selection of paints is more critical than for steel. Some paints have been
developed for direct application to galvanised steel but results are variable. Acceptable pretreatments
include etch primers, proprietary pretreatments which provide a 'key' for the paint, certain water borne
primers formulated specifically for the purpose. The paint manufacturers advice should always be obtained.
Zinc or Aluminium Spray and Paint. Sealed spray can be overcoated without difficulty using a wide range
of coatings. Unsealed zinc in particular is extremely difficult to paint; the formation of zinc corrosion salts
(white rust) can cause severe blistering.
The use of a mixed system. Non-ferrous metal plus paint systems, can produce a layer which will outlasts either component if used alone. However, if the environment is aggressive to zinc or aluminium,
their use is questionable as opposed to seeking to protect them by overpainting, i.e. outside pH range
of 5-12 for zinc or 4-9 for aluminium.
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention
In order to assist the specifier of corrosion preventative coatings in selecting the materials to use and the
workmanship and inspection requirements needed, two further standards are now in course of preparation.
The standard dealing with paint products has been allocated the number ISO12944 [6] and that dealing
with metallic products is as yet unnumbered [7].
These are scheduled to become available by about 1996/7.
481
5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT

All protective coatings require maintenance and there are a number of ways in which the need becomes
apparent.
In the extreme, the need for maintenance is shown when a mechanical or structural failure occurs as a
complete surprise because the building or plant has never been the subject of regular inspections.
The need may also be manifest when visible coating failure or corrosion is noted by accident, e.g. when
casually passing through a building.
The preferred method of determining maintenance needs is by means of planned inspections made at
regular intervals. The comparison of the results of inspections with reliable records of the first and subsequent inspections gives the basis for defining maintenance needs.
The aim of maintaining coatings is to preserve a structure or building so that it performs its required functions throughout its designed life safely, efficiently and economically. For this purpose a maintenance
schedule for the structure or building is used to manage properly planned inspections and to keep
reliable records.
Consideration of maintenance should start when a new project is being planned. The specifier should
take into account the effects not only of the design upon maintenance painting, but also the influence
of the initial coating system.
Drying Oil Based Paints The paints are readily overcoated with similar products if the surface is cleaned
and if very hard, abraded. Upgrading to one or two-pack chemical resistant paints without completely
removing the oil-based paint is unlikely to prove satisfactory.
One Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They can usually be safely overcoated with similar materials once
the surface is cleaned. An exception is a moisture curing urethane system. Such systems may well require light blasting to obtain adhesion. Two pack products can be applied over moisture cured urethanes,
but is unusual to use them over the more common one pack chemical resistant products, e.g. vinyl and
chlorinated rubber resin based paint. Drying oil based paints are rarely applied over this particular class
of paints and never in wet environments.
Two Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They are usually hard and are difficult to maintain unless lightly
blasted. They are maintained by the application of similar products or, one pack chemical resistant
materials, but never with drying oil based paints.
Galvanised Steelwork It can only be safely over-coated when all soluble corrosion products are removed.
Once removal of these products is achieved, virtually any paints from the families noted above can be
used. Etch primers are available which assist adhesion to the zinc surface.
Metal Sprayed Steelwork If metal sprayed steelwork has been exposed unsealed, it is virtually unpaintable. Sealed coatings give few problems.
The choice of a maintenance paint process depends on the existing coating and its condition, the standard
of surface preparation possible, the working environment, time available, safety requirements, access
and, economic considerations.
The decision of whether maintenance is to be by patch painting or a complete recoat is influenced as
much by access as the state of the existing work. For example, if much scaffolding is required it may
be more economical to repaint overall.
If there is more than 5% rusting of the substrate painting overall will certainly be economical. The European scale of degree of rusting for anti-corrosive paints presents monochrome pictures of nine degrees
of rusting from Re1 (0,05%) to Re9 (95%).
In summary, successful maintenance starts at the beginning overall new project with the specifier
projecting the consequences of his design and choice of initial paint system into future maintenance can it be done and, with what? It continues with a strict, regular inspection routine, the results of which
are accurately recorded and become part of a detailed maintenance schedule. It ends with maintenance
painting specifications tailored to the job in hand and with the provision of adequate inspection to ensure the specification is followed.
482
When choosing a protective system, the maintenance cycle is an important consideration.
The 'design' of the steel members and the way in which they are jointed affects the main-
tenance cycle.
Poorly prepared steel surfaces prevent the protective treatment subsequently applied from
achieving its design life.
Corrosion prevention treatments can be either organic (paint), metallic (zinc, etc.), duplex
(metallic and organic) or cathodic.
Alternatively, in order to limit or prevent corrosion, the steel itself can be of a weathering or
stainless grade.
Regular inspection of the structure and proper routine maintenance prevents major remedial
work being necessary to the corrosion prevention treatment.
7. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrates before the application of paints and related products
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1: Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel substrates
after overall removal of previous coatings,
Part 2: Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal of previous
coatings (in course of preparation).
[2] SIS 05 5900: 1988, Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
[3] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1: Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products;
Part 2: Laboratory determination of chloride on clean surfaces;
Part 3: Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive tape method);
Part 4* Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint application (in
course of preparation).
[4] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrates.
Part 1: Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of
abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces;
Part 2: Methods for the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel. Comparator
procedures;
surface profile - Focusing microscope procedure;
surface profile - Stylus instrument procedure.
[5] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
Part 1: General principles;
Part 2: Abrasion blast-cleaning;
Part 3: Hand and power tool cleaning.
[6] ISO 12944 Protective paint systems for steel structures (in course of preparation)
Part 1: General Introduction
Part 2: Classification of Environments
Part 3: Types of Surface and Surface Preparation
Part 4: Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products
Part 5: Performance Testing
Part 6: Workmanship
Part 7: Design
Part 8: Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance
[7] Metal coatings for the corrosion protection of iron and steel in structures.
483
[1] Uhlig, H. H., Corrosion and Corrosion Control, 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley & Sons.
[2] Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric
Corrosion, ECSC Report 620.197, 1983.
[3] Controlling Corrosion, series of booklets published by the Department of Industry - Committee on
Corrosion.
[4] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by
British Constructional Steeelwork Association (BCSA) British Steel (BS), Paint Research
Association (PRA) and Zinc Development Association (ZDA)).
[5] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989 (Published jointly by
BCSA and BS).
[6] Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by
BCSA, BS, PMA and ZDA).
[7] BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against corrosion.
[8] DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic coatings Part 5
Coating materials and protective systems.
[9] Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
[10] ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings.
[11] ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
[12] BS 729 Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles, 1971(1986).
[13] BS 2569 Specification for sprayed metal coatings Part 1 and 2.
[14] BS 2989: 1992 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and iron-zinc alloy coated
steel: Haz product - tolerances on dimensions and shape.
[15] BS 3083: 1988 Specification for hot-dip zinc coated and hot-dip aluminium/zinc coated
corrugated steel sheets for general purposes.
484
Table 1 Classification of Environments

INTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
Class
Environment
Corrosion risk
Examples
Normal
(RH below 60%)
Negligible
Offices
Shops
Industrial Production/Assembly
Warehousing
Hospital Wards
Schools
Hotels
Occasional
Condensation
Low
Unheated Buildings
Vehicle Depots
Sports Halls
Frequent
Condensation
Significant
Food Processing Plants/Kitchens

Laundries
Breweries
Dairies
Not covered - seek expert assistant
Chemical Processing Plant

Dye Works
Swimming Pools
Paper Manufacture
Boat Yards over Seawater
Foundries/Smelter
EXTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
Class
Environment
Corrosion risk
Examples
Normal inland
Low
Industrial plant and supporting

steelwork
Bus/train terminals
Polluted inland
Significant
Tank farms, cranes, docks, power

stations
Normal coastal
High
Docks, cranes, container installations,

power stations refineries
Polluted coastal
Very high
Tank farms, industrial plants

supporting steelwork
Not covered - seek expert assistance
Aggressive industrial environments

such as steelwork adjacent to acid
plants, salt storage depots,
electroplating shops, chemical works
etc. Buried or immersed steelwork
Seawater splash zones.
485
Table 2 Typical Protective Systems

Introduction
Whilst there are numerous protective systems available, only twelve have been selected for this lecture.
These are eight basic paint systems (P1 to P8) on which there can be variations of paint types (see
Appendix 2); one galvanizing system (G1); and two metal spray systems (AS1 and 2).
Whilst the systems remain unaltered between environments, the notes vary to cover the changes that
are necessary.
P1
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2, ISO 8501-1
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 or Oil Based
Anticorrosive Primer
On site:
Rectify transit/erection
damage with Coat 2 Primer
Coat 3 Oil Based Undercoat
Coat 4 Oil Based Finish
Total DFT
Total DFT using micaceous Iron
oxide pigmented undercoat
Total DFT using micaceous Iron
oxide pigmented undercoat and
finish
486
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
Likely time to first

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Interior dry and interior with

occasional condensation
Dry film thickness m
Table 2 Environments A & B: Typical Protective Systems
15(1)
50
(50)
25
35
110
20+
130
20+
7-12
150
20+
7-12
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

in calculating total
thickness required
for protection.
2. Accurate costing
possible.
3. Controlled
environment for
preparation/priming
4.Pre or post
fabrication priming
possible. If post
fabrication, omit
coat 1.
5. Total system
can be applied on
site see (4) above.
Cost is likely to
increase. Quality
control is more
difficult.
6. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and
finish give better
edge protection.
7. Coats 3 & 4 can
also be replaced
with one coat of a
high build finish.
Prepare and
spot prime-oil
based
anticorrosive
Primer plus one
or two coats oil
based finish.
Spot priming
should be less
than 1% Topcoats only
refurbished
overall so
maintenance
relatively
straight-forward.
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp

P2
Off site:
Manual/Mechanical preparation
to St 2, ISO 8501-1
Coat 1 Oil Based Anticorrosive
Primer
50
Total DFT
Total DFT using micaceous iron
finish
110
20+
5(1)
130
20+
5+
150
20+
5-7(1)
25
35
P3
On site:
Manual/Mechanical preparation to
St 2, ISO 8501-1
Coat 1 Non oxidising 'grease'
paint or propriety 'anticorrosive'
compound
Coat 2 As coat 1
100+
100+
Total DFT
200+
20+
(1)
Comments upon
initial systems
1. Light millscale,
rust in pits will not
be removed. This
may cause paint
detachment before
the top coats need
refurbishing.
2. Coats 2 & 3 can
be replaced with 1
coat of a high build
finish.
3. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and
finish will give better
edge protection.
1. This process is
for hollow encased
steelwork. It is not
decorative.
Not
applied 2. Check risks in
the event of fire.
3. Some
manufacturers
may recommend a
'penetrating'
primer.
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
May require up
Prepare spot
prime oil based to 25% priming
& bringing
Anticorrosive
forward failure
Primer bring
forward with oil due to millscale
detachment
based under
coat apply 1 or 2 unpredictable.
coats of finish
overall,
Planned
OR
maintenance
1 coat high build budgeting
finish.
difficult.
Refurbish with
original
material or
similar.
Establish
consequence
of increasing
the total film
thickness in the
event of fire.
487
G1
On site:
Galvanize - pr EN 1029
AS1/ZS1
Off site:
Zinc or aluminum spray
to BS 2569
- Sealed aluminium
- Unsealed zinc
488
85
100
100

maintenance in
years
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
not
Size limitations.
applic- Not decorative.
able Not readily cleaned
in service. *Life
using galvanized
fasteners.
Oil based
anticorrosive
primer calcium
plumate
pigmented
(lead)
containing - T Wash or
2-pack etch
primer similar to
Type 1 Blast
primer 1 coat oil
based
undercoat 1
coat oil based
finish.
Corrosion
products must
be washed prior
to painting lead
- containing
primers impose
limitations.
T Wash must
be rinsed off
thoroughly.
No size limitations.
Not decorative,
retains dirt, oil etc.,
not
applic- readily.
able Not readily cleaned
in service. *
assumes fasteners
treated to same
standard.
Non lead
containing oil
based
anticorrosive
primer
1 coat oil
based
undercoat
1 coat oil
based finish.
Corrosion
products must
be removed
before priming.
(b)
20
20+
20+
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
(a)
prevent steel
corrosion
Cost comp

(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Interior frequent
condensation
Table 2 Environments C: Typical Protective Systems
P4
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer
On site:
Rectify transit/erection damage
with One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
15(1)
75
(75)
75
75
Coat 4 Replacing with fill gloss

One-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish gives 25 m for final coat:
225
15+
12
Total DFT becomes

OR
Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish giving
additional 25 m:
175
10+
10
Total DFT becomes
250
15+
12
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.
4. Small sections
vulnerable to
'blocking' if bundled
together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
5. Total system can
be applied on site
see (4) above. Cost
is likely to increase
and quality control
is more difficult.
6. Maximum
resistance to direct
chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.
Prepare, prime
with One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall
These products
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified with
oil. Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore.
489
P5
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer
On site:
with Coat 2 type Primer.
Coat 3 Two-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish
Coat 4 Two-pack
Total DFT
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Interior frequent
condensation
Table 2 Environments C: Typical Protective Systems
15(1)
75
(75)
75
75
223
15+
10+
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. Coat 1 may be
omitted if blasting is
post fabrication.
4. Epoxy or
urethane pitch or
tar can be used for
water resistance.
5. Consult
manufacturer for
min temperature &
max humidity
requirements during
application and
curing.
6. Intervals
between coats are
critical, consult
manufacturer.
Ensure relevant
information is
written into
specification.
Prepare and
apply one or two
coats of coat 3,
two pack
chemical
resistant finish.
OR
1 coat one-pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat
1 coat one-pack
chemical
resistant finish.
Preparation may
include light
blasting.
Remember
temperature
humidity and
intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with one-pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat and
finish can be
considered.
Note: System P1, page 486 using MIO pigmented undercoat and finish can be considered at dft's of 130-150 m. It will not
resist direct chemical attack or immersion. Likely time to first maintenance - 5 years (columns 'a' and 'b').
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 m dft). See page 488
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 m dft). See page 488
490
Table 2 Environments D: Typical Protective Systems
P1
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 or Oil Based
On site:
with Coat 2 Primer
Total DFT
Total DFT using micaceous
Iron oxide pigmented undercoat
Total DFT using Micaceous
Iron oxide pigmented undercoat
and finish
P2
On site:
Manual/Mechanical preparation
to St 2, ISO 8501-1
Coat 1 Oil Based
Total DFT
finish
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Normal inland
15(1)
50
(50)
25
35
110
7+
5+
130
10+
7-12
150
10+
7-12
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT in

calculating total
thickness required
for protection.
2. Accurate costing
possible.
3. Controlled
environment for
preparation/priming.
4. Pre or post
fabrication priming
possible. If post
fabrication, omit
coat 1.
5. Total system can
be applied on site
see (4) above. Cost
is likely to increase.
Quality control is
more difficult.
6. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and finish
give better edge
protection.
7. Coats 3 & 4 can
also be replaced
with one coat of a
high build finish.
Prepare and
spot prime - oil
based
anticorrosive
Primer plus one
or two coats oil
based finish.
Spot priming
should be less
than 1% Topcoats only
refurbished
overall so
maintenance
relatively
straight-forward.
Prepare, spot
prime with coat
1 type primer,
bring forward
with coat 2 type
undercoat, finish
overall with one
coat type 2
2. The use of
under-oat and
micaceous iron
one coat type 3
oxide pigmented
finish
undercoat and finish
will give better edge OR 2 coats type
3 finish.
protection.
OR 1 coat high
build finish.
May require up
to 25% priming
& bringing
forward failure
due to millscale
detachment
unpredictable.
1. Light millscale
rust in pits will not
be removed. This
may cause paint
detachment before
the top coats need
refurbishing.
50
25
35
110
6-10
3-5
135
6-10
3-5
150
8-12
5-7
Planned
maintenance
budgeting
difficult.
491
Table 2 Environments D: Typical Protective Systems
P4
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 Two-pack
Chemical Resistant Primer
On site:
Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss
Total DFT becomes
OR
Add Coat 5 - full gloss
Finish giving additional 25 m:
Total DFT becomes
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Normal inland
15(1)
75
(75)
75
75
225
175
15+
10+
7-10
7+
250
15+
7-10
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.
4. Small sections
vulnerable to
'blocking' if
bundled together
at this thickness:
consult
manufacturer.
5. Total system
can be applied on
site. Cost is likely
to increase and
quality control be
more difficult.
6. Maximum
chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.
Prepare, prime
with One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall.
Comments
upon repaint
system
These
products dry
by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems
usually good
therefore.
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 m dft). See page 488
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 m dft). See page 488
492
Table 2 Environments E: Typical Protective Systems
P4
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Coat 2 One-pack
Chemical Resistant Primer
On site:
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss
Total DFT becomes
OR
Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish giving
additional 25 m:
Total DFT becomes
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Normal coastal
15(1)
75
(75)
75
75
225
175
15+
10+
12
10
250
15+
12
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.
4. Small sections
vulnerable to
'blocking' if
bundled together
at this thickness:
consult
manufacturer.
5. Total system
can be applied on
site. Cost is likely
to increase and
quality control be
more difficult.
6. Maximum
chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.
Prepare, prime
with One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall.
These
products dry by
solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems
usually good
therefore.
493
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Polluted Inland
P6
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat
Onsite:
damage with Coat 2 Primer,
Bring forward primed areas with
coat 3 type undercoat.
Coat 4 to-pack Chemical
Resistant Finish
Total DFT
OR
substitute Coat 4 One-pack
Alternative process
Total DFT
494
15(1)
75
125
(75)
(125)
75
275
20
7-12
20
7-12
75
275
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. This coat can be
omitted if post
fabrication blasting
is carried out.
3. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
4. Consult
manufacturer for
min temperature
and max humidity
requirements during
application and
'curling'.
5. Interval between
coats is critical
consult
manufacturer.
Ensure relevant
information is
written into
specification.
6. This is a useful
alternative to a 2pack paint as the
final coat under cold
conditions or where
there are likely to be
delays on site
(includes 1-pack
moisture-curling
polyurethanes)
7. Glossy 1 or 2
pack Chemical
Resistant Finishes
will give lower
DFT's (circa 25 m)
Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 4 type
Two-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Finish.
OR
One-pack
moisture curing
polyurethanes
OR
Prepare and
apply one or
two coats Onepack Chemical
Resistant
Finish.
Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember,
temperature
and humidity
and intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with a Onepack Chemical
Resistant
Finish can be
considered i.e.
chlorinated
rubber, vinyl or
acrylic resin
based.
Also 1-pack
moisturecuring
urethane.
P7
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Resistant Primer
On site:
with 2 coats One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Polluted Inland
15(1)
100
(50)
75
75
75
325
15+
12
255(6)
10+
10
G1
Off site:
Galvanise - pr EN 1029
85
10+
AS2/ZS2
Off site:
Zinc or aluminium spray
to BS 5269 - sealed
150
Total DFT
Replacing with full gloss Onepack Chemical Resistant Finish
gives 25 m for final coat:
Total DFT becomes
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.
4. Small sections
vulnerable to
together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
5. Total system can
be applied on site.
Cost is likely to
increase and
quality control be
more difficult.
6. Maximum
chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.
Prepare, prime
with One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall (1 or 2
coats).
These products
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified with
oil. Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore
Not See notes under

applica G1 page 488
ble
Not See notes

Zn 15+ applica under AS1/ZS1
Al 20
ble
page 488
See notes
3 Coat one
under G1
or two pack
chemical
page 488
resistant paint
systems
150-300 m dft
As noted
in G1 above
See notes
under AS1/ZS1
page 488
495
Table 2 Environments F: Typical Protective Systems
P1
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 Oil Based
On site:
with Coat 2 type Primer.
Total DFT
Total DFT using a micaceous
iron oxide pigmented undercoat
Total DFT using micaceous
iron oxide pigmented undercoat
and finish
496
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Normal Coastal
15
50
(50)
25
35
110
8+
3+
130
8+
3-5
150
8-12
5+
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Accruable
costing possible.
3. Controlled
environment for
preparation/priming.
4. Coat 1 may be
omitted if blasting is
post fabrication.
5. Total system can
be applied on site.
Cost is likely to
increase. Quality
control is more
difficult.
6. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and
finish will give better
edge protection.
Prepare, spot
prime with coat
2 type primer.
Bring forward
with coat 3
type
undercoat.
Finish overall
with coat 4
type finish
Spot priming
should be less
than 1%.
Bringing
forward primed
areas with
undercoat
retains original
thickness.
Table 2 Environments F: Typical Protective Systems
P5
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 1, 11 or 111
Resistant Primer
On site:
damage with coat 2 type Primer
Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish
Total DFT
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Polluted Inland
15
75
(75)
75
75
225
15+
G1
Off site:
85
10+
AS2/ZS2
Off site:
to BS 5269 - sealed
150
20
10+
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. Coat 1 may be
omitted if blasting
is post fabrication.
4. Epoxy or
urethane pitch or
tar can be used for
water resistance.
5. Consult
manufacturer for
min temperature &
max humidity
requirements
during application
and curling.
6. Intervals
between coats are
critical, consult
manufacture.
Ensure relevant
information is
written into
specification.
Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 3, Twopack chemical
resistant finish.
OR
1 coat Onepack chemical
resistant
undercoat
1 coat Onepack chemical
resistant finish.
Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember
temperature,
humidity and
intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with One-pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat and
finish can be
considered.
Not See notes under

applica G1
ble
Not See notes

applica under AS1/ZS1
ble
See notes
3 Coat one
or two pack
under G1
chemical
resistant paint
systems
150-300 m dft
As noted
in G1 above
See notes
under AS1/ZS1
497
Table 2 Environments G: Typical Protective Systems
P6
Off site:
Blast to Sa 2, EN 8501-1
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat
Onsite:
with Coat 2 Primer
Bring forward primed areas with
coat 3 type undercoat.
Coat 4 two-pack Chemical
Resistant Finish
Total DFT
OR
Substitute Coat 4 One-pack
Alternative process
Total DFT
498
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Polluted Coastal
15
75
125
(75)
(125)
75
275
10+
10
10+
7-12
75
275
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. This coat can be
omitted if post
fabrication blasting
is carried out.
3. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
4. Consult
manufacturer for
min temperature
and max humidity
requirements during
application and
'curling'.
5. Interval between
coats is critical
consult
manufacturer.
Ensure relevant
information is
written into
specification.
6. This is a useful
alternative to a 2pack paint as the
final coat under cold
conditions or where
there are likely to be
delays on site
(includes 1-pack
moisture-curling
polyurethanes)
7. Glossy 1 or 2
pack Chemical
Resistant Finishes
will give lower
DFT's (circa 25 m)
Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 4 type
Two-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Finish.
OR
One-pack
moisture curing
polyurethanes
OR
Prepare and
apply one or
two coats Onepack Chemical
Resistant
Finish.
Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember,
temperature
and humidity
and intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with a Onepack Chemical
Resistant
Finish can be
considered i.e.
chlorinated
rubber, vinyl or
acrylic resin
based.
Also 1-pack
moisturecuring
urethane.
Table 2 Environments G: Typical Protective Systems
P8
Off site:
Blast to Medium Profile
ISO 8503 Part 1
Coat 1 Blast Primer
Type 11 or 111
Resistant Primer
On site:
with 2 coats One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish
Total DFT
Replacing with full gloss Onepack Chemical Resistant Finish
gives 25 m for final coat:
Total DFT becomes
(a)
(b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc

maintenance in
years
Cost comp
Polluted Inland
15
100
(50)
75
75
75
325
15+
12
275(6)
10+
10
G1
Off site:
140
10+
AS2/ZS2
Off site:
to BS 5269 - sealed
150
15+
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
1. Ignore this DFT

thickness required
for protection.
2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.
4. Small sections
vulnerable to
together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
5. Total system can
be applied on site.
Cost is likely to
increase and quality
control be more
difficult.
6. Maximum
chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.
Prepare, prime
with One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall (1 or 2
coats).
These products
dry
by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified with
oil. Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore.
Not See notes

applica under G1
ble
See notes
3 Coat one
or two pack
under G1
chemical
resistant paint
systems
150-300 m dft
Not See notes

applica under AS1/ZS1
ble
As noted
in G1 above
See notes
under AS1/ZS1
499
Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning (ISO 8504-1 and 2)

Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
Dry methods using compressed air or centrifugal force

Automatic plants based on
centrifugal throwing of the
abrasive
High production rates, lowest

costs, no moisture problems.
Can be coupled to automatic
application of primer, dust
problems contained.
High capital cost, high

maintenance cost, lack of
flexibility, i.e. not suitable for
recessed areas etc.
Open blasting based on

propelling the abrasive with
compressed air.
Simple to operate, very

flexible and mobile in use both
indoor cabinets or special
rooms or on site. Low capital
and maintenance costs.
High cost of compressed air,

low efficiency, liable to
moisture entrainment from the
compressed air, manually
operated and a variable
profile can result, operator
requires protective clothing,
serious dust problems.
Vacuum blasting based on

propelling the abrasive with
compressed air and
immediately recycling by
suction from the blast-cleaned
surface.
No dust problems, no special

protective clothing for
operators, fairly low capital
costs.
Can be very slow and

therefore expensive,
particularly on awkward
profiles and girder sections.
Where flat-plate or gun-head
automation is possible it may
be considered, but liable to
moisture entrainment from the
compressed air.

projecting water at very high
pressure.

flexible and mobile in use,
suitable for removing soluble
containments. At very high
pressure can remove millscale, no dry dust hazards.
Slow if firmly held

containments are to be
removed, dangerous at very
high pressure if proper
precautions are not taken,
limitation of drying surface
before painting unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, requires availability of
water and drainage, operators
require protective clothing.

projecting water at high
pressure and entraining
abrasive into the water
stream.

flexible and mobile in use,
suitable for removing all firmly
held contaminants as well as
soluble contaminants.
Dangerous at very high

pressure if proper precautions
are not taken, limitation of
drying surface before painting
unless approved water-based
or moisture tolerant primers
are based, required
availability of water and
drainage, operators require
protective clothing.

injecting low pressure water
into a compressed air stream
which is carrying an abrasive.
As above.
High cost of compressed air,

limitation of drying surface
before painting unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, dust hazard reduced,
operators require protective
clothing.
Open blasting using steamcleaning.
As above.
Similar to the above

according to whether abrasive
is or is not entrained.
Wet methods (hydroblasting)
500
Table 4 Classification of Abrasives Used for Cleaning Steel

Abrasive
Hardness
Normal usage
Advantages
Disadvantages
Chilled iron-grit
ISO 11124-2
60 to 80 RC
Captive blasting and

open blasting with
recovery systems
Relatively cheap, cleans

very quickly, will chip
under repeated impact
with work surface,
presenting fresh cutting
edges
Breaks down fairly

quickly. In centrifugal
wheel plants, special
protection is required to
reduce wear on moving
parts
Chilled iron-shot
60 to 80 RC
Captive blasting only
Relatively cheap, very

hard, should break down
to grit in us
As chilled iron-grit.
Because of ricochet
effect is not suitable for
open blasting or in open
cabinets
High duty chilled iron-grit

or iron-shot
55 to 64 RC
Captive blasting and

open blasting with reco
Breaks down less quickly More expensive than

chilled iron, rendered
than chilled iron
spherical in use, poorer
and slower rate of
cleaning than chilled iron
Heat-treated chilled irongrit or iron-shot
30 to 40 RC
As high-duty
As high-duty
As high-duty
Steel grit
60 to 67 RC
47 to 53 RC
Captive blasting mainly
Does not bread down so

quickly as chilled iron,
causes less wear in
centrifugal wheel plant
More expensive than

chilled iron, rendered
spherical in use and is
less efficient, supplied in
various hardnesses but at
best is not so hard as
chilled iron-grit and
therefore cleans more
slowly
Steel shot
41 to 49 RC
As for steel grit
As for steel grit, produces

a more rounded surface
profile than grit, ricochet
effect makes it unsuitable
for open blasting
41 to 52 R
As for steel shot and grit,

wears down as fairly
even sizes
High cost, rendered

spherical in use and
slower cleaning than
chilled iron
Aluminium oxide
(corundum)
ISO 11126-7
Not common in the

United Kingdom
Extremely hard
Expensive, hardness of
dust is a danger to
machinery unless used
in sealed captive plant
Copper slag
ISO 11126-3
Open blasting only
Cheap, no silicosis
hazards
Initial particles rather

coarse, breaks down to
dust very quickly,
angular particles tend to
embed in workplace
Iron slag
ISO 11126-6
Open blasting only
As for copper slag
As for copper slag
Sand (Olivine)
ISO 11126-8
Open blasting
Cheap
In United Kingdom,
Factory Inspector's
approval is required,
danger of silicosis
Cut steel wire

ISO 11124-5
501
International Standards for Metallic and Non-Metallic Blast-Cleaning Abrasives

A.1 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained
in ISO 11124 and ISO 11125.
ISO 11124 consists, at present, of the following parts, under the general title:
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for
metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Chilled-iron grit
- Part 3: High-carbon cast-steel shot and grit
- Part 4: Low-carbon cast-steel shot
- Part 5: Cut steel wire
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of hardness
- Part 4: Determination of apparent density
- Part 5: Determination of percentage defective particles and of microstructure
- Part 6: Determination of foreign matter
- Part 7: Determination of moisture
A.2 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in ISO 11126
and ISO 11127.
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for
metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Silica sand
- Part 3: Copper refinery slag
- Part 4: Coal furnace slag
- Part 5: Nickel refinery slag
- Part 6: Iron furnace slag
- Part 7: Fused aluminium oxide
- Part 8: Olivine sand
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of apparent density
- Part 4: Assessment of hardness by a glass slide test
- Part 5: Determination of moisture content
- Part 6: Determination of water-soluble contaminants by conductivity measurement
- Part 7: Determination of water-soluble chlorides
502
APPENDIX 1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF COATING SYSTEMS

QUESTIONS RELATED TO DESIGN, USE AND SITE REQUIREMENTS
Function
a. What is the main function of the structure?
b. What are the secondary functions of the structure?
Life
a. For how long is it required to fulfill this function?
b. What is the life to first maintenance? (It may not be possible to decide this until further
questions have been answered).
Environment
a. What is the general (atmospheric) environment at the site of the structure?
b. What localised effects exist or are to be expected, e.g. fumes from stacks?
c. What other factors may affect the structure, e.g. surface temperature and abrasion?
Appearance
a. What is the structure required to look like (colour and finish)?
b. Is the final coat to be applied on site?
Special Properties
a. What special properties are required of the coating, e.g. coefficient of friction?
Maintenance
a. What access is there going to be for effective maintenance?
b. What is the possibility of effective maintenance?
Health and Safety
a. Are any problems to be taken into account during initial treatment?
b. Are any problems to be taken into account during maintenance treatment?
Tolerance
Does the coating need to be tolerant of:
a. indifferent surface preparation
b. indifferent application techniques
c. departures from specification?
QUESTIONS RELATING TO COATING SYSTEMS
Coating systems
a. What coating systems are suitable?
b. Are these systems readily available?
c. Are the system elements mutually compatible?
d. If paints, can the coats be applied by:
brush
roller
airless spray
other?
e. Can the system, or parts, be applied on site?
Coating facilities
a. Are the coating facilities readily available:
i. for factory application
ii. for site application?
503
b. Do they cover all sizes and shapes of fabrication?

c. Do they permit speedy application?
d. Do the facilities permit work to adequate standards?
Compatibility with engineering and metallurgical features
a. Is the design and jointing of the structure compatible with the preferred coating technique?
b. Does surface preparation (blasting, pickling) or application of coating affect the mechanical
properties of the steel in any way that matters?
c. Is the system compatible with cathodic protection?
Delays
What delays should be allowed between:
a. fabrication and first protective coating;
b. application of primer and undercoat;
c. application of undercoat and finishing coat;
d. final shop coat and erection;
e. erection and final treatment?
Transport, storage and handling
How well does the coating withstand:
a. excessive or careless handling;
b. abrasion and impact;
c. early stacking;
d. exposure to seawater during transit?
Experience
a. What is known of the consistent performance of the coating?
Export
a. What special precautions should be taken when the steelwork is exported?
Maintenance
a. Is the deterioration of the coating rapid and serious if maintenance is delayed?
b. What is the likely maintenance system? (Including surface preparation).
Costs
a. What are the approximate costs of:
i. the basic system;
ii. any additional items;
iii. transport;
iv. access?
b. What are the approximate costs of maintenance?
APPENDIX 2 PAINT TYPES

BLAST PRIMERS
These primers have been the cause of some confusion; they are therefore dealt separately here.
They are used pre- or post-fabrication, normally in-shop and under controlled conditions.
a. Pre-fabrication primers are designed for use with automated blasting and painting plant. However, increasingly fabricators apply them by hand-held airless or high pressure conventional
spray very successfully.
The most important types are:
Type I: One or two-pack polyvinyl butryal/phenolic: zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 15-20m.
Type II: Two-pack epoxy: zinc phosphate or zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 25m.
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Type III: Two-pack epoxy: zinc metal DFT 10-20m. Note: Metallic zinc coatings (including zinc spray
and galvanising) can give rise to health hazards even in open shop conditions when welded
or flame cut.
b. Post-fabrication can be Types I to III; some have higher volume solids, give extended durability but are slower drying. The specifier should state the type and indicate whether use pre- or
post-fabrication is required. The manufacturer's application rates must be followed carefully,
particularly when overcoating with chemically resistant paints, e.g. over generous application
of a Type I blast primer can lead to intercoat failure (splitting).
One pack zinc metal and two-pack zinc ethyl silicate coatings are available for specific uses.
Very often the anti-corrosive primer which is the first coat of a chosen system is specified as the postfabrication primer.
DRYING OIL BASED PAINTS
These paints dry by reaction with atmosphere oxygen. Widely used, they are based on vegetable or
fish oils suitably treated, e.g. by heat, and reinforced with synthetic or naturally occurring resins. They
do not withstand direct chemical attack nor immersion conditions.
PRIMERS
There are two basic types, relatively slow drying products whose use is limited to site application and
faster-drying versions which can be used in-shop and on site. In general the latter type have lower
volume solids. All are for use beneath oil-based systems; some can be used beneath one pack
chemical resistant systems.
Typical binders are:
Drying oil
Drying oil modified alkyds
Epoxy ester
Urethane oil
Oil modified phenolic resin.
Typical anti-corrosive pigments include:
Zinc phosphate or zinc chromate with red lead and calcium plumbate still used in primers designed for
site use. All but zinc phosphate impose limitations in use.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-75m depending upon volume solids, application method and
service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
With the exception of unreinforced drying oils, all the binders noted under 'Primers' may be used.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide for whites and tints, organic and inorganic chemically resistant
pigments for colours. Micaceous iron oxide pigments are used to give increased film thickness, improved edge cover and good weather resistance.
Dry films are between 25-50m thick depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
These products are for use beneath oil based gloss and micaceous iron oxide finishes.
Finishes
High gloss finishes in BS 4800 and RAL colours and low-sheen subdued colours in micaceous iron
oxide paints have excellent weather resistance but do not resist direct chemical attack or complete
immersion in water.
Typical binders are oil or urethane modified alkyds, epoxy esters and oil modified phenolics.
Pigments are various grades of rutile titanium dioxide, light-fast coloured pigments and micaceous
iron oxide or aluminium.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-50m. In this respect, the same criteria apply as for undercoats.
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ONE-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS

All but one of the products in this range dry by solvent evaporation. The exception, moisture-curing
polyurethanes, will be dealt with last. A wide range of film formers is available, typically plasticised chlorinated rubber, solution vinyl copolymers and acrylic resins, acrylated polymers. The differences between
products based on these resins and others are subtle with individual manufacturers having built up
experience over many years with one or two resin systems.
The main characteristics which they have in common are excellent water resistance (including immersion), good resistance to inorganic acids and adequate alkali resistance. In this latter respect, twopack chemical resistant systems withstand severe attack better. Theoretically, no paint based on the
resins quoted in the previous paragraph are proof against attack by organic acids, animal fats, etc., but
in practice there are many examples where they have proved more than adequate. Paint manufacturers
will advise on specific cases.
Because these paints dry by solvent evaporation they form films at low temperatures and will dry
satisfactorily in polluted atmospheres. Intercoat adhesion both initially and for maintenance is good
because the resins remain soluble in the solvents used in the paints. Conversely, solvent resistance
is relatively poor. Maximum heat resistance is circa 65C.
In this group must be included waterborne resin systems, e.g. vinyl acrylic copolymers. Although
relatively new (they were introduced within the last decade) they show great promise, particularly as
metal primers. Since they coalesce rather than forming a film by simple solvent loss, their mechanical
properties are better than might be expected from a one-pack paint.
Also in the group are one-pack moisture-curing polyurethane resin-based paints. These must not be
confused with oil or alkyd containing products which are 'reinforced' by the addition of a urethane
component. Moisture-curing varieties dry like two-pack paints, undergoing a complex chemical reaction
in which moisture acts as the 'curing' agent. Once cured, these paints possess most of the attributes
associated with two-pack polyurethane paints. A significant advantage is their ability to form films at low
temperatures. Obviously this feature must be exploited with caution; water or ice formed at the paint/
surface interface must degrade its performance.
Primers are available for shop and site application based on all these resin systems. Since their corrosion inhibiting properties are inferior to primers irrespective of which inhibitive pigment is chosen, some
manufacturers produce an oil-modified primer specifically formulated for use in a one-pack chemical
resistant paint process (excluding moisture curing polyurethanes). Usually these are not recommended
for severe exposure or immersed conditions. They are particularly useful for site application.
Zinc phosphate pigments are widely used as the inhibitive pigment.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-65m depending upon volume solids, application method and
service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
Any of the resins noted above may be used. These coats are both weather and chemically resistant;
indeed many proprietary products are designated 'Thick Coatings' and suitable both as intermediate
and finishing coats.
Rutile titanium dioxide pigments are widely used in whites and tints. Light fast and chemically resistant
pigments are used for colours, with micaceous iron oxide used both for its weather resistance and ability
to improve the mechanical properties of the paint film.
Dry film thicknesses between 50-100m per coat depend upon volume solids, dimensions and complexity of the steelwork, application method, surface and ambient temperatures. Additionally, solvent release
is relatively slow and inhibits the thickness which can be safely applied to avoid solvent entrapment
producing bubbles or pinholes.
Finishes
Finishes are based on the same resin types as used in undercoats/intermediate coats. The same pigment
types are also used. Where finishes are sold specifically for this purpose they have better resistance
to severe exposure conditions and chemical attack than dual purpose products. High gloss finishes are
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available. Many BS 4800 colours can be produced although the need for chemical resistance rules out
some.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-100m per coat. Their achievement is governed by the considerations noted under 'Undercoats'.
TWO-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
These two-part coatings form films by a complex chemical reaction. The reaction is temperature dependent. Most products cannot be used at surface and ambient temperatures below 10C, although a few are
capable of 'curing' at 5C. It is important to differentiate between the film drying and attaining full
chemical resistance - the process referred to as 'curing'. Once this is complete, the coatings are tough,
abrasion resistant and resistant to a very wide range of acids, alkalies, oils and solvents even when fully
immersed. The time interval between coats can be critical, particularly with two-pack urethanes. The
principal difficulty being to ensure good intercoat adhesion.
Primers
A wide variety is available for both shop and site use. Most are suitable as post-fabrication primers only.
They are used beneath both one and two-pack chemical resistant paints.
The most widely used anti-corrosive pigment is zinc phosphate.
two-pack epoxy
two-pack urethane.
Dry film thicknesses between 25-75m are achieved, depending upon volume solids, application method
and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate Coats)
These products are used beneath one and 2-pack high performance finishes.
2-pack epoxy
2-pack urethane or urethane acrylic
Isocyanate-cured epoxy
Epoxy: Tar
Epoxy: Pitch
Urethane tar or pitch.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide in whites and tints, with light-fast chemically resistant pigments
in colours. Micaceous iron oxide is used to improve film build, weathering and mechanical properties. It
also facilitates overcoating.
Dry film thicknesses are influenced by the same criteria as the primers. They vary between 75-200m.
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Lecture 4A.3:
Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To expand Lecture 4A.2, providing young architects and engineers with guidance on using the information on the protection of steelwork in buildings.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4A.4: Corrosion Protection of Bridges
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the practicalities of design and how to deal with connections (fasteners) and
welds. It covers the effects of the environment on the external steelwork of buildings and suggests protective treatments. Common internal environments are discussed. Hidden steel and steelwork in perimeter walls are dealt with separately.
The lecture ends with special cases, i.e. steel in concrete, hollow sections and, cladding.
1. PRACTICAL DESIGN
General considerations, the benefits of designing to allow the effective use of protective coatings and,
making a conscious decision as to where they should be applied are dealt with in Section 2 of Lecture 4A.2. The requirements of Eurocode 3 [1] are described in Appendix 1.
Corrosion prevention truly starts on the drawing board. Design details which avoid water traps, ensure
adequate drainage and promote air circulation restrict corrosion. Avoiding contact between dissimilar
metals, removing sharp edges and corners are all important. Supremely important, but frequently overlooked or ignored in design is access for inspection, cleaning and maintenance. If the surface cannot
be reached, it cannot be maintained.
Design must take into account the life required of the building, the likely time to first maintenance and,
the intervals between each subsequent maintenance. The questions to ask when attempting to assess
the life requirement of a building are given in Section 1.3 of Lecture 4A.2. Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2 shows
typical protective systems related to simple definitions of environment. Paint types are described in
Appendix 2 of Lecture 4A.2.
Connections (fasteners) are an integral part of every structure. Frequently they appear to be forgotten
when the corrosion protection for the steelwork is decided upon. For example, in an aggressive environment several hundred microns of paint on beams will not effectively protect the structure if it is
connected together by black bolts.
2. TREATMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS

Bolts, nuts and other parts of connections need to be protected by a coating system of a standard at
least equal to that provided for the general surfaces.
The risk of damaging precoated connections and the surfaces of connections during erection and
assembly can be high. It may be necessary to specify a different coating system to that used on the
steelwork to reduce the danger. Alternatively the coating of accessible connection surfaces can be delayed until after the steel is erected. The protecting of fasteners and the areas immediately around them
is more difficult.
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
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Where high performance paint systems are specified, stainless steel, weathering steel or hot dip spin
galvanized fasteners should be considered.
Appendix 2 describes the treatment of faying surfaces of friction grip joints, black bolts bolted connections other than friction grip bolts, and deals with the means of ensuring satisfactory performance from
connections and fasteners. The corrosion of fasteners is always a major potential hazard which can
be overcome only by specifying fasteners suitable for the work in hand.
3. DEALING WITH WELDS

The welding technique influences whether weld areas are protected (a) after surface preparation and
before welding or, (b) left bare until the welding is complete:
a) When blast cleaning takes place before fabrication a blast primer (see Appendix 2, Lecture 4A.2)
can be used to protect steelwork. It is important to make sure this primer is compatible with the paint
system which has been chosen to give long-term protection.
b) If blasting is after fabrication a holding primer of one of three types as noted in Appendix 2 of Lecture 4A.2 can be used to protect the surface until the paint system is applied. Care is needed to choose
a primer which is designed for use after fabrication. Alternatively, the first coat of the chosen paint system
can sometimes be substituted for the holding primer.
Welding zinc or aluminium coated steel is unsatisfactory when the non-ferrous coating is more than 25
m thick. It is better to mask off the areas which will form the welds before applying the metal coating.
After welding, surface preparation of the standard specified for preparing the steelwork overall is required
before applying the protective coating process. Some forms of welding leave alkaline deposits behind.
These deposits must be removed by blast-cleaning followed by washing with clean water before applying protective coatings. This requirement does not apply to galvanizing where the process removes the
deposits.
4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS AND THE BUILDING'S EXTERIOR

It is not possible to define the micro-climate surrounding a building. The rate of corrosion of structural
steel greatly depends upon how long the steel remains wet. If the design allows for maximum rain
water and condensation shedding then local corrosion is minimised. If details which collect rainwater
or condensation cannot be redesigned, then adequate drainage must be allowed. (See Appendix 2
and Figure 1).
A classification of general exterior environments is set out in Table 1, Lecture 4A.2. Although it may
appear subjective and unscientific, this very imprecise information is often the only data available as
a basis for considering needs for corrosion protection.
5. ENVIRONMENTS INSIDE BUILDINGS
Design plays a major part in establishing the environment to which the steel is subjected. Surfaces
upon which water can hang or lay must be avoided as far as possible, so also must water traps. A
particular problem with internal surfaces, e.g. in factories, is alternate wet and dry cycles when mildly
acidic or alkaline water leaves behind salts which gradually build in strength to produce remarkably
aggressive microclimates.
The generic paint processes in Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2 reflects the problems inherent to each
environment. Thus all the processes in Environment C (Table 1 of Lecture 4A.2) are chosen for their
water resistance rather than ease of application or tolerance to poor surface preparation.
5.1 Hidden Steelwork
It is widely accepted that hidden steel, see Figure 2, in a dry heated interior, e.g. hollow encased sections
or steelwork above a suspended ceiling, lasts for some 50 years without any protection. Corrosion is
minimal in these circumstances and has no influence on the structural stability of a building. A proviso
is that the steelwork is not exposed for longer than two years before it is clad. There is a more important
consideration; will the interior remain dry? If the steel may possibly cool to fall below the temperature
of the dew point then it will at times be wet. The protective treatment should be specified accordingly.
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System P5 provides adequate protection. More practical is to specify galvanizing system G1 or, a paint
process tailored to the situation and not covered in Table 2 of Lecture 4A.2, i.e. an isocyanate cured pitch
epoxy applied at the fabricator's shop or steel mill to a dry film thickness of 400-500 m. Spark testing
to detect thin areas or breaks in the film is essential with this type of protective system.
Figure 1 Design to avoid formation of humid and dusty

zones: Drainage with holes and openings a>30mm
to drain moisture and dirt
Figure 2
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5.2 Steelwork in Perimeter Walls

Steelwork in perimeter walls is another type of hidden steelwork, see Figure 3. It may be separate
from the outer leaf, in contact with the latter or, embedded in the outer leaf. The protection problem
arises essentially from driving rain rapidly saturating the outer skin, particularly through mortar
joints, and wetting the exposed steelwork. The water flow is influenced by the absorbency of the
outer skin; bricks of low porosity increase the water flow through the joint while a highly porous
outer skin may effectively prevent migration of water in a cavity wall. The design should ensure
adequate drainage away from the steelwork at the base of the wall.
Figure 3 Corrosion protection systems for steelwork in perimeter walls
A clear separation of steelwork from the outer leaf by non-absorbent insulating material at least
25 mm thick or, an air gap of at least 40 mm ensures the greatest durability. Design should avoid ties
between the steelwork and the outer skin to prevent moisture bridging, i.e. heat conduction between
the outer leaf and the steelwork. Protective coating systems for this situation are not covered in Table
2 of Lecture 4A.2. The most effective systems are 400-500 m DFT (dry film thickness) of isocyanate
cured epoxy pitch or, hot dip galvanizing - 85 m for the steelwork and fixings.
Steelwork in contact with the outer leaf is best avoided. If contact is likely, then either of the two
prospective systems noted in the paragraph above is appropriate.
Where steelwork is embedded in the outer leaf good drainage is essential to assist evaporation of
moisture and to prevent pooling. It is wise to assume the cavity is not well ventilated and to protect
the steelwork by galvanizing (85m) or use of the pitch epoxy (400-500 m) as noted above.
It should be noted that corrosion products expand and can damage the building fabric, e.g. by dislodging facing bricks. This is a similar problem to the spalling of concrete arising from corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement.
6. SPECIAL CASES
6.1 Steel in Concrete
For many years it was held that steel in concrete required no protection. Provided that the compaction
of the concrete was adequate, it was uncontaminated with salt, and remained crack-free, this view was
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true due to the high pH value of concrete. However the concrete thickness needs to be above 40 mm
for protection to remain effective for the life of most structures.
A particular problem is the spalling or cracking of concrete associated with the corrosion of reinforcing bars (rebars) in concrete. External chlorides from de-icing salts, marine environments or internal
sources, e.g. from saline aggregate, can alter the electrochemical environment locally causing the
reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete structures to become non-passive.
If corrosion is remotely possible, then protection of the steel by fusion bonded epoxy coatings should be
considered.
6.2 Hollow Sections
Rarely is protection of the inner surface of structural hollow sections necessary. If the section is sealed,
no corrosion occurs. Where sections are incompletely sealed and there is no free flow of air, then no
more than a light surface oxidation takes place. It is sensible to provide drain holes at the low points
to prevent water being trapped, freezing and splitting the hollow section. Drain holes must be kept unblocked.
Completely open sections, e.g. box girders, may require internal protection. Galvanizing, fusion bonded
epoxy coatings or chemical resistant paints are all possible solutions.
6.3 Cladding
Prefinished cladding for roofing and walls is lightweight and its use allows cost savings to be made in
the overall building frame. A variety of profiles is available with the basic material being either steel or
aluminium. If steel, it is hot dip zinc or zinc/aluminium coated for protection against corrosion.
The basic metal is supplied in a coil or strip which is unwound, coated, cured and re-wound before
being formed into a variety of different profiles. The coating systems are extremely sophisticated and
outside the scope of this lecture.
When preparing a specification reference to a manufacturer's literature is unlikely to prove sufficient.
The specifier needs to provide a performance specification covering key items, e.g. loading (including
wind), substrate type, coating type (external and internal face), design life, environmental conditions
and evidence of the suitability of the proposed protective system.
In the relation to resistance to corrosion and weathering, the following items are important when making
the selection.
Choice of substrate
Galvanized steel cladding is strong but may corrode.
Aluminium requires taping at all joints with the steel structure; it is less resistant to site damage but
less likely to corrode. Its use in hot climates needs careful consideration.
Choice of coating
On aluminium, the coating is generally 30 m or below. This coating does not give a good performance
externally.
On galvanized steel cladding both 'thin' and 'thick' coating systems are available. As noted above, 'thin'
coatings of 30 m or below behave poorly outside. 'Thick' coatings (200 m) are mainly plastisols. 'Thin'
coatings are commonly PVF2, Acrylic or Polyester.
Manufacturers' descriptions
One must be cautious of manufacturers' descriptions. Many thin coatings are claimed to have excellent
colour retention; no reference is made to the ease of site damage during storage, installation or, life of
the building.
Plastiscol is a generic term applied to formulae whose performances vary dramatically. Be specific regarding performance pollution. Assess internal environments equally carefully.
Life requirement to first maintenance
The period to first maintenance is generally defined as the time after which the protective system no
longer protects the surface. It can also be the point in time when the cladding's appearance becomes
aesthetically unacceptable. It is important to specify which definition is being used.
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Influence of aspect
When appearance is important, it should be noted that the same product weathers differently on northand south-facing elevations or roofs. Data from manufacturers requires careful study.
Modern coated cladding may well have a life to first maintenance of twenty five years. Eventually however the coating will need refurbishing.
Deterioration of coatings has four phases:
1. The coating chalks, i.e. its surface weathers into a chalk-like layer which is unsightly but can be
removed leaving the surface beneath unaffected, reducing its thickness. Planned maintenance
is of greatest value at this stage.
2. The coating develops a very fine crazing which, if left penetrates to the metal substrate. Maintenance systems must be able to deal with this condition.
3. With the coating system crazing and finally cracking, the substrate begins to corrode. The specialist maintenance processes available today can be used effectively, but the original coats must
be stripped off. The cost of maintenance is therefore increased.
4. The substrate perforates, when there is no alternative but to reclad.
Overpainting prepainted cladding is a major undertaking. The cladding may have been finished in one
of seven generic types, all of which pose different problems. It is essential to involve a specialist contractor to apply the maintenance system. The system in turn must be supplied by one of a small
number of European paint manufacturers producing paints specifically designed to maintain cladding.
Good design of the members and the joints in the steel framework is the key to corrosion
prevention.
The quality of the coatings on fasteners and welds is as important as that on the main
framework.
The macro- and micro-environments both inside and outside of the building have to be
considered.
Particular care must be taken when designing steelwork that will be inaccessible on completion
of execution. Allowances for construction tolerances should be made.
Steelwork surrounded with concrete having a low pH value, poor compaction and placed in
thin layers will not protect the steel from corrosion.
Cladding is not only a weather-proof covering to the structure. It may also provide insulation
and strength and thus require a sophisticated protective coating.
When writing a corrosion prevention specification for the first time advice should be taken from
an experienced practitioner.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for
buildings. CEN, 1992.
[2] pr EN 1029: Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles.
[3] BS 4221: Specification for sheradised coatings in iron and steel articles.
[4] BS 3382: Specification for electroplated coatings on threaded components.
[5] ISO 3269: Fasteners - Acceptance Inspection.
APPENDIX 1
Eurocode 3 Requirements
Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures - Part 1 General Rules and Rules for Buildings [1] sets out certain
general requirements with regard to durability as follows:
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1. To ensure an adequately durable structure, the following inter-related factors shall be considered:
the use of the structure
the required performance criteria
the expected environmental conditions
the composition, properties and performance of the materials
the shape of members and the structural detailing
the quality of workmanship and level of control
the particular protective measures
the likely maintenance during the intended life.
2. The internal and external environmental conditions shall be estimated at the design stage to
assess their significance in relation to durability and to enable adequate provisions to be made
for protection of the materials.
In order to meet these requirements the designer must consider all the risks which may arise and make
the necessary provisions for an adequate protective treatment, with due regard to economy. The easy
option of over-designing to cover highly unlikely risks must be avoided so that the client does not bear
any unnecessary costs.
APPENDIX 2
A.2.1 Faying Surfaces of Friction Grip Joints
These surfaces are those which, when in contact with one another, transmit a load across the interface
by friction.
Faying surfaces require special attention. If left bare all moisture access points must be effectively sealed.
The alternative is to protect the faying surfaces, but the effect of the protective treatments on the slipfactor should first be closely investigated: their behaviour under static, dynamic and sustained loading
should be considered.
Faying surfaces are usually blast-cleaned at the same time as the general surfaces of the steelwork. It
may be advantageous to specify masking and that the masking should be retained as a temporary
protection, being removed before assembly. The type of masking should be specified to ensure minimum contamination by adhesives. The method of preparing surfaces after stripping the masking should
also be specified.
Where paint over sprayed metal is the specified protective system, masking may be used to prevent
paint being applied to the faying surfaces of connections. If galvanizing is the protection, roughening
can take place immediately before assembly. When galvanizing is to be overpainted, the roughening
should be carried out before the masking is applied.
Edge sealing of the faying surfaces can be specified to prevent corrosion where steelwork is located
in aggressive environments. The specification clauses should ensure that the edges on both faying
surfaces are painted for a distance of 15mm inside the perimeter of the connection.
In similar environments, where load-indicating washers or bolts with load-indicating heads requiring
feeler gauges for measuring shank tension are used, it is advantageous to specify that crevices should
be sealed by applying high-build paint or mastic compatible with the coating system. This sealing should
be carried out after the final tightening of all bolts (see Sections 1.2. and 1.3).
High-strength friction grip bolts are normally supplied with a light coating of oil. This coating is removed
by weathering and/or swabbing with solvents. The exposed areas can be treated with the same protective system as the steel structure or, one modified to suit site conditions.
A.2.2 Fasteners
Where steelwork is to be manually cleaned after weathering, the fasteners may be prepared and treated
in the same manner as the general surfaces. The specified primer must be suitable for site application
to manually prepared steelwork.
Where the overall surface preparation is by blasting after bolting-up, the exposed surfaces of the
bolts, nuts and washers should be blast-cleaned at the same time as the general surfaces. Such blast
cleaning should also be used if high-strength friction-grip bolts are used in similar circumstances.
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If surfaces are blast-cleaned prior to bolting-up and it is impractical to utilize the same preparation
method for the connector surfaces, then pickling of the bolts may be specified to remove scale and
assist in manual preparation of the exposed surfaces for coating. Pickling may not be suitable for
high-strength friction-grip bolts. On site, after erection, fasteners must be treated with a corrosion inhibiting primer suitable for application to manually prepared steelwork under site conditions.
A.2.3 Metal Coated Fasteners
Fasteners may be hot dip galvanized, sheradized, zinc, cadmium plated or mechanically coated. The
life of the coating for each metal is directly proportional to its thickness. Extra clearance is required
on the thread to accommodate the thicker coatings and early ordering is advisable therefore. The thinner
coatings should not be used without additional protection. European, ISO or National Standards should
be specified to avoid substitution.
If they are to be overpainted, metal coated bolts should not be chromate.
a. Hot dip galvanizing
Fasteners are spin-galvanized to pr EN 1029; this process gives a minimum local coating thickness
of 43 m. This zinc is alloyed to the base steel. General grade high-strength friction-grip bolts can be
galvanized but the threads should be lubricated to prevent galling.
b. Sheradizing
Sheradizing coatings are specified in BS 4921 [3]. The coating is alloyed to the base steel. A Class I
coating has a minimum local thickness of 30m and Class II coating 15 m.
c. Electroplating
Thin coating of cadmium and zinc are specified in Parts 1 and 2 of BS 3382 [4], with a thickness of
7.5 m for bolts more than 12 mm in diameter. Coatings with a minimum local thickness of 25 m are
covered by Part 7 of BS3382.
Cadmium plated components should be identified. On no account must they be flame-cut or welded
because of toxic fumes which can be lethal.
A.2.4 Bolted Connections other than Friction Grip Bolts
Where the surfaces of fabricated components are prepared and coated before erection, the surfaces
of the joints are usually coated at the same time.
When bare steelwork is erected prior to preparation and painting, the joint surfaces should receive
one coat of the priming paint specified and two where the environment is other than benign. This treatment should be specified also for steelwork delivered to site treated with a blast primer only.
A.2.5 Ensuring Satisfactory Performance from Fasteners
Fixing nuts and bolts can be:
Hot dip galvanized
Sheradized
Electroplated
Mechanically plated
An adequate thickness of zinc must be specified and reference made to the relevant Standard document
where one exists.
If the thickness of zinc is (a) too thin to offer protection for the design life of the structure or, (b) the
zinc will require maintenance by painting then further protective coating must be specified for the
surfaces exposed after assembly.
Where the zinc coating is the first part of the initial protective coating system, the total process should
be applied to the fasteners as part of the overall painting.
If the zinc is the sole protection, then the thickness on the fastener can be built-up by applying.
i. Zinc-metal containing paint.
ii. A protective paint system, the first coat formulated for direct application to zinc.
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Paint manufacturers advice should be sought for a system giving protection equivalent to that given
to the main structure.
Notwithstanding the environment, when electroplating is specified strict quality assurance and authoritative inspection is required to ensure both adequate adhesion and the correct coating thickness are
achieved. If they are not, this coating type can be considered 'sacrificial' in the same way as a paint
blast primer or holding primer.
Methods of acceptance inspection for fasteners are found in ISO3269 [5].
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Lecture 4A.4:
Corrosion Protection of Bridges
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
This lecture is intended to give detailed information on the corrosion protection of steel components
in bridges for the design engineer.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
Bridges are normally built for a long service life. They are subject to an unfriendly environment. For
economic reasons a high quality corrosion protection is required. For the main structure painting or
weathering steel is the normal choice and, for smaller details, hot dip galvanising or stainless steel is
also used. The possibility of unpainted steel in closed sections is discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bridges are generally built for a long service life, e.g. 100 years, and they are subjected to attack arising
from their use and from the environment: loads, wind, accidental damage, rain, deicing salts, sun, etc.
To ensure a sufficient life, a correct degree of protection against corrosion is required.
There are numerous means for preventing corrosion of steel structures, but for bridges the usual method
is to use coating systems - paint or metallic coatings - or, for some applications, alloyed steels weathering and stainless steels.
Several parameters influence the choice of a protective method: the required lifetime, the environment,
design and economic considerations.
The required lifetime of the protection system is not the same as the lifetime of the steel structure it
protects. The protective system usually required has a life in the order of 7 to 30 years between two
periods of maintenance, depending on the severity of environment and on the age of the structure (7
to 15 for old bridges - 10 to 30 for new ones).
2. EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
2.1 Environments
The environment influences the type and the intensity of the corrosion.
The influences of macro- and micro-climate should be considered:
a. macro-climate is the general environment in which the structure is situated. Macro-climates
can be roughly divided into:
rural inland.
normal inland.
polluted inland.
normal coastal.
polluted coastal.
but in practice, the actual environment is often a combination of these categories. The urban
environment, for example, may be a semi-polluted inland macro-climate.
b. micro-climate is the direct environment of the bridge elements and is affected by the configuration of the structure:
the underside of a bridge, where condensation can be present for long time.
519

the presence of crevices retaining dust and moisture.
areas that are not washed by rain.
vicinity of a chemical factory in the lee of prevailing winds.
spread of deicing salts.
pollution from the exhaust of motor vehicles.
2.2 Factors Influencing Corrosivity

Atmospheric corrosion occurs only if the air is sufficiently wet and polluted.
Under a critical level of relative humidity of 60%, the corrosion rate of steel is very low and insignificant.
Above 75% relative humidity, corrosion rates begin to be serious (see Figure 1). For a bridge this level
of humidity is exceeded for long periods.
Figure 1 Effect of relative humidity
Presence of chemical pollutants in the atmosphere can increase its corrosivity:

chlorides (near sea-shores) particularly promote and activate corrosion.
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other chemical pollutants are present in industrial and
urban atmospheres.
2.3 Different Areas
The different parts of bridges are not subjected to the same conditions of exposure see, for example,
Figure 2. Corrosion is more or less severe depending on the conditions at locations which are:
external.
condensation zones.
internal.
Figure 2 Old rail bridge with new pedestrian access

520
External locations are directly exposed, alternately wet and dry, and subject to the influence of temperature changes and UV radiations.
Condensation zones have permanent humidity, a high concentration of pollutants, possibility of localised corrosion.
Areas not washed by rain and permanent humidity.
Internal locations have no corrosion development if there is no renewal of the air, or localised corrosion if condensation occurs due to wet air (inside of girders).
3. PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
General information on surface preparation and coatings is given in Lecture 4A.2.
3.1 Coating Systems for Bridges
Depending on environment, type of element, expected lifetime and facilities for maintenance, the choice
of a protective system is made from the following:
3.2 Metallic Coatings (see Lecture 4A.2)
Zinc has been used as a protective coating for steel for many years. It is by far the most widely used metal
for protecting structural steel against corrosion. Zinc has a good behaviour in normal inland and coastal
environments, but is quickly corroded in acid atmospheres such as may occur in industrial or polluted
urban environments. In this case, aluminium or an aluminium-zinc alloy is a more suitable protection.
Brief details of these coating are:
hot dip galvanising:
It is described in Lecture 4A.2. A thickness between 60 and 100 microns is needed normally for anticorrosion effectiveness of 10 to 12 years.
zinc, or zinc-aluminium alloys, spraying
Usual thickness:
- zinc or Zn/Al 85/15 120 microns
- aluminium 150 microns
Effectiveness against corrosion can last for 15 years if associated with paint coatings.
combined systems (sometimes called duplex systems)
In some cases where it is necessary to provide an extra protection of the zinc coating a paint-coating
should be applied. Paint coatings on zinc surfaces have to meet special requirements and paint
manufacturers should be consulted.
3.3 Stainless Steel
Stainless steels are well known for their resistance to corrosion in corrosive atmospheres. This resistance
is due to the presence of alloying elements, such as chromium and nickel, which provide a passive protective layer on the surface.
An example is the austenitic type with 17-18%Cr and 7-9%Ni. This alloy is resistant to corrosion only as
long as the passive layer is not removed. In contact with slightly acid water the passive layer dissolves
and the steel starts corroding. A more resistant alloy is achieved by adding molybdenum, e.g. the
austenitic type with 17%Cr, 11%Ni and 2-3%Mo. This alloy is suitable for coastal and industrial environments (specially good resistance against chlorides).
Precautions must be taken when using stainless steel to avoid galvanic corrosion when in contact with
carbon steel, zinc or aluminium.
In bridge construction, stainless steel can be used for secondary elements, connections, and ancillary
equipments.
3.4 Weathering Steel
Weathering steel (see Lecture 4A.2) has been used for bridges for more than 30years with quite mixed
results. The experience shows that weathering steel can be used successfully under certain conditions.
521
A survey in the USA has clearly pointed out the most important reason for lack of success, i.e. the use
of de-icing agents. States in the north that use de-icing agents have experienced heavy corrosion on
bridge girders of weathering steel. This record should be considered together with the fact that North
American bridges rarely have waterproofing of the bridge deck and the joints may not be watertight.
Although the bridge deck may be made watertight initially, there is always a risk of leaks in the future.
The combination of weathering steel and de-icing agents should therefore be avoided.
For the development of the protective patina it is essential that weathering steel occasionally gets wet
and then dries. Thus in design nominally horizontal surfaces should be avoided because they may trap
water due to imperfections. For instance a horizontal bottom flange should preferably be formed like an
inverted V.
Even if no de-icing agents are used, water leaking through the bridge deck or joints is harmful in large
amounts. Care should be taken to make the deck as watertight as possible.
3.5 Closed Sections
A steel tube that is completely sealed will not corrode inside. This features is useful for small sections that
may be closed effectively. However, a box girder bridge with a concrete deck cannot be considered
to be completely closed. The concrete cracks and water may enter as well as oxygen. For this reason
box girders are normally painted on the inside but with a less comprehensive paint system.
Another possibility is to close the box as far as possible and to install dehumidifiers that keep the air at
less than 60% relatively humidity. The equipment and its running costs are inexpensive.
4. PROTECTION OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS

4.1 Load Bearing Structures
paint;
galvanizing;
spraying;
combined systems;
weathering steel.
4.2 Cables and Devices
paint;
galvanizing;
stainless steel.
4.3 Secondary Elements
paint;
galvanizing;
stainless steel.
5. DESIGN
The danger of corrosion can be reduced substantially by careful attention to design.
A design that takes into account all possible ways of preventing corrosion is much better than one where
the fight against corrosion relies only on the protection of the steel surface.
Anti-corrosion actions should ideally be considered at the planning stage and at the latest on the
drawing board.
6. MAINTENANCE
Some discussion of maintenance is included in Lecture 4A.2.
Bridges are required to have a longer service life and are more exposed than buildings. Thus
the choice of the corrosion preventative treatment is more critical for bridges.
522

Maintenance work on bridges causes disruption to traffic flow over or under the bridge. Thus
the time to carry out maintenance work must be minimised.

Means of safe access to carry out inspections and maintenance is important in ensuring bridges
are adequately protected against corrosion.
The use of weathering steels and enclosures should be considered at the design and detailing
stage.
Since a long life is required of bridge structures, maintenance of 'old' style organic and metallic
coatings has to be undertaken.
For special construction items such as suspension cables, parapets, etc., specialist advice should
be sought.
[1] Durability of steel structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric Corrosion; ECCS Report/620.197, 1983.
[2] Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings, ECCS Publication 50, 1987.
523
Lecture 4A.5:
Corrosion of Offshore and Sheet Piling
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:
To introduce students to the protection of structures, pipes, etc. offshore and in the ground.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 4A.3: Corrosion in Buildings
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the systems available to protect fixed and mobile offshore structures. It deals with
sheet piling, corrosion in soils, electrical methods of corrosion control and, very briefly, bacterial activity
and its influence on corrosion rates.
1. OFFSHORE
The North sea is far more hostile than the Texan and Arabian Gulfs. The technology used in the
warmer climates has had to be adapted and modified to meet the colder climatic conditions both in
coastal construction sites and, offshore in the North Sea.
The difficulty of repairing coatings or, worse still, replacing steel make it imperative that the coating
system prevents loss of steel by corrosion.
Fixed offshore constructions are divided into three areas, underwater and tidal, the splash-zone and,
decks.
Underwater and tidal zones
Experienced corrosion engineers are not always of the same opinion about the choice of a protective
system for steel in these zones.
Some argue that the area below the lowest low waterline (LLW) is subject to mechanical damage during
construction and hook up and: that no protective coating can be expected to survive for some 25 years
in the sea. Therefore cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes or impressed current) is necessary to back
up the coating systems. The argument then questions whether coatings are necessary, since cathodic
protection is easily increased in capacity and can therefore provide total protection of the uncoated steel
surface.
The opposing view is that even damaged coatings reduce impressed current amperage and anode consumption. Coatings will certainly improve corrosion protection in acute angles and in welded areas. It
seems sensible therefore to at least balance the cost of coating steel against cathodic protection only.
There is no debate regarding the advantages of using surface coatings in the tidal zone and for up to
10 metres below lowest average tide (LAT). Increased steel thickness to allow for corrosion in this
highly aggressive area may be provided, but cathodic protection combined with coatings is always
used.
The splash zone and jetties
These zones can be well protected by the coatings systems which are effective in the tidal zone. The
undersides of support decks and soffit areas in general also come into this category.
Any system chosen for service in this environment must have very good resistance to water, rust creep
and oil/chemical spillage. Coatings need to be suitable for patch repairs.
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion of Offshore and Sheet Piling
525
Decks
The decks on offshore platforms may require the protection of heavy duty coating systems
because they are subjected to severe traffic, impact, and chemical and oil spillage. On jetties the
decks are often an extension of the approach road and not vulnerable therefore. Where they are of
steel, then the same considerations apply as are given to protecting offshore rigs.
Mobile offshore equipment
A wide range of items if involved, e.g. jack-up drilling rigs (for shallow water), self-propelled and
semi-submersible drilling rigs, and supply ships. Service conditions vary with operating conditions
and the type of equipment. All suffer severe impacts and abrasions resulting in the destruction of
the protective coatings. Maintenance is difficult and is usually carried out at the same time as
mechanical repairs and overhauls and during lay up periods. The coatings systems used to protect
mobile offshore equipment are similar to those used on fixed offshore structures.
Paint Selection
Paint selection is greatly influenced by the likely weather conditions during construction and of
course, maintenance. For new work, surface preparation (which is always abrasive blast cleaning)
and the application of the first coats should be undertaken in shops where temperature and
humidity can be controlled. It is impossible to complete the final assembly of most offshore structures under cover, while the sheer complexity of fabrication requires a great deal of spot repairs
which can only be undertaken in the open. Although local abrasive blast cleaning is the normal
preparatory method when dealing with fabrication damage, there are occasions when only power tool
cleaning is possible. The products used for patch repairs must be capable of performing well (although
inevitably at a reduced level) over such preparation and of application under exposed conditions, possibly in adverse weather. The finishes used on the complete structure are also required to perform well
under similar conditions.
Typical Systems for Underwater, Tidal and Splash Zones:
New Works
Surface preparation in all cases is abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2, ISO 8501-1 [1].
Possible primers are one coat of 2-pack zinc silicate 75m, or 2-pack zinc epoxy 35m, or 2-pack
epoxy holding primer 50m.
The common finishing coat would be 2-pack coal tar epoxy, amine aduct cured, volume solids < 60%
applied by airless, spray at 200m per coat.
Maintenance in service
The maintenance painting of fixed offshore structures, jetties, etc. is unlikely to be possible for
more than 4-5 months during the spring and summer (the so-called weather window). Inevitably
work is halted due to poor weather, when the last coat is exposed to complete or nearly complete
immersion, salt spray, etc. Thus, ideally each coat must be as resistant to the environment as the
final finish.
It is feasible to repair underwater areas using water displacing solvent free epoxy coatings. Since these
coatings would be applied by divers, the problems are obvious. It is usual therefore to rely instead
upon cathodic protection to prevent corrosion at breaks in the coating.
Damage in the tidal or splash zones must be repaired because cathodic protection is not effective for
more than 0,2m above lowest waterline.
Typical Systems for Use above the Splash Zone:
New Works
The choice of primer is from those suitable for the underwater, tidal, splash zones described above. Surface preparation is abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2, ISO8501-1.
The finishing system is likely to consist of high build 2-pack polyamide cured epoxy intermediate coats
applied at dry film thicknesses (dft) of 100-150 m per coat. Usually two coats are applied. The first may
be pigmented with micaceous iron oxide to increase build on edges. The finish coat of circa 50m dft is
526
either a 2-pack paint described as urethane or polyurethane and probably based on an isocyanate
cured acrylic resin or a 1-pack moisture curing urethane, i.e. a material which reacts with atmospheric
moisture, producing an end product with similar characteristics to 2-pack varieties. The final coat is
usually modified to ensure it can be over-coated using fabrication and maintenance painting without the
need to first sweep blast to obtain adhesion. The product description in the manufacturer's technical
literature normally carries the word recoatable. Where appearance is not of prime importance, it is possible to use a zinc silicate primer (75m dft) followed by two coats of a 2-pack high build polyamide cured
epoxy applied at circa 150m dft per coat.
Maintenance
Maintenance usually requires blasting to Sa 2 followed by the application of the original system. The
treatment may be over all or spot depending upon whether the coating breakdown is severe or isolated.
Where surface preparation utilises water abrasive blast cleaning, then special primers are required, e.g.
1-pack zinc rich epoxy, moisture displacing modifications.
If blast cleaning is impossible, power tool cleaning to the St2, ISO 8501-1 followed by priming with a
2-pack epoxy aluminium pigmented mastic before finishing as noted above is an alternative. Its use
should be limited to minor repairs.
Typical Systems for Decks:
New Works
Decks require very heavy duty systems which are required to be non-skid as well as resistant to the
rigorous conditions noted elsewhere. Solvent free 2-pack epoxy systems are available for direct application in one coat of 3000m to blasted surfaces (Sa 2). These coatings can contain flint to prevent them
becoming slippery in service. Non-sparking alternatives are available for use in flame-free zones.
Normal heavy duty 2-pack epoxy coatings of the type used in the splash zone are also used in two coat
applications (total dft 200+m) over zinc silicate, zinc rich or zinc-less 2-pack epoxy primers.
Maintenance
Maintenance is usually blasting to Sa 2 followed by the re-application of the original systems, either
over all or in localised areas of damage. If for some reason blasting is not possible, then power tool
cleaning to St3, ISO 8501-1 may be acceptable for the more normal coating system, i.e. 2-pack epoxy
paint system at 200m. The heavy duty coating demands a high standard of abrasive blast cleaning.
Surface preparation for maintenance must be the same as the original.
2. SHEET PILING
The steel sections used for steel sheet piling provide the maximum strength and durability (consistent
with good driving properties) at the lowest weight which good design can achieve. Sheet piling is used
in both permanent and temporary works. Typical applications are sea defences, land reclamation,
quays, and coffer dams. Sheet piling can be spliced where lengths of more than 30m are required and,
although sheet piling is usually associated with straight line constructions, e.g. quay walls, the sections
can be used to form many shapes, including complete circles.
The effective life of unprotected piling, either mild steel or high yield steel (e.g. grades S235, S275 and
S355 to EN 10025) depends upon the stresses imposed in service and the corrosion rate. The potential
life of sections can vary from more than 120 years when exposed to an atmosphere with a mean corrosion rate of 0,05mm/year to circa 80 years in a splash zone with a mean of 0,09mm/year assuming
only one face of the piling is exposed. Where both sides of a sheet piling structure are exposed to the
atmosphere for example, the effective life can be reduced by some 30%.
Many environments in which steel piling is used have low corrosion rates. Piles driven into undisturbed
soils are quoted as corroding at no more than 0,03mm/year. In this situation protection is superfluous.
Conversely the rate in a splash zone may be as high as 0,15mm/year. If the imposed stresses are also
high, then measures to increase the life of the structure are needed. Replacing mild steel with high yield
steel is a possibility, as is the inclusion of additional steel thickness. Cathodic protection may be appropriate. High on the list of protective methods are paints.
527
Protective coatings should meet certain requirements:

the paints must be suitable for airless spray application.
the paints must be quick drying/fast curing.
volume solids above 50% are necessary to ensure dry film thicknesses of 100-400m in no
more than two coats.
These properties are necessary to ensure a speedy throughput in the shops where the initial coating
is applied.
Additionally the coating must:
have excellent adhesion.
be hard and abrasive resistant.
have low water permeability and good chemical resistance to resist transit, driving and finally,
the environment in which it is exposed.
A number of painting systems are available to the specifier, who should consider only those which were
designed for this particular end use. One specialist, British Steel, advocates the use of only two alternatives, both specifically designed for piling.
The first system is a high build two pack epoxy/pitch which is isocyanate cured. This is applied to abrasive blast cleaned surfaces of Sa 2 quality at up to 400m in one or two coats. Typical end uses are
piers, jetties, harbour walls and bearing piles in corrosive soils. The typical time to first maintenance
under severe exposure conditions is quoted as 15 years. Maintenance is either blasting followed by the
airless spray application of the original coating in one coat at 400m or two coats of what is in fact the
second system suggested as suitable for piling protection.
The second coating system is described as a tar-vinyl. This coating is a pitch modified with specific vinyl
resins which impart a measure of elasticity. The one part product dries solely by solvent evaporation,
which makes it particularly suited to site use. It can be applied at up to 150m per coat. Typical uses are
canal and river walls and, general structures not exposed in aggressive environments. Although abrasive blast cleaning to Sa 2 is preferred, this material can be used effectively over power tool prepared steel St2 or 3, ISO 8501-1. Maintenance requires the application of the original material to the
initial dry film thickness or it can be overcoated with other high build pitch solutions.
Only the isocyanate cured epoxy pitch is suitable for use on catholically protected structures.
3. CORROSION IN SOILS
Corrosion in soils is similar to corrosion in water. It requires the presence of an electrolyte and circumstances which produce anodic and cathodic areas in the steel or iron.
For soil conditions to cause corrosion there must be:
moisture present.
access to oxygen.
dissolved salts to increase electrical conductivity.
an acidic condition.
Buried steel structures are rarely exposed to conditions in which the electrolyte is acidic enough to
support corrosion without the presence of oxygen to maintain the process. Corrosion usually requires
the soil to be pervious to air, with variations in soil conditions giving rise to differential aeration and the
creation of cathodic and anodic areas (see Figure 1). An exception is in neutral, waterlogged clay; although oxygen cannot penetrate the soil, corrosion occurs by a sulphate-reducing bacteria present in
the soil (see Section 5).
Stray electric current can cause severe corrosion, the buried metal providing a low resistance path.
The metal acts as a cathode at the point where the positive current enters and becomes the anode
where it leaves the metal. Figure 2 illustrates the problem. The effect is worse with direct current.
The methods of controlling corrosion in soils are limited. Where the soil is acid, then pipelines can be
made less vulnerable by back-filling trenches with limestone chippings which changes the pH. This
528
method is unlikely to be suitable for structures or piles, where the soil is required to be undisturbed
for engineering purposes. In many cases the only effective answer is to re-route the pipeline or resite the structure.
Figure 1 Differential aeration corrosion resulting Figure 2 Corrosion of buried metal caused by stray
from variations in soil conditions
electric currents emanating from an electric railway
Traditionally, buried structures have been protected by coating with paints based on coal tar, pitch or
bitumen reinforced with a resin. Today, popular resins for such purposes are epoxy, vinyl or urethane
derivatives, i.e. the coatings discussed above as suitable for protecting immersed steel or piling in soil.
In the case of buried pipes other coatings, e.g epoxy powder, three layer polyethylene or wrappings, may
be more appropriate.
With all buried steel and iron, cathodic protection should be considered as a means of reinforcing the
performance of the coating.
4. ELECTRICAL METHODS OF CORROSION CONTROL

The best known method is cathodic protection but there are also other methods, i.e. anodic protection
and electrical insulation.
Cathodic protection relies upon the fact that, if the complete surface of a metal can be made cathodic
by using an external electrode, then corrosion will not occur. Figure 3 illustrates the use of an impressed
current system. Usually a low voltage direct current is the external current which confers protection. The
positive terminal of the current source is connected to an auxiliary anode which is located away from
the structure requiring protection. The structure itself is then connection to the negative terminal and
current flows from the anode to the protected structure. The latter is usually coated or wrapped because
the current required to protect an uncoated structure would be too high to make the method economic.
Thus, the coating or wrapping is the prime defense with cathodic protection dealing with breaks in the
coating.
Figure 3 Cathodic protection by means of an impressed current
Sacrificial anodes (zinc, aluminium, magnesium alloys) are also used (Figure 4). In this case the auxiliary electrode is made of a metal more active than the one requiring protection. It becomes the anode
in the corrosion cell when connected to the item requiring protection, which becomes the cathode. No
external current is required, but protection ceases if the anode corrodes completely.
529
Figure 4 Cathodic protection by means of sacrificial anodes
Anodic protection requires a passive layer to form and protect the metal from corrosion. An external
current is applied in the opposite direction to that for a cathodic system. It drains electrons from the
surface, raising the potential of the anode to a value at which the metal becomes passive (see Figure 5).
The current density required is high, but once passivity is attained only a very small current is required to
run the system. A further attraction is the high throwing power of the current which reaches areas remote
from the cathode. The system is potentially useful inside complicated tanks and long pipelines.
Figure 5 Anodic protection of a steel tank
The liquid being handled must lend itself to passivation, e.g. sulphuric acid. The current and the environment require careful monitoring to ensure that the correct conditions are maintained. If they are not,
rapid corrosion occurs.
Electrical insulation increases the resistance at some part of a corrosion cell, reducing the current flow
and therefore the corrosion rate. For example, the electrical resistivity of demineralised water is much
greater than that of a salt solution and the rate of corrosion in the former is correspondingly lower.
Re-routing pipes to avoid low resistivity corrosive soils reduces the corrosion risk. Laying pipes through
soils of differing resistivities may set up anodic areas in the metal in low resistivity soil and cathodic regions
in high resistivity soil, creating corrosion cells.
Such long line currents are prevented by inserting insulating joints between sections of pipes.
Finally, insulating dissimilar metals from each other, e.g. aluminium cladding sheets from the supporting
steel, eliminates the risks of galvanic corrosion.
530
5. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ORGANISMS

Although detailed explanations are beyond the scope of this lecture, engineers and architects should
be aware of the effects of aerobic and anaerobic organisms in promoting the corrosion of steel or ironwork immersed in water or buried in the ground. In practical terms expert advice should be obtained
when dealing with any project where the environment is likely to promote the growth of bacteria.
Aerobic organisms are those requiring free oxygen to prosper and anaerobic ones are organisms which
require no oxygen.
In the field of corrosion, sulphate reducing bacterial (SRB) are probably the best known; they are certainly the most destructive. In our predominantly aerobic environment they are dormant because they
are strictly anaerobic organisms. As the oxygen level in an environment decreases, e.g. in stagnant water
areas on a jetty at low tide, the SRB become active. As the cells increase by-products are produced
which initiate anaerobic corrosion. Their metabolism requires the reduction of sulphate molecules to water,
releasing free sulphide which reacts with hydrogen to form an extremely corrosive gas, hydrogen
sulphide. This process not only depresses the oxygen level, encouraging further growth, but reacts with
the iron and steel.
Whilst this area of work is the province of the corrosion prevention technologist, engineers and
architects need to know aspects that must be considered.

Protective treatments for offshore structures are different for steelwork at and above deck level
and at the tidal levels below deck.
Protective systems for sheet piling require knowledge of the stress levels and ranges in the
product and the conditions of the soil/water in which it is to be driven.
Damage during construction and use requires the use of coatings resistant to impact,
particularly in maritime situations. Electrolytic methods of corrosion control may offer the best
solutions in these situations.
Consideration must be given to the possibility of bacteria growths which can cause corrosive
action to take place on steelwork which is immersed in water or buried in the ground.
[1] Effect of Cathodic Protection Level and Stress Ratio on the Fatigue Strength of Welded Plate
Specimens in Seawater, Microfiche Report with OTH 89 310, London, HMSO, 1990.
[2] Thorpe, T. W., Influence of Stress Spectrum, Seawater and Cathodic Protection on Fatigue Crack
Propagation in Structural Steels, London, HMSO, 1990.
[3] Carney, R. F. A., Cathodic Protection of Steel in Real and Simulated Seawater Environments, London, HMSO, 1989.
[4] Waite, D., Steel Piles, Chapter 29 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1992.
[5] Wijngaard, B. H., Steel Piling Corrosion in Marine Environments - a Survey, EUR 7430, EEC, ECSC,
1982.
531

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Section 4A: CORROSION PROTECTION

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 1 Local electro-chemical action on wet steel surface

Figure 2 Corroding of the anode

Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

1.3 Why Protect Steel?

Figure 3 Pitting in the presence of mill scale

cathodic (+) patches (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Influence of cold bending on local

Figure 5 Example of crevice corrosion

Figure 5 Example of crevice corrosion

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

2. PROTECTING STRUCTURAL STEELWORK

Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Setting up a cathodic protection system on an immersed or semi-immersed structure requires expert

condition it is highly active.

Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion

Section 4A: CORROSION PROTECTION

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

Figure 1 Design of parts easily accessible

Figure 2 Design to avoid formation of humid and

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 5 Examples of good design of structures

Figure 6 Structures with rounded angles to avoid

Figure 7 Examples of good design for coating and control of surfaces

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

Figure 8 Avoiding contact with other materials using an insulation material

Figure 9 Steel structures in water

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

Figure 10 Influence of surface roughness on effectiveness of coating

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 11 Use of surface roughness comparators (ISO 8503-2)

3.6 Flame Cut Edges

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

ESDEP STEEL STRUCTURES

Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing Protection of Steelwork

Section 4A: Corrosion Protection

Table 1 Classification of Environments

Food Processing Plants/Kitchens

Not covered - seek expert assistant

Chemical Processing Plant

Industrial plant and supporting

Tank farms, cranes, docks, power

Docks, cranes, container installations,

Tank farms, industrial plants

Not covered - seek expert assistance