AN ASSESSMENT OF DIVERSITY, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF

SNAKE IN CENTRAL PANAY MOUNTAINS, ANTIQUE, PANAY ISLAND

An Undergraduate Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of the Department of Biological Sciences
College of Science and Mathematics
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology
Iligan City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of

Bachelor in Science in Biology (Zoology)

CHRISTILE O. ECHAVEZ
November 2016

Mindanao State University

ILIGAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Iligan City, 9200 Philippines
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

CERTIFICATE OF PANEL APPROVAL

The Undergraduate Thesis attached hereto, entitled SNAKE DIVERSITY
AND DISTRIBUTION IN CENTRAL PANAY MOUNTAINS, ANTIQUE, PANAY
ISLAND prepared and submitted by CHRISTILE O. ECHAVEZ, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
BIOLOGY (ZOOLOGY), is hereby recommended for approval.
KARYL MARIE F. DAGOC, M.Sc.
Member
___________

ANGELI V. MAG-ASO, M.Sc.

Member
___________

Date

Date

KARYL MARIE F. DAGOC, M.Sc.

Adviser
___________

DENNIS A. WARGUEZ, M.Sc.

Co-adviser
___________

Date

Date

This undergraduate thesis is approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY (ZOOLOGY).

CHRISTINE CHERRY E. SOLON, Ph.D.

Chairman
___________
Date

MARK NOLAN P. CONFESOR, Ph.D.

Dean, College of Science and Mathematics
___________
Date

DEDICATION

This entire work is heartily dedicated

to authors...
Parents,
Mr. Demetrio Pio Echavez and
Mrs. Jean Echavez,
Friends, buddies and fellow
researchers,
Source of inspiration,
wisdom, knowledge and
understanding
God Almighty
Our Divine Creator

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

The researcher, CHRISTILE O. ECHAVEZ, was born on September 12, 1995

in Iligan City, Lana del Norte. She is the eldest among three children of Mr. Demetrio
Pio D. Echavez and Mrs. Jean O. Echavez. She has one brother and one sister, Michael
Pio Echavez and Christiana Jean Echavez. She is usually called Titil among most of
her friends and classmates. She and her family is currently living in Prk. Santan, Brgy.
San Roque, Iligan City, Lanao del Norte.
She spent her pre-school and elementary years at Iligan City East Central
School, Iligan City where she participated in extra-curricular activities as a cheer dancer
and pop dance leader . She then spent four memorable years of high school at Sacred
Heart High School. She actively participated in many extra-curricular activities. She
became the vice-president of the Performing Arts Club Theater during her 4 th year and
cheer leader all throughout her high school years. She graduated as Fifth Honorable
Mention and Deportment awardee. She is currently taking her tertiary education in
Mindanao State University Iligan Institute of Technology in Iligan City taking up
Bachelor of Science in Biology, major in Zoology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researcher would like to express her heartfelt gratitude to the following
people who, and organizations that helped her throughout the course of this study and
made this study possible.
Firstly, the researcher would like to express her very profound gratitude to her
family especially her loving parents Mr. Demetrio Pio D. Echavez and Mrs. Jean O.
Echavez for providing her with unconditional love, care, concern, trust, unfailing
support and continuous encouragement throughout the years of her study and through
the process of researching and writing this thesis;
To her thesis adviser, Prof. Karyl Marie F. Dagoc and especially to her thesis
co-adviser Prof. Dennis A. Warguez for their knowledge, motivation, guidance,
patience, inspirational criticism and expertise in biodiversity and for guiding us every
step of the way towards the completion of this paper. Also for their carefree disposition
during the arduous sampling days making the experience fun and memorable and whose
door was always open whenever the researcher had a question about the research;
To the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Inc. (PBCFI), Sir
Philip Godfrey Jakosalem, and Kuya Andrew Ross Reintar for imparting their
knowledge to improve her study and providing them the necessary equipments, field
guides books and help during the sampling until furnishing this manuscript.

To Ate Esel, Kuya Ian, Erl, and Kuya James for being our Ate, Kuyas and
company during the sampling and for sharing their knowledge and expertise in the field
and to Kuya Pedro Peds Villarta for his skills, expertise, hands-on tutorials, the
companionship and for being a father to me during the sampling and for teaching us
not only about techniques on field sampling but also good values and sharing us
meaningful life experiences. Indeed, we may have only been together for a short time
but the experience will be forever embedded in our hearts.
To the HERPS TEAM Micah Ong, Ray Flourence Bess, Hanni Bless
Linconada and Felix Benedict Fabunan for helping her in collecting information and
preparing this report, for making this research filled of fun despite the countless
challenges and hardships they went through, for all the bullies and chikas they had
during the days of hiking kilometers of transect, for the assistance, support, and
unforgettable memories they have been together.
To Kuya Ranty, Kuya Edmond, Kuya Roland and Kuya Joey and all the
other guides in the municipality of Sebaste and Culasi whom the researcher failed to
mention, for guiding and accompanying us during our adventures in the wild and for
making us feel safe and protected during our stay at Central Panay Mountains.
To the rest of PANAY TEAM BIRD Team Menchie Bastida, Bea
Villanca, Al Christian Quidet, Ruth Jeanne Degamo, Aryel Dominic Lim, Kate
Bullecer; Bat Team Joegen Sanguenza, Kim Jean Canin; Owl Man (Ferenz
Cavalles); for making the sampling very enjoyable and unforgettable, for the late night
game of cards that surely made the stay at CPM filled of fun. This is one of the greatest

experience that she will never ever forget and this is all thanks to these people who were
with her during the twenty days of struggles and challenges in the bukid days.
To her dearest YOLO friends Sammy, Gesrel, Shree, April, Sarah, Noeme,
Dhendy, Lardel, Adam, Randolf, and Jonathan for being there for her during her ups
and downs in the making of this paper, who never failed to put a smile on the
researchers face and for cheering her up through YAR. Thank you for making her
college days memorable.
To her cousin, Angelie Monique Ocay for her continuous support to the
researcher. Thank you so much!
To his very handsome friend, Jun Bambi Sabayton, for his constant SMSs,
chats, calls that always gave her strength. Thank you very much for your support!
And above all, the researcher would like to thank the ALMIGHTY GOD
JESUS CHRIST, the source of the researchers wisdom and knowledge for always
giving her a lifetime support, guidance, protection, strength and exceptional
encouragement which led her to surpass all the struggles, challenges and trials all
throughout her 21 years of existence and also which led her to strive hard and do well in
everything she does. All of these were made possible thanks to Him.
For all those people that the researcher has failed to mention, she humbly
apologize for not mentioning and acknowledging your support. All of you will be
forever remembered and thanked for in the researchers heart. Thank you very much!
Titil <3

ABSTRACT

Central Panay Mountain (CPM), the mountainous spine of Panay Island is wellrenowned for reptile fauna. In particular, the municipalities of Sebaste and Culasi
comprises a vast range of reptiles, especially snakes yet unexplored from the biological
diversity point of view.This situation incited us to conduct the diversity, distribution and
abundance of snake in the primary lowland, secondary lowland, and karst limestone
forest of CPM. This study was conducted from July 25 to August 8, 2016 and recorded
a total of 24 inidviduals belonging to 11 species of 4 snake families (Achrochordidae,
Boidae, Colubridae, and Viperidae). Six species are Philippine endemic (55%). Among
the recorded, 9 species were Lower Risk least concerned (LR-lc); 1 is vulnerable
(VU), Python reticularis; and 1 is listed as Not Evaluated (NE) Psammodynastes
pulverulentus according to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
status. Results showed that secondary lowland forest was the habitat with most snake
diversity (H= 2.03). Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus is the most widely
distributed species both in terms of habitat and altitudinal distribution. Species richness
decreases with increasing elevation. Overall relative abundance showed that T. f.
Flavomaculatus is the most abundant species. Most species collected were noted to be
specialist and although listed as least concern by IUCN, were found to be rare in CPM
and were restricted to only one habitat type (secondary lowland forest). Threats to
snakes are also present such as illegal cutting of trees, kaingin and pet trade. Data from
this study can be utilized to come up with conservation measures especially enfrocing
law of making CPM a Protected Area (PA).

INTRODUCTION

Positioned on the western edge of the Pacific Ocean, on the south-eastern rim of
Asia, the Philippines is the second-largest archipelago on the planet, with over 7,107
islands which harbor the greatest concentration of unique species per unit area in the
world (Health Service Delivery Profile, Philippines, 2012). Because of this, the
Philippines is regarded as one of the 17 mega-diverse countries and considered as one
of the Hottest biodiversity Hotspots of the world, containing two-thirds of the earths
biodiversity which shelters 70-80% of the worlds flora and fauna (The Convention on
Biological Diversity, 1998). It is a suitable habitat for approximately 258 species of
reptiles, composed of terrestrial turtles (6 species), marine turtles (5 species), lizards
(124 species), terrestrial snakes (15 species) and crocodiles (2 species), which are
divided into 17 families , represented by at least 83 genera (Diesmos et al, 2002)
Although the Philippines is internationally recognized as a treasure-trove of
biodiversity, it is also considered having the highest rate of deforestation and habitat
destruction in the world (Zoltn, 2006). In the last several decades, Philippine forests,
have been in steady decline. The original forest cover of the Philippines has dwindled
from 27 million ha in 1500s to as little as 7.2 million ha in 2003 (Philippine Climate
Change Commission, 2010). The primary reasons are the centuries of unrestrained
colonial and industrial logging practices. These include illegal logging, fuel wood and
timber poaching, agricultural expansion, strip-mining, migration and plantation
development (DENR-FMB and CoDe REDD-plus Philippines 2010).

Central Panay Mountain in Antique, Panay Island was not excused of the
deforestation happening in the country. Panay Island is part of the West Visayas Faunal
Region. Historically, Panay was covered in tropical rainforest but now only 8% of the
original forest cover remains. It is undoubtedly the most threatened of the six main
faunal regions of the country, since it has the least remaining forest cover and the
highest numbers of severely threatened endemic species and subspecies (Pedregosa,
2008).
Among the faunal species, reptiles are probably the most misunderstood and
most illogically feared. Human behaviour toward animals is influenced by cultural
perceptions animals held in awe are protected while animals associated with evil are
often killed (Pough et al., 2001). Due to this negative impression of reptiles most of
them especially snakes are ruthlessly killed through fear, misidentification, and poor
knowledge (Moneva, 2010). However, reptiles particularly snakes are important
component of natural ecosystem as both consumers and prey items. Snakes consume
many small mammals and invertebrates, which serves as pests in agricultural areas.
They are known to regulate plant growth as well (National Biological Information
Infrastructure, 2007). Presence of rich reptiles diversity indicates a positive sign of a
healthy environment.
Philippine snakes is composed of 121 species, 106 species are terrestrial snakes
and 15 species are marine snakes (Diesmos et.al, 2002). Furthermore, a national list of
threatened faunal species established in 2004 declared that 2 species of snakes were
threatened/endangered (Phil. DENR, 2004).

One of the threatened species of snake listed in the Philippines occur in the West
Visayas, the Reticulated python (Python reticulates) (DENR, 2004). In 2000, Ferner and
company recorded a total of 35 species of snakes from the central Philippine island of
Panay specifically include the municipality of Culasi (Ferner et al.,2000). Considering
that the West Visayan region of the Philippines is one of the worlds highest
conservation priority areas, both in terms of numbers of endemic species and degrees of
threats (Pedregosa, 2009). Hence, an immediate attention and need to study the
diversity, distribution as well as the abundance of snake in Central Panay Mountain,
Antique, Panay Island.
.
Objectives of the study
This study aims to determine the diversity, distribution and abundance of snakes
in Central Panay Mountains. This study aims the following specific objectives:
1. To determine the species composition of snakes in CPM;
2. To present a species account of snakes present in CPM;
3. To determine the diversity of snakes in different habitat types in CPM;
4. To determine the distribution of snakes in different habitat types also in elevational
5.
6.
7.
8.

gradients in CPM;
To determine the similarity of species composition between habitat types;
To determine the abundance of snakes in CPM;
To correlate the abundance of snakes with selected habitat variables; and
To determine existing local threats to the snakes in the area.

Significance of the study

The study will update the current listing of snakes in CPM as well as the
diversity, distribution and abundance of different species of snake known from the
municipality of Sebaste and Culasi in Central Panay Mountain, Antique. The gathered

information will be useful to both governmental and non-governmental organizations

because it will serve as a basis for effectively strengthening the creation of CPM as a
protected area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

Panay is a triangular island in the Philippines located in the western part of the
Visayas (1109 N 12229 E) (Figure 1). With a total land area of 12, 011 km, highest
elevation is 2, 117 m and density is 335.66/ km ranking the sixth largest of the islands
in the country (Encyclopdia Britannica Online, 2016). The island is divided into four
provinces: Aklan, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo, all situated in the Western Visayas Region.
Its located southwest of the island of Mindoro and northwest of Negros, separated by
the Guimaras Strait.

The island is bisected by Central Panay Mountain, the

mountainous spine of Panay Island extends north to south for over 100 km. along the
border between Antique Province and Aklan, Capiz and Iloilo provinces (Figure 2). The
mountain range has a total area of about 46,000 hectares, its central coordinates is
12214.00 E 119.00 N with an altitude of 0-2,110 m which retains extensive forest
cover (BirdLife International, 2016).

Figure 1. Panay Island, its position in the Philippines indicated by red location icon.
Map inset, showing the boundary location of Antique.

Figure 2. Location map of Central Panay Mountain in Antique indicated by orange

shading.
Sampling Sites

Three habitat types were found to occur across the municipality of Sebaste (an
area of 111.64 km, density is 150/km) and Culasi (an area of 228.56 km, density is
170/km) in Central Panay Mountain. The three habitat types were identified as primary
forest located at the municipality of Sebaste and Culasi, secondary lowland forest at the
municipality of Sebaste, and karst limestone forest found in the municipality of Culasi.

Figure 3. A. Central Panay Mountain in Antique, showing the two sampling sites; B.
Panoramic view of Central Panay Mountain.
The primary forest in Culasi was identified at about 607 902 masl located at
coordinates 11.46745 latitude and 122.1366 longitude and is dominantly occupied by
dipterocarps and pteridophytes. It is considered as primary because there are no clear
visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not
significantly disturbed. This habitat had an average air temperature of 22.44C during
the day. Majority of the trees have a height of 10-15 meters and an approximate
Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) of 10-30 cm. The sampling site is accessible by a
four hour walk from the foot of the mountain. Sampling for this site was conducted
from August 4 - 8, 2016 and a total of 38 plots with 18 transect line were established.

Figure 4. Primary forest at municipality of Culasi (A) Primary forest with its understory
vegetation composed of ferns, shrubs and other herbs; (B) The stream where 10
transect line were established with boulder rocks and dead rotten log. Photo
taken by Philip Godfrey Jakosalem (A) and Christile O. Echavez (B).
The primary forest in Sebaste has an elevation which ranges from 446 - 571
masl with coordinates 11.54565 latitude and 122. 1539 longitude and is predominantly
occupied by dipterocarps and pteridophytes With 10-15 meters average tree height, 1030 cm Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) and abundant rotten logs along the stream.
This habitat had an average air temperature of 23.92 during the day and is accessible by
a two hour walk from the main road of the forest. Sampling for this site was conducted
from August 25-31, 2016 and there were a total of 27 plots with 12 transect line
established.

Figure 5. Primary forest at municipality of Sebaste (A) Open canopy vegetation with
abundant ferns, shrubs, and herbs; (B) The stream with abundant rotten logs
and some boulder rocks where 3 transect line were established. Photo taken by
Christile O. Echavez
The secondary forest is situated at municipality of Sebaste with elevational
range of about 169 383 masl with coordinates 11.53952 latitude and 122.1411
longitude mainly occupied by dipterocarp tree species. Nearly all trees have a 10-30
Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), 10-15 meters height, and

had an average air

temperature of 24.8C. Sampling for this site was conducted from August 25-31, 2016
and there were a total of 41 plots with 20 transect line established. This habitat was
considered secondary due to dominance of secondary growth vegetation, such as
bamboo, wild bananas, pioneer trees, and climbing vines that heavily enshroud the
canopy of the forest.

Figure 6. Secondary forest at municipality of Sebaste(A) Open canopy with sparse

understory vegetation; (B) Understory vegetation composed of short trees,
shrubs and herbs. Photo taken by Hanni Linconada.
The karst limestone forest is located at municipality of Culasi and is dominantly
inhabited by herbs and pteridophyte . The first transect point in this habitat was located
at 21 masl with coordinates of 12205.334 latitude and 11 28.843 longitude. This
habitat type has a widely open canopy cover with an average of 18 %, highly sparse
understory vegetation at 40% and an average air temperature of 28.5C. Sampling for
this site was conducted from August 4-8, 2016 and a total of 27 plots with 13 transect
line were established.

Figure 7. Karst limestone forest at municipality of Culasi(A) Widely open canopy

vegetation ;(B) Understory vegetation composed mainly of herbs and
pteridophyte Photo taken by Felix Fabunan

Sampling Method

Sampling began on July 25, 2016 and ended on August 8, seven days for the
first site and four days in the second sampling site. Capture of specimens was done
around 8 A.M. and 6-7 P.M. which is the preferred time in catching reptiles (Tariman
and Warguez, 2008). Sixty three 100-m transect lines were established across all
habitat types. Transect 1 was established at the primary forest in the municipality of
Sebaste, transect 2 at secondary forest, transects 3 and 4 were established at primary
forest and karst limestone forest in the municipality of Culasi, respectively. A line
transect method was used to determine the number of snake species and individual
found per habitat type. Markers were left in the area where the species was found but
were immediately retrieved after assessment has been carried out. Samples of

unidentified specimen were collected and taken back to camp for processing and
preliminary identification.

Habitat Assessment

Habitat evaluation for all habitat types took place at point zero and every fifty
meters within the 100 meter transect, yielding a total of 134 plots in each habitat types.
Species not encompassed within the 50-meter habitat assessment was enclosed in a 10
by 10 circular plot. Physico-chemical parameters such as air temperature, soil
temperature, relative humidity were taken in the morning with the use of thermometers
and psychrometer, respectively. Soil pH was determined with the use of pH meter and
universal pH indicator. All species were assessed with canopy, subcanopy, and
understory percentages, as well as their anthropogenic scores. The area was also
surveyed for the percentage of vines, shrubs, herbs, moss, grass, ferns, builder rocks and
buttress roots. Disturbances were also determined. Presence of water, water/stream
depth, and rate of water flow were also taken for transects established in the streams.
For arboreal species, DBH, tree height, and tree density were also taken. The habitat
variables are enumerated in table 1.

Table 1. Habitat variables present in a particular habitat type.

Habitat variables
Unit
Description
5-10 m tree height
m
The visual estimate of the
height of the tree found
within each quadrant
11-15 m tree height
m
The visual estimate of the
height of the tree found
within each quadrant.
>16 m tree height
m
The visual estimate of the
height of the tree found
within each quadrant
Tree density
%
The visual estimate of the
total number of trees in
the area
air temperature
Celsius
Measurement
of
the
hotness or coldness of air
in daytime
soil temperature
Celsius
Measurement
of
the
hotness or coldness of soil
in daytime
Relative Humidity
Celsius
Amount of moisture in
the air with the use of
psychrometer
Soil pH
Categorical
Measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of the water
held in pores of soil with
the use of pH meter and
universal pH indicator.
Canopy cover
%
The percentage of cover
layer overlying the forest
floor formed by tree
crowns and outer leaves
of trees measured using a
densitometer
Understory cover
%
Percentage of underlying
layer
of
vegetation,
between the forest canopy
and the forest floor.
Type of soil
Categorical
Soil characteristic within
the quadrat
DBH
cm
The diameter of the trunk
of a tree with a height
ranging from 16 meters and
above measured using a

measuring tape
Height of the buttress
roots found within each
quadrant
Percentage of vines found
within each quadrat

Buttress roots

cm

Vines

Shrubs

Percentage of shrubs found

within each quadrat

Moss

Percentage of moss found

within each quadrat

Herbs

Percentage of herbs found

within each quadrat

Grass

Percentage of grass found

within each quadrat

Rock

Percentage of rock found

within each quadrat

Presence of water

Water/ stream depth

cm

Percentage of water
present within each
quadrat
Measurement of water
depth using carpenters
tape measure.

Habitat type

Categorical

Leaf litters

inches

Ferns

Boulder rocks

Decayed fallen logs

Disturbance

categorical

Elevation

masl

Habitat differentiation
according to elevation
Thickness and variability
of leaf litters
Percentage of ferns within
the plot
Percentage of boulder
rocks within the plot
Number of dead trees and
fallen logs within the plot
Range of disturbance in
the transect line
Indicates the elevational
ranges of in different
habitat types

Processing and Identification of Specimens

The captured snake species were brought back to the camp for processing and
preliminary identification. Necessary data for the snake such as weight and body
measurements were also taken. The body measurements include tail length (TL) and
total body length (TBL) which was measured using a ruler and a standard tape
measure (Fig8). Body weight was also taken using a Pesola precision scale. After
measurements were taken, species were then identified with the use of available
references, the Herpetofauna of Panay Island, PhilippinesAn Illustrated Field Guide
(Gaulke, 2011). Snake specimens were cross-referenced with the online database of
the Biodiversity Research and Education Outreach of the Philippines and other
Herpetofaunal guide.

Figure 8. Body measurements and morphological features of snake

Specimens were documented and those that were not identified were preserved
and sent to experts for further identification.
Preservation of voucher specimens was done using 10% buffer solution of
formalin and 70% ethanol. The specimens were first injected with 10% buffer solution
of formalin to halt tissue deterioration. Next, specimens were placed on a hardening
tray and instead of being lined with cheesecloth, tissue paper was used since it was the
only material available. Specimen were then positioned in such a way that shows their
distinguishing features readily, and were tagged with common name, scientific name,
collectors name, place where they were collected, as well as their morphometrics.
Lastly, specimens are placed in a tightly sealed plastic container filled with formalin
for transport.

Data Analysis

Species Diversity

The Chao 1 estimator of species richness. This estimator was used since there
is always uncertainty in science when extrapolating beyond what is known, but the
alternative, to only count species that are seen, is certain to be wrong (Park, 2015).
This estimator thus predicts species richness based on the total number of observed
species in the samples, S(n), and the number of those species that were represented by
just one or two individuals. This estimator can be used with plot-based or plotless
data, and is given by

Figure 9. Chao 1 Estimator of Species Richness Equation

Here

is the number of species for which only one individual was found, and

is the number of species for which only two individuals were found. Clearly, the
more species that are found only once, the more additional rare species remain to be
discovered. This model is commonly used for diverse communities, and is especially
accurate when there is a high proportion of rare species.
Shannon-Weiners Index (H) of Diversity was used in this study since it used to
characterize species diversity in an ecological community. This assumes that individuals
are randomly sampled from an independently large population and all the species are
represented in the sample (Khan, 2006).
The Species diversity of the different habitats were measured by calculating
the Shannon-Weiner Index (H) through the following formula:
H ' =

([ nN ) xln ( Nn )]
i

Figure 10. Shannon-Weiners Index of Diversity Equation

Where

ni

= number of individuals of each species (the ith species) and

N = total number of individuals for the site, and

ln

= the natural log of the number.

A Shannon-Weiners Index value less than one (H < 1) implies a low diversity, a value
between one and three (1 > H > 3) implies a moderate diversity, and a value greater than
three (H > 3) suggests a high diversity.

Relative Abundance

Relative abundance refers to how common or rare a species is relative to other

species in a defined location or community (Hubbell, 2001). The relative abundance is
calculated as the number of organisms of a particular kind, indicating a percentage of
the total number of organisms (Krohne, 2001). It is obtained by dividing the total
number of species over the total number of individuals observed, captured, identified,
and recorded.
ni
100
N

( )

R . A . ( )=

Figure 11. Relative abundance general formula

Where:
ni = the number of individual per species
N = total number of individuals

Similarity of Species Composition

Morisitas Index of Similarity was also used in this study for comparing the
similarity of species across different habitat types (Karpouzi, 2007). It varies from 0 (no
similarity) to 1 (complete similarity). It is nearly independent of sample size, except for
very small samples (Krebs 1989). It is measured with the following formula:
S

2 n1 i n 2i
C =

i =1

( 1 + 2 ) N 1 N 2

Figure 12. Morisita s Index of Similarity Equation

Where:
n1 i

N1

= the number of times species i is represented in the total

from one

sample
n2 i

= the number of times species i is represented in the total

N2

from another

sample
1 + 2

= the Simpsons index values for the

n1 i

and

n2 i

samples resepectively

S = the number of unique species

A similarity index value varies from 0 (no similarity) to 1 (complete similarity).

Habitat Selection

Kruskal-Wallis Test will also be utilized whether there is a significant difference

in the habitat variables across the different habitat types.

Mann-Whitney U Test was used to know whether the habitat variables have a
significant effect on the absence or presence of an individual snake.
Logistic Regression Analysis was used to correlate the occurrence and
abundance of snakes with its selected habitat variables.

Determination of Existing Local Threats

Ocular survey or ocular inspection in the area and semi-structured interview

with the locals about the forest was conducted in order to determine the existing local
threats to the snakes in the area.

RESULTS

Species Composition

Eleven species of snakes belonging to four families: Acrochordidae, Boidae,

Colubridae and Viperidae (Table 2), with elevations ranging from 20 to 800 meters
above sea level were collected and recorded across three different habitat types found in
Central Panay Mountains (CPM), Antique, Panay Island. Six species or 55% are
endemic to the Philippines (Reptile Database, 2015). Among those recorded, Family
Acrochordidae and Boidae both with one species found exhibited 18% from the total
percentage of species composition. While eight species comprised the Colubridae
population which have showed 73% of the total percentage of species composition. And
one species belong to the venomous Family Viperidae have exhibited 9% of the total
percentage of species composition.

One species, the Psammodynastes pulverulentus is listed as Not Evaluated and

the other one, the Pythonreticularis, although recorded as not endemic and widely
distributed throughout the Luzon and Visayas faunal regions in the Philippinesis listed
as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2015) as a consequence of
being killed when encountered by humans and habitat fragmentation, largely through
conversion of land to agricultural and other uses, as this species appears to be restricted
to forest habitats.

Table 2. Taxonomic list and conservation status of snakes in CPM.

Family

Species Name

Common Name

Range

Conserv
ation
Status

Acrochordidae

Acrochordus cf.
granulatus

Little Filesnake

NE

LC

Boidae

Python reticularis

Reticulated Python

NE

VU

Colubridae

Ahaetulla prasina
preocularis

Asian Vine Snake

PE

LC

Colubridae

Boiga angulata

Philippine Blunt-headed
Tree Snake

PE

LC

Colubridae

Cyclocorus lineatus
alcalai

Northern Triangle-spotted
Snake

PE

LC

Colubridae

Dendrelaphis pictus
pictus

Painted/Common
Bronzeback

NE

LC

Colubridae

Gonyosoma
oxyphala

Arboreal Rat Snake

PE

LC

Colubridae

Lycodon aulicus
capucinus

Common Wolf Snake

NE

LC

Common Mock Viper

NE

NE

Mountain Rat Snake

PE

LC

Philippine Pit Viper

PE

LC

Colubridae
Colubridae
Viperidae

Psammodynastes
pulverulentus
Zaocys luzonensis
Trimeresurus
flavomaculatus
flavomaculatus

Legend:Range: NE- non endemic, PE- Philippine Endemic

Conservation status: LC-least concern, VU- vulnerable, EN-endangered .

These collected data about the species composition in CPM is significant for the
knowledge of society about the common and rare species of snake occurring in the wild
of CPM. Moreover, these data update the status and fills the gap on the information of
snakes found in Central Panay Mountains, Antique, Panay Island, Philippines.

Species Account
Individual species accounts with a brief taxonomic and diagnostic description of
their status, encountered in Central Panay Mountains are presented below.

Acrochordus cf. granulatus

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Acrochordidae
Genus Acrochordus
Species granulates

Photo courtesy of Selvan Melvin

Figure 13. A photograph of Acrochordus cf. granulatus

Acrochordus cf. granulatus also known as little file snake is a non endemic
species of snake in the philippines. This species is known from peninsular India
(northwest coast including Gujarat), Sri Lanka (Anslem de Silva pers. comm. 2009),
Myanmar, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Chandi 2006, de Rooj 1917, Smith 1941),
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea,
the Solomon Islands (Ehmann 1992), and coastal northern Australia (K. Sanders pers.
comm. 2008). It is classified as least concern by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
The specimen was collected at the riparian zone in the secondary lowland forest
of CPM at elevation 383 masl. This species feeds exclusively on sh and is widely
distributed and common (Alcala, 1986).

It is completely aquatic and nearly helpless on land. Their thin skin rips easily,
but has a very rough texture; hence their common name. They are sexually dimorphic,
with males being much smaller (thinner and longer bodies), compared to the larger
(short stocky) females. Most interesting is that this species varies between sexes in
feeding habits, the males actively hunt prey whereas the females sit and wait as ambush
predators (Shine, 1991). This study and that of Ferner are the only studies that has
accounts of this species from Panay.

Ahaetulla prasina preocularis- (Taylor 1922)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Ahaetulla
Species prasina preocularis

Photo courtesy of Rafe M. Brown

Figure 14. A photograph of Ahaetulla prasina preocularis

Ahaetulla prasina preocularis or also known asAsian Vine Snake is listed as
endemic in the country of Philippines. Distributed in the islands of Panay, Luzon,
Dinagat, Siargao, Basilan, Batan, Bohol, Camiguin, Cebu, Leyte, Mindanao, Negros,
Polillo, (Leviton, 1968), Sibuyan (Gaulke, 2008), and probably many other Philippine
Islands. It is classified as least Concern by IUCN 2015.
Individuals of this species from CPM were found to inhabits both primary
lowland forest and secondary lowland forest and recorded as arboreal and diurnal
snakes which were observed on shrubs and low tree branches overhanging stream

water waiting for the perfect time to ambush small lizards and frogs, and known to
occur from 325 meters above sea level to about 800 meters above sea level. This species
also forage on the ground but in slow motion.
Morphologically the specimens collected in CPM has extremely slender body
form with a long, pointed, projecting snout and more forward eyes with horizontal
pupils and attains 820 mm (2.7 feet) average total body length with a tail of 270 mm
(0.9 feet) long. Furthermore, observed to have a coloration of dull yellow-green.

Boiga angulata - (W. Peters, 1861)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Boiga
Species angulata

Figure 15. A photograph of Boiga angulata

Leyte cat snake (Boiga angulata) is a Philippine endemic species of snake
known to occur from the islands of Catanduanes, Inampulugan, Leyte, Samar (Maren
Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), Luzon, Mindoro, Lubang, Mindanao, Negros, Cebu (Juan
Carlos Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007), the Polillo Islands, Bohol and Panay (Alcala 1986,
Ferner et al. 2000). It is classified as least concern by IUCN Red lList of Threatened
Species.
The specimen was found along the streams in the secondary lowland forest of
CPM at elevation 262 masl. This species is known from Negros (Leviton, 1970), this

report and that of Gaulke (in press) and published study of Ferner (2000) are the only
studies that recorded the accounts of this species.

Cyclocorus lineatus alcalai (Leviton, 1967)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Cyclocorus
Species lineatus alcalai

Figure 16. A photograph of Cyclocorus lineatus alcalai

The Northern Triangle-spotted Snake (Cyclocorus lineatus alcalai) is one of the
snakes that are endemic to the Philippines. Distributed in the western part of the
country, namely, the island of Negros, Cebu, and Panay. Although listed as least concern
by IUCN in 2016, there was only one individual of this species observed in the wild of
CPM.
The specimen collected was found to occur at primary lowland forest of CPM
with an elevation 455 meters above sea level. It was recorded as terrestrial snake which
was observed on the leaf litters beneath a rotten fallen log in riparian area. Moreover,
according to IUCN 2016 its current population trend is stable.

Additionally, the specimen appears to have 335 mm (1.1 feet) total body length
with 61 mm (0.2 feet) tail length. Leviton in 1967 described this species having a head
which is slightly distinct from the neck, small eyes with round pupil, and cylindrical
body form with very small white spots on the outer lateral edges of ventral with dark,
triangular-shaped blotches and well developed along the lateral edges of ventral shields.
This species was recorded to have 17 rows middorsal scales.
The species also appears to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation and has
been reported near to villages.

Dendrelaphis pictus pictus (GMELIN, 1789)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Dendrelaphis
Species pictus pictus

Photo courtesy of Rafe M. Brown

Figure 17. A photograph of Dendrelaphis pictus pictus

Painted/Common Bronzeback (Dendrelaphis pictus pictus) is not endemic to the
Philippines. It is widely distributed throughout India and Southeast Asia, this includes
the countries of Indonesia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussala, Cambodia, Hong Kong,
India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Malaysia, Borneo People's Republic of China, Singapore,
Thailand, Vietnam, and Philippine Islands (including Palawan and Sulu Archipelago;
Calamian Islands, Panay, Luzon) ( Conservation International (CI)). The species is
classified by IUCN as least concern.

Individuals of this snake was found in both primary lowland forest and karst
limestone forest and recorded as arboreal and diurnal snake. Most of the individuals
observed in CPM rests on shrubs and narrow tree branches a few meters above the
ground, along the trail in riparian zone, from 81 meters above sea level up to 557 meters
above sea level.
Additionally, the specimen was known to attain 480 mm (1.57 feet) total body
length with 100mm (0.03 feet) tail length, having a light bronzebrown dorsal surface
and a cream and black stripe runs from the eye to tail ventrolaterally, and a rigidlooking head scarsely distinct from the neck which bears dark brown to black round
pupil. Furthermore, this species exhibit 15 rows of middorsal scales .

Gonyosoma oxycephalum
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Gonyosoma
Species oxycephala

Figure 18. A photograph of Gonyosoma oxycephalum

The Red-tailed Green Ratsnake (Gonyosoma oxycephala) is a Philippine
endemic species. This occur only in Panay, Philippines. Its conservation status is least
concern as classified by IUCN in 2016.
This is an arboreal snake that is found in secondary thus disturbed forests having
an elevation of 358 meters above sea level. Observed to stay in a tree close to a birds
nest and seldom descends to the ground near a wide stream ( 5 meters from the water
and 3.5 meters from the ground).

The specimen collected, as its name indicates, manifest a green body with a
reddish brown tail. It has a slightly distinct head from the neck that appears wider than
the body and yellowish dorsally. Its eye exhibits a round dark pupil with light to dark
green irish with a vaguely horizontal black line around it. The specimen attains 860 mm
(2.0 feet) in total body length with 210 mm (0.7 feet) in tail length.

Lycodon aulicus capucinus - (BOIE, 1827)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Lycodon
Species aulicus capucinus

Photo courtesy of Rafe M. Brown

Figure 19. A photograph of Lycodon aulicus capucinus

The Common Wolf Snake (Lycodon aulicus capucinus) is a non-endemic
species of the Philippines, known to be widespread in South- and Southeast-Asia. It
faces no major threats and is therefore listed as Least Concern by IUCN.
This common, nocturnal and ground dwelling

snake was found to inhabit

secondary lowland forest with 221 meters above sea level elevation, observed on a
boulder rock with moss alongside trail. Additionally, according to Gaulke it is oftenly
found in houses human dwellings, looking for house lizards; therefore also known as
house-snake.

The specimen collected has irregular white or pale yellow markings on its dorsal
surface beginning from the neck to its tail. The head is brown with a distinctive whitish
to yellowish collar across the neck and middorsal scales in 17rows. Furthermore,
obtains a total body length of 550 mm (1.8 feet) and tail length of 91 mm (0.3 feet).

Psammodynastes pulverulentus - (Boie, 1827)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Psammodynastes
Species pulverulentus

Figure 20. A photograph of Psammodynastes pulverulentus

The Common Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pulverulentus) is known from
Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, Hong Kong, NE India, Bhutan, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal,
Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam and Philippines. Thus, listed as a nonendemic species in the
Philippines. This common, widespread species is not evaluated in IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. However, many articles and study accounted this species.
According to the study of Brown et al.,(2013). The specimen on the ground on
stream bank at night and others were encountered asleep among the lower branches of a
small bush on a river bank. Many reports have stated that this species is primarily

nocturnal, but the two individuals that was encountered in the secondary lowland forest
of CPM was during the morning on a leaf litter near stream (about 7 meters from the
water) in an elevation about 357 to 370 meters above sea level.
The specimen collected, as its name indicates, tend to have large head and bold
disposition similar to true vipers, with typical bifurcating pattern on top of the head. It is
light brown accompanied by light and dark brown stripes with few unevenly distributed
small black spots with white center that extend along the length of the body. Its medium
sized eye has a vertical pupil.

Python reticulates - (SCHNEIDER, 1801)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Boidae
Genus Python
Species reticulatus

Figure 21. A photograph of Python reticulatus

This widely distributed non-endemic species named Reticulated Python (Python
reticulates) is known to occurred throughout Southeast Asia. And according to Gaulke
(2011) this species was once very common but becoming rare in many areas due to
overhunting. Wherefore classified as vulnerable by IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.
Although considered common and widely distributed in the tropical rain forests
as well as near human habitation (Alcala, 1986), only one individual was encountered in
the secondary lowland forest on CPM. It was found on a small tree close to water (4

meters from the stream) and was only observed and not actually collected since it was
coiled on a tree branch and estimated to reach several meters.
According to OShea (2007) , Reticulated pythons are so named for their
retiulate patterning, a characteristic network of browns, greys, and yellows presenting a
broken, zigzagging dorsal stripe with parallel lateral rows of pale spots, edged with dark
pigment. It has an elongate head and slender body.

Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus (Leviton, 1961)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Viperidae
Genus Trimeresurus
Species flavomaculatus flavomaculatus

Photo courtesy of Brian Santos

Figure 22. A photograph of Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus

The Philippine Pit Viper (Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus)is a
species endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the island of Bohol,
Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dinigat, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, and
Panay. It is listed by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Least Concern in view of
its wide distribution, presumed large population, it occurs in a number of protected
areas, has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, and because it is unlikely to
be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.
In this study, four individuals were recorded and encountered in both secondary
lowland forest and primary lowland forest yielding a total of eight individuals. Nearly

all of the specimens were collected during night times at the riparian zone, observed to
stay on a boulder rocks, coiled and steady, waiting for a prey, mostly frogs, to strike. It
had been recorded at about 185 meters above sea level to 649 meters above sea level in
the wild of CPM.

Zaocys luzonensis- (Gnther, 1873)

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Genus Zaocys
Species luzonensis

Figure 23. A photograph of Zaocys luzonensis

The Smooth-scaled Mountain Rat Snake (Zaocys luzonensis ) is endemic to the
Philippines, where it is known from the islands of Negros, Catanduanes, Luzon, Polillo
and Panay. A record from the island of Leyte is probably an error (R. Brown pers.
comm. 2007).It is listed as Least Concern by IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in
view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, it occurs in a number of
protected areas, has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, and because it is
unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.

Individuals of this species from CPM were found to inhabit the secondary
lowland forest of CPM and recorded as terrestrial and diurnal snakes which were
encountered directly in the watercourses moving faster than the usual speed of a snake.
The specimens were found between 169 and 383 meters above sea level.
This species apparently has slender body with distinct pattern of numerous small
light brown diamonds bordered by dark colour in its dorsal surface, where a clear
blackish line runs along the length of the body dorsomedially and whitish ventrally. The
tail is more darkened in colour than the proximal part of the body. A distinct head from
the neck which bears large round eye with black pupil and brownish iris.

Species Diversity

Species Richness

Number of snake species present in the primary lowland forest (S=4) were
noticeably lesser than the species present in the secondary lowland forest (S=9) which
was documented as the habitat with highest species richness of snake present in CPM

(Table). Lowest species richness for snakes was noted in the karst limestone forest
(S=1).
A theory-based estimator (Chao 1 estimator) was also used in this study to
estimate the additional number of species present in CPM that are too rare to be
detected. The Chao 1 estimator of species richness (Table) showed that secondary
lowland forest most likely has 27 species of snake present, higher than the estimated
species richness in the remaining habitat types: 4 and 1 for primary lowland forest and
karst limestone forest, respectively. With these known estimated values of maximum
species present in different habitats in CPM also in combination with the actual
observed species richness, it implies that among the three habitat types, secondary
lowland forest is the most diverse habitat occurred in CPM, since species richness is
one of the two components of measuring species diversity.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Figure 24. Species richness across different habitat types.

Observed Species
Richness
Estimated Species
Richness

Shannon-Weiners Index of Diversity

The Shannon-Weiner index of species diversity (Table 6) showed that secondary

lowland forest (H= 2.03) is the most diverse habitat type with 9 out of 11 species of
snakes present in CPM. With a value H=2.03, this suggests that the area is moderately
diverse with an even distribution of species. In contrast, the least diverse habitat
occurred in CPM was the karst limestone forest with a Shannon-Weiners value of 0,
indicating that the area has very low and poor diversity, which was found to be
dominated by only one species the Denrelaphis pictus pictus.

Diversity Value
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

Shannon-Weiners
Value

Figure 25. Shannon-Weiners value of species diversity across different habitat types.

Species Evenness

Species evenness of snake across three different habitat type found in CPM was
also documented in this study using the equitability index of Shannon-Weiners index of
diversity. The secondary lowland forest has a value of 0.92, making it the habitat type
with most even number of individuals per species of snake. For primary lowland forest,
the number of individuals per species present is still even but more less than the
preceding habitat type mentioned above. And zero evenness was noted in karst
limestone forest due to the dominance of only one species.

Species Evenness Value

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Species Evenness
Value

Figure 26. Species evenness across habitat types.

Hence, the secondary lowland forest habitat has the highest snake diversity in
CPM and exhibited less diversity in other habitat types, primary lowland forest and
karst limestone forest.

Table 3. Summary of species diversity of snakes across different habitat types in CPM.
Diversity Index

Primary
Lowland Forest

Secondary
Lowland Forest

Karst Limestone
Forest

Observed Species Richness

Maximum Species Richness
Shannon-Weiners Index
Species Evenness
Remarks

4
4
1.15
0.83
Moderate

9
27
2.03
0.92
Moderate

1
1
0
0
Low Diversity

Diversity

Diversity

Species Distribution and Endemism

Species distribution across different habitat types

Table --- shows the distribution of snakes across three different habitat types
found in CPM. The philippine endemic Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus

Table 4 . Distribution of snake in CPM across different habitat types

Habitat Types
Scientific Name
Primary
Secondary
Lowland
Lowland
Forest
Forest
Acrochordus cf. granulatus
_
+

Karst
Limestone
Forest
_

Ahaetulla prasina preocularis

Boiga angulata

Cyclocorus lineatus alcalai

Dendrelaphis pictus pictus

Gonyosoma oxycephala

Lycodon aulicus capucinus

Psammodynastes pulverulentus

Python reticulatus

Trimeresurus flavomaculatus

Zaocys luzonensis

Total Number of Species

Total Number of Endemic Species

was found to be the most widely distributed species being found in 2 of the three habitat
types sites. Two other species Dendrelaphis pictus pictus and Ahaetulla prasina
preocularis was also found to be widely distributed, like T f. Flavomaculatus, found in
two of the three habitat types as well. The rest of the species was found to be restricted
only in the secondary lowland forest of CPM.

Altitudinal Distribution of Snakes

Three species showed a wide distribution in CPM based on altitudinal levels

(Table). These were the Ahaetulla prasina preocularis and Trimeresurus flavomaculatus
flavomaculatus, both of which are Philippine endemic species that were found to thrive
in higher elevations up to 649 and 774 masl, respectively. The third one, is the
Dendrelaphis pictus pictus, that was found to thrive only at middle elevations up to 557
masl. On the contrary, Python reticularis, Lycodon aulicus capucinus, Psammodynastes
pulverulentus, Acrochordus cf. granulatus, Gonyosoma oxyphala and Boiga angulata,
half of which are Philippine endemics were recorded to flourish only in lower
elevations.

Table 5.Altitudinal distribution of snakes in CPM.

Scientific name

Observed elevation in CPM (masl)

Acrochordus cf. granulatus

Ahaetulla prasina preocularis
Boiga angulata
Cyclocorus lineatus alcalai
Dendrelaphis pictus pictus
Gonyosoma oxyphala
Lycodon aulicus capucinus

383
325-774
262
448
21-557
358
262

Psammodynastes pulverulentus

368-373

Python reticularis
Trimeresurus flavomaculatus
flavomaculatus
Zaocys luzonensis

169
185-649
169-383

Clearly, the number of species is greatest at lower elevations of 20 to 400 meters

above sea level whilst lowest number of species was found in the higher elevations of
about 401 to 800 meters above sea level.

Endemism

A comparison of the snakes along selected habitat types in CPM (Table --), in
terms of endemism, have revealed that primary lowland forest situated at higher
elevations in CPM holds a high percentage endemism (75%). The secondary lowland
forest located at lower elevations, which recorded high number of snake species, has
actually bears a low percent endemicity (56%) along with the karst limestone forest
(0%), situated at lower elevations.
Relative Abundance

Table shows that the most relatively abundant snake species in the primary
lowland forest in CPM is the Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus, with a
relative abundance value of 57.14%, that obviously outnumbered the rest of the species
occured in the area. The same goes for secondary lowland forest. T. f. flavomaculatus is
the most relatively abundant species (26.67%). In the karst limestone forest,
Dendrelaphis pictus pictuswas found to be the most abundant species, with a value of
100% since the species is the only snake species occured in the area.
Overall, the Trimeresurus flavomaculatusflavomaculatus (RA= 33.33%) is
reported as the most abundant species of snake present in the selected habitat types in
while others even though listed as least concern and common by IUCN holds lesser
value of abundance.

Table 6. Relative abundance of snake species across three different habitat types found
in Central Panay Mountains (CPM).
Central Panay Mountains Habitats
Species

Primary lowland
forest
Number
of
individual
s
0

%
RA

Ahaetulla
prasina
preocularis

Boiga angulata

Secondary
lowland forest
Number
of
individual
s
1

14.2
9

Cyclocorus
lineatus alcalai

%
Overal
l RA

Karst limestone
forest
%
R
A

6.67

Number
of
individual
s
0

4.17

6.67

8.33

6.67

4.17

14.2
9

4.17

Dendrelaphis
pictus pictus

14.2
9

10
0

12.5

Gonyosoma
oxycephala

6.67

4.17

Lycodon aulicus
capucinus

6.67

4.17

Psammodynaste
s pulverulentus

13.3
3

8.33

Python
reticulatus

6.67

4.17

Acrochordus cf.
granulatus

%
RA

Overall
Number
of
individual
s

57.1
4

26.6
7

33.33

Zaocys
luzonensis

20

12.5

TOTAL

100

15

100

10
0

24

100

Trimeresurus
flavomaculatusfl
avomaculatus

Species Similarity

Similarity of species composition across different habitat types was also

analysed in this study using morisitas index of similarity which was presented in a
graphical structure (Fig.). Results showed that primary lowland forest and secondary
lowand forest has the most similar species composition at C=0.85. The karst
limestone forest also has similarity of species composition in the remaining habitat
types (0.22222).

Figure 27. Species composition similarity across habitat types in CPM.

Habitat Selection

Kruskal Wallis

The Kruskal Wallis value less than 0.05 means there is a significant difference
among the variables assessed in the different habitat types in CPM, otherwise not
significant.
As depicted in the table below, for the environmental variable canopy cover, the
results of a Kruskal Wallis test were significant (H=25.518, P value <0.05), thus the

mean ranks of canopy cover are significantly different among the three habitat types.
This implies that the canopy cover among the three habitat types were not the same. The
same can be said with understory, shrubs, grass, leaf litter, epiphytes, fallen logs ,
boulder rocks, rocks, ferns, moss, air temperature, water temperature, soil temperature,
relative humidity wet, relative humidity dry, pH soil, pH water, rate of water flow, tree
height (10-15m), tree height (16-20m), tree height (>21m), DBH1, DBH2, DBH3,
buttress, stream length, stream depth.
On the other hand, for the environmental variable herbs, the results of a Kruskal
Wallis test were not significant (H=1.342, P value =0.511), thus the mean ranks of herbs
are not significantly different among the three habitat types. This implies that the herbs
among the three habitat types were the same. The same can be said with tree density and
DBH4.

Table 7. Difference of the Environmental Variable between Habitat Type

P value
Kruskal Wallis Test
Remarks
Value (H)
Canopy
Significant
0.000
25.518
Understory
Significant
0.010
9.269
Shrubs
Significant
0.008
9.684
Herbs
Not Significant
0.511
1.342
Grass
Significant
0.000
49.520
Leaf Litter
Significant
0.000
15.733
Epiphytes
Significant
46.012
0.000
Fallen logs
Significant
13.591
0.001
Boulder Rocks
Significant
0.000
44.755
Rocks
Significant
0.000
16.257
Ferns
Significant
0.000
19.871

Moss
Air Temperature
Water Temperature
Soil Temperature
Relative Humidity Wet
Relative Humidity Dry
pH Water
pH Soil
Rate of Water Flow
Tree Height (10-15m)
Tree Height (16-20m)
Tree Height (>21m)
Tree Density
DBH1
DBH2
DBH3
DBH4
Buttress
Stream Depth
Stream Length

57.985
84.139
94.188
88.804
70.290
87.537
66.477
55.227
44.433
9.422
6.715
11.338
5.126
21.501
12.241
11.476
2.234
39.992
40.997
58.376

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.009
0.035
0.003
0.077
0.000
0.002
0.003
0.327
0.000
0.000
0.000

Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant

Mann-Whitney U

As depicted in the table, the canopy (U=840.50, P value =0.060), tree density
(U=913.50, P value =0.156), and DBH4 (U=1136.5, P value =0.955), were determined to be
the only environmental variable which has insignificant effect on the presence and
absence of all individuals of snake in CPM. The rest of the habitat variables were found
to have a significant effect on the occurrence of snakes.
Table 8.Difference of the Environmental Variable between the presence and absence of
the species
Remarks
MannP

Whitney U
Test Value
Canopy
Understory
Shrubs
Herbs
Grass
Leaf Litter
Epiphytes
Fallen logs
Boulder Rocks
Rocks
Ferns
Moss
Air Temperature
Water
Temperature
Soil Temperature
Relative
Humidity Wet
Relative
Humidity Dry
pH Water
pH Soil
Rate of Water
Flow
Tree Height (1015m)
Tree Height (1620m)
Tree Height
(>21m)
Tree Density
DBH1
DBH2
DBH3
DBH4
Buttress
Stream Depth
Stream Length

value

840.50

0.060

1110.50

0.853

956.00

0.247

979.50

0.314

999.50

0.358

1007.50

0.406

868.50

0.087

884.00

0.106

900.00

0.126

977.00

0.307

1043.50

0.546

857.00

0.076

983.50

0.326

855.50
1024.50
879.50
1047.00

0.063

0.101

Significant
Significant

0.580

Significant

0.468

0.429

Significant
Significant
Significant

0.092

Significant

0.383

Significant

0.124

Significant

875.00

0.058

1030.00

0.406

1020.00
871.50
1006.00
958.00

Significant
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant

913.50

0.156

1100.00

0.802

990.50

0.326

1052.50

0.368

1136.5

0.955

999.50

0.370

1051.50

0.561

798.00

0.025

Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant
Not Significant
Significant
Significant
Significant

Logistic Regression

A logistic regression was performed to ascertain the effects of environmental

variables on th likelihood that species are present in a particular location. The logistic
regression model was statistically significant,(2)= 7.587, p < .05. The model explained
9.7% (Nagelkerke ) of the variance in the presence of the species and correctly
classified 85.8% of cases.
Table 9. Logistic regression model associated with increased likelihood of presence of

the species.
B
S.E.
Wald
df
Stream
.259
.127
4.185
Depth
Constant
-2.476
.411
36.197

P value

Exp(B)

.041

Remarks
Significan
1.296 t

.000

Significan
.084 t

Based on the result, increasing number of trees with tree height 21m was associated
with an increased likelihood of presence of the species. Also increasing stream depth
was associated with an increased likelihood of species presence.
Existing Local Threats
As reported, in the surveyed area, locals hunt for snakes to sell them in the
market. Others, especially children, would make the non venomous snakes as their toys.
Despite being popular exotic pets, snakes suffer a lot of prejudice because of
their venomous nature. Many snakes become victims of people when they wander off
from their natural habitat in search for food. One individual (Trimeresurus

flavomaculatus flavomaculatus) was collected with a notable blow in the head and an
almost fragmented body.
The major threat to snakes along CPM is the illegal cutting of trees that was
happening in secondary lowland forest (Fig.).

Figure 28. Illegal cutting of trees. Photo courtesy of Christile Echavez

DISCUSSION

Species Composition

Panay island is one of the 6 major islands of the west Visayas faunal region in
the Philippines (PBCFI, 2014). The high level of endemism (55%) that are found in the

selected habitat types in CPM located in the western part of Panay island according to
Molina (2012) is due to the fact that west Visayas faunal region have never been
connected to the mainland Asia, resulting in development of unique flora and fauna
present which can only be found in this area. Hence, what we called today endemics.
The remaining 45% of species composition in CPM comprises the non- endemic species
of snakes.

Their presence in CPM, Panay Island is mainly due to the historical

biogeography. During the great ice ages of the Pleistocene, 10-15,000 years ago, the sea
level dropping up to 120 m, land bridges connecting mainland have never been
connected but the once long distance between the islands have became shortened which
greatly affects the migration and dispersal of the non-endemic species, especially those
good swimmer species of snakes (Sytsma et al. 2006).
Higher percentage of species composition of family colubridae (73%) accounts
for the fact that they are generalist species that occupy a wide variety of habitats
(Cossel, 1997). Moreover, it is the largest snake family found on every continent except
Antarctica, and include about two-thirds of all known living snake species (Bauer,
1998).
Species Diversity

The secondary lowland forest habitat was found to be the most diverse habitat
type in CPM. This is because reptiles, including snakes are ectotherm, an organism in
which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible
importance in controlling body temperature and dependent on external sources of body
heat (Davenport, 1991). Because of this, they have to live in warm and sunny areas, just

like secondary lowland forest that according to Blaser and Sobagal (2002) appears to be
a chaotic wilderness of several shrubs, climbers, herbaceous plants, tall trees and less
canopy cover which allows basking for snakes to increase their metabolism, to warm up
, and to become much more active.
Moreover, Fabunan (2016) in his study on amphibians in the same sampling
sites (Culasi and Sebaste) found more number of species and individuals in secondary
lowland forest, which are also the same habitat type where snakes are found to be most
diverse. The abundance of amphibians which are the principal preys of snakes is a
major contributing factor to the high species diversity of snakes in these sites.
Therefore, species with high diversity of habitats would be expected to exhibit a wide
prey spectrum, as occurs in the commonest species in the study area (Feriche 2004).
In addition, secondary lowland forest in Sebaste is adjacent to forest patch and
many snakes from these forest patches could bask in the nearby open-areas. This is socalled edge effect which is used in conjunction with the boundary between the wild
land and the distrubed or developed land (Wikimedia 2010). In effect, secondary
lowland forest provide suitable basking areas to the snakes. This result somehow agreed
with the findings of Pinto (2006), Moneva (2006), and Fernandez (2006) in which edge
effect influenced species diversity pattern.

Species Distribution

The

wide

distribution

of

three

species

flavomaculatus, Ahaetulla prasina preocularis, and

Trimeresurus

flavomaculatus

Dendrelaphis pictus pictus

accounts for the fact that these species are generalist that has a wide variety of habitats,
ranging from lowland disturbed sites to mid-elevation primary tropical moist forest
(IUCN, 2016). The presence of three species in primary lowland forest, with usually
close canopy cover, is attributed to the fact that the area is still warmer with average
temperature of 22.44 degree celsius and the area sampled contain loamy soil serves as a
suitable habitat for snakes in which they forage and slow down their metabolic
processes when it is colder (Vassen 2004 ). The presence of two widely distributed
species (T. f. flavomaculatus and A. p. preocularis) and other species of snakes
especially endemics in secondary lowland forest is due to the high rainfall and constant
warm temperature that provides perfect environment for snakes to flourish. Also the
presence of run-off water and streams along secondary lowland forest is very favorable
for snakes since their diet are fish, frogs, and lizards which are numerous along streams
and in riparian zone.
Other species particularly specialist species although listed as least concern by
IUCN were found to be rare in CPM and were restricted to only one habitat type
(secondary lowland forest). And according to Segura (2007) conservation concerns exist
for rare and specialized species. It is suggested that these species tend to disappear with
habitat loss, whereas common and versatile species would increase in abundance (Gray
1989).
The restriction of distribution of these species in secondary lowland forest,
implies that the area needs to be protected and preserve since a lot of species are found
only in this area, nowhere else in CPM.

The Dendrelaphis pictus pictus in karst limestone forest implies that the species
is more susceptible to habitat disturbance since karst limsetone forest in CPM have
many human trails. And this area also must be protected since it is also a good basking
area for snakes.
In terms of altitudinal distribution, the Philippine endemics Trimeresurus
flavomaculatus flavomaculatus and Ahaetulla prasina preoculariswere were the most
widely distributed species, found to thrive up to 649 and 774 masl, respectively. This is
due to the fact that endemic species as reported by Dirnbock (2010) are adaptive of
harsh environment present in higher elevations like decreased oxygen availability and
decreased temperature. The mentioned two species were also present in lower
elevations since endemic species as reported by Fernandez (2006) are usually much
more susceptible to habitat disturbance that are commonly present in lower elevations.
The elevational patterns of endemism in the tropics generally show increasing
endemism with elevation, peaking at mid- to high elevations (Gentry, 1986).
Additionally, most of the species were found to thrive more in lower elevations
indicating more favourable climatic conditions present. Overall, habitat types for snakes
assemblages at lower elevations indicating the importance of protecting lowland forest
areas for the conservation of snakes in Central Panay Mountain ( Koirala, 2016).

Relative Abundance

Across all habitat types in CPM, the most abundant species recorded was the
Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus. It constitutes 33.33% of the total

population of snakes and was highly encountered in primary and secondary lowland
forest. This species seems to be very generalist having been encountered in a wide range
of varying temperatures, humidity, and forest vegetations. It is more likely an adaptive
species that directly thrive in all habitat types and had the ability to withstand the
differences found along the elevational gradient. These advantageous attributes of this
species accounts for its being an endemic and native species in the Philippines (Brown
et. al., 2012). Also, venomous snakes, such as T. f. flavomaculatus, usually have a high
number of offspring and occupy a diversity of habitats (Campbell & Lamar 2004),
which contributes to this dominance. Moreover, its abundance accounts for being a
principal predator of frogs which was found to be greatly abundant in the same
sampling area in the study conducted by Linconada (2016) and Fabunan (2016). For
species with relative abundance value of 4.17%, it accounts for being a specialist
species that ranged from rather scarce to extremely rare and are found only in favorable
habitats (Segura, 2007). Most of the specialist species that has habitat specialization is
recorded as one of the central factors that make species vulnerable to extinction
(Foufopoulos, 1999). The high abundance of this species and the relatively low
abundance of the remaining species of snakes suggest that raising of law enforcement
for CPM to be a Protected Area (PA) is greatly in need.

Species Similarity

Morasitas index results showed that primary lowland forest and secondary
lowland forest has the most similar species composition. This indicates that the

similarity of the species were influenced by species adaptability which is important for
its advantage for finding small refuges or adequate micro-climate habitat which plays a
great role for its survival (Chettri et al., 2010). Overall, lowland rainforests contain the
tallest trees of all types of rainforest, with the largest variety of species (Rainforest
Concern, 2008). Thus, they provide the perfect environment for plants and animals,
particularly reptiles and so contain a great diversity of life.
On the other hand, minimal similarity of species was observed between the
remaining habitat types. This may be due to the different types of ecosystems
comprising each sampled habitat types that affects the species composition (Moneva,
2010).

Habitat Selection

Kruskal-Wallis Test

Kruskal-Wallis reveals that there is a significant difference between 28 habitat

variables of the 31 habitat variables that were assessed among the three different habitat
types. Considering that snakes has secretive habits, low population densities and are

specific to its microhabitat ((Reinert 1993, Manlangit 2015) these differences among
habitat types are important determinants of the occurrence and abundance of snakes.

Mann-Whitney U Test

Mann-Whitney U test was done to predict the probability of the presence and
absence of snakes in relation to certain habitat variable predictors. Based on the result,
only canopy cover, tree density and DBH greater than 120 have insignificant effect on
the presence and absence of snakes. Since most of the snakes collected in CPM are
fossorial this accounts for their being sensitive almost only on microhabitats
(Weatherhead 1992). The rest of the habitat variables has a significant effect on the
presence and absence of snakes. The researcher take into account both air and soil
temperature. As reported by Robertson (1992)the temperatures of basking snakes never
exceeded 33 C, the average air temperature and soil temperature assessed in all habitat
types in CPM was found to be 24.68 C and 24.75 C , respectively, hence falls in the
range where snakes favor to bask, thus increase the likelihood of snake presence.
Logistic Regression Analysis

This analysis was used to correlate the occurrence and abundance of snakes with
its selected habitat variables. Based on the result, increasing stream depth was
associated with an increased likelihood of species presence. Stream with greater depth
most likely have numerous inhabitants like insects and other invertebrates as well as
fishes and frogs (Cushing 2001). Since all snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small

animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes, small mammals, eggs, fish, snails or
insects (Mehrtens 1987) which are clearly abundant in streams. Thus the likelihood of
snakes presence in the area is greatest. Furthermore, it has been reported that snakes
itself , with the exception of a few species, inhabits river or stream ecosystem generally
called lotic ecosystem. Although not tied to water as fishes are but still spend part of
their time in water (Giller 1998).Thus, habitat selection in snakes is strongly correlated
with habitat selection by their prey (Shine et al 1985).

Existing local threats

During the survey, snakes were reported to have economic value. Most locals
dont hunt snakes as food sources, but they hunt them to sell in the market. Many
businessmen believe that snakes would be a good luck charm for their business. In turn,
locals to gain extra income would indulge in snake hunting. Reptiles pet trading,
particularly snakes is rampant in social media sites, wherein the animal is traded and
kept even without acquiring a permit from the government. Also, non venomous snakes
were reported as toys of local children due to their undeniable beauty.
Moreover, snakes suffer a lot of prejudice because of their venomous nature.
Other people think that if snakes saw them, right on cue it would attack them. But the
truth is that snakes would only attack humans if they are threatened, most of the time
they prefer to flee, and will often run instead of striking.
The major threat to snakes along CPM is the illegal cutting and kaingin that was
happening in secondary lowland forest. If these habitat destruction continues, eventually

habitat loss will most likely occur and habitat loss appears to be the most serious threat
to reptiles (Gibbons et al. 2000). The habitat complexity of the CPM, which consists of
forest patches and slightly open habitats (due to large streams) and forest environments,
likely helps to maintain the high diversity of snake species in CPM, Antique, Panay
island.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION

The study was conducted to make further assessment of the snake community,
focusing on its diversity, distribution, and abundance, in Central Panay Mountain,
Antique, Panay Island. There were three habitat types assess for this study: primary
lowland forest, secondary lowland forest and karst limestone forest.

A total of 11 identified species of snakes were listed during this study which
belongs to four families: Achrochordidae, Boidae, Colubridae and Viperidae that were
captured using a combination of sampling techniques (quadrat, visual encounter survey,
hand capture). Six species or 55% of the captured snakes are endemic to the Philippines.
It indicates a moderate percentage of endemism. Two species are listed as vulnerable
and not evaluated by IUCN, Python reticularis and Psammodynastes pulverulentus,
respectively.
The most diverse habitat type was the secondary lowland forest with a value of
H=2.03 which indicates moderate diversity. It also had the highest species richness
(S=9) and most even number of individuals per species of snakes ( 0.92) recorded in
CPM.
The most widely distributed snake across habitat type is the Trimeresurus
flavomaculatus flavomaculatus along with Ahaetulla prasina preocularis and
Dendrelaphis pictus pictus which were found to be generalist species. These three
species was found in two of the three selected habitat types in CPM. The mentioned
three species was also found to be distributed in a wide range of elevation. Other
species paticularly specialist species although listed as least concern by IUCN were
found to be rare in CPM and were restricted to only one habitat type (secondary
lowland forest). And according to Segura (2007) conservation concerns exist for rare
and specialized species. It is suggested that these species tend to disappear with habitat
loss, whereas common and versatile species would increase in abundance (Gray 1989).
Overall, snake assemblages found to dwell more on lowland areas at lower
elevations which are more susceptible to human activities such as illegal cutting of

trees, kaingin, and other habitat destruction activities. Therefore, there is a need and
importance of protecting lowland forest areas for the conservation of snakes in Central
Panay Mountain. Thus, it is recommended to:
1. More active protection by the provincial and local government as well as to
enforce the law for the conservation and protection of CPM to prevent depletion
of the biodiversity in the habitat.
2. Update the checklist for snakes in CPM.
3. Maintain run-off waters and streams as well as rivers for the welfare of the forest
and the rural communities to enjoy its benefits.
4. Prioritize Central Panay Mountain for better preservation of snakes species.
5. An awareness campaign on biodiversity conservation to halt the continuing
process of habitat loss and other anthropogenic disturbances that threatens the
biodiversity of CPM using the data of this study.
6. Create pamphlets for venomous species of snakes, as wel as their common
attributes to help alleviate unnecessary killings when encountered.
7. Publish results in peer-reviewed journals for sharing information to the scientific
community.
8. Conduct more intensive studies in other areas of CPM as most of the transect
lines situated in this study where along trails. Studies should also be done during
different seasons.

As the societies of the world strive to keep up with higher standards of living,
natural resources oftentimes carry the burden of being exploited (Adlaon, 2015). The
country which is rich in flora and fauna is vulnerable to habitat destruction, particularly
deforestation to obtain spaces for urbanization and agriculture (Sahney2010). Protected
areas are still encroached illegally (Manlangit 2015). This study shows that the forest of
CPM supports a total of 11 species of snakes where most of it were found solely,
significantly not abundant and if this will continue gradually or fastly, the snake
assemblage will eventually be threatened or worst case scenario will gone extinct in
effect disrupting the normal cycle of food web and letting the overpopulation of smaller
species especially invasive ones, resulting in danger of human life.

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