Drag Reduction in Ships

SEMINAR REPORT 2014
DRAG REDUCTION IN SHIPS USING MICRO-BUBBLE TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Drag is a mechanical force generated by a solid object moving through a fluid. For
drag to be generated, the solid body must be in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid,
there is no drag. Drag is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and
the fluid. There must be motion between the object and the fluid. If there is no motion, there
is no drag. Drag acts in the direction opposite to the direction of motion of the body.
A body moving through a fluid experiences a drag force, which is usually divided into
two components: frictional drag (sometimes called viscous drag) and pressure drag
(sometimes called form drag or profile drag).
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Frictional drag comes from friction between the fluid and the surfaces over which it is
flowing. This friction is associated with the development of boundary layers. Pressure drag
comes from the eddying motions that are set up in the fluid by the passage of the body. This
drag is associated with the formation of a wake, which can be readily seen behind a passing
boat. When the drag is dominated by viscous drag, we say the body is streamlined, and when
it is dominated by pressure drag, we say the body is bluff. Whether the flow is viscous-drag
dominated or pressure-drag dominated depends entirely on the shape of the body.
streamlined body looks like a fish, or an airfoil at small angles of attack, whereas a bluff body
looks like a brick, a cylinder, or airfoil at large angles of attack. For streamlined bodies,
frictional drag is the dominant source of air resistance. For a bluff body, the dominant source
of drag is pressure drag.
For a given frontal area and velocity, a streamlined body will always have a lower
resistance than a bluff body. For example, the drag of a cylinder of diameter $D$ can be ten
times larger than a streamlined shape with the same thickness (see figure 1).
Micro-bubbles Technology is the latest development to the study of the drag reduction
in ships. Almost 20-80% reduction is possible using this technology.
1.1 LITERATURE SURVEY
According to the paper presented by Yanuar1*, Gunawan1, Sunaryo1 and A. Jamaluddin ship
hull form of the underwater area strongly influences the resistance of the ship. The major
factor in ship resistance is skin friction resistance. Bulbous bows, polymer paint, water
repellent paint (highly water-repellent wall), air injection, and specific roughness have been
used by researchers as an attempt to obtain the resistance reduction and operation efficiency
of ships. Micro-bubble injection is a promising technique for lowering frictional resistance.
The injected air bubbles are supposed to somehow modify the energy inside the turbulent
boundary layer and thereby lower the skin friction.. The influence of the location of micro
bubble injection and bubble velocity was also investigated. The ship model was pulled by an
electric motor whose speed could be varied and adjusted. The ship model resistance was
precisely measured by a load cell transducer. Comparison of ship resistance with and without
micro-bubble injection was Shown on a graph as a function of the drag coefficient and
Froude number. It was shown that micro bubble injection behind the mid-ship is the best
location to achieve the most effective drag reduction, and the drag reduction caused by the
micro-bubbles can reach 6%9%
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1.2 OBJECTIVES
Ships such as tankers play a major role in marine transportation. They are very large
and move very slowly. They are especially suited to micro-bubbles. One reason that they are
suited is that their skin friction drag component occupies about 80% of the total drag. The
drag of a ship that moves on the water consists of two components, i.e., wave-making drag
and skin frictional drag.
The wave-making drag component of such a ship is very small because they move
very slowly. Another reason that they are suited is in their shape. Their shape is like a box,
except for bow and stern regions. They have a wide flat bottom, and the bubbles injected at
the bottom near the bow stay close to the hull bottom by buoyancy while they are carried by
flow all the way to the stern. Thus the injected bubbles can cover the whole hull bottom
efficiently. In Japan, micro-bubbles have been studied intensively in the past few years
toward its application to full-scale ships.
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CHAPTER 2
Boundary Layer Mixture Model for Micro-bubble Drag Reduction

Technique
The boundary mixture model is derived to predict the performance of the micro-bubble drag
reduction technique for a flat plate.
The flat plate with a porous material micro-bubble injecting system and resistance-measuring
system are set up to measure the frictional resistance of the flat plate without and with
injected micro-bubbles. The tests are conducted in a water tunnel and a towing tank
In this study, a simple boundary layer mixture model is derived to predict the drag reduction
effect of the micro-bubble drag reduction technique for a flat plate. The flat plate resistance
measuring system with a porous material micro-bubble injecting system is set up to measure
the total resistances of the plate without and with injecting the micro-bubbles. The tests are
conducted in a water tunnel and a towing tank to verify the drag reduction effect predicted by
the boundary layer mixture model.
2.1Boundary Mixture Model

Figure 1 is a schematic drawing of a micro-bubble injecting system for a plate on the top. The
injected micro-bubbles are assumed to be distributed uniformly across the boundary layer.
The air volume fraction Cv is dened as the ratio of the injected air ow rate divided by the
summation of the air ow rate and the water ow rate within the boundary layer
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FIG 2.1
where Qa is the injected air ow rate, and Qw is the water ow rate within the boundary layer
of the plate. Based on the turbulent boundary theory [18], the water ow rate within the
boundary layer of the plate can be calculated by
where b is the width of the plate, U0 is the inow velocity,and is the boundary layer
thickness, which is dened as the distance from the wall where the velocity is 0.99U0. A
seventh power velocity distribution [18] is assumed for the velocity
distribution across the boundary layer
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And the displacement thickness is dened as
The Schlichting boundary thickness formula [18] is used to estimate the thickness of the
boundary layer
where Rex = U0x/ and x is the distance from the origin of the plate.Using (4)and(5)to
solve(2), the water ow rate can be calculated by
Then the air volume fraction Cv in (1) can subsequently be calculated with measured injected
air ow rate and the water ow rate which was estimated by using (6).
For a at plate without injected bubbles, the frictional resistance Df of a at plate with length
l and width b can be derived as [18]
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Where
and l is the total length of the plate, and w is the density of the
water.The resistance coecient Cf is dened as
The resistance coecient Cf is dened as
For the water-bubble mixture of the boundary layer with injected bubbles, the mixture density
can be calculated by the linear combination of the density of air and the density of water
according to the air volume fraction Cv, and is given by
where a is the density of the injected air. The dynamic viscosity of the water-bubble mixture
can also be calculated by using the same approach as
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The kinematical viscosity of the water-bubble mixture b is then dened as
The frictional resistance of a at plate with a water-bubble mixture boundary layer Dfb can
be calculated by using the same approach [18]as
where the Reynolds number of the water-bubble mixture Rebl is dened as U l
The ratio of the frictional resistance of water-bubble mixture of the frictional resistance of the
water is then expressed as
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Equation (14) predicts the frictional resistance of water-bubble mixture of the plate from the
frictional resistance of at plate in pure water.area of the at plate bl, then the same result
will be had for the non dimensional resistance coecients as will be
where
Equation (15) predicts the non dimensional frictional resistance of water-bubble mixture of
the plate from the
Non dimensional frictional resistance of at plate in water.The drag reduction ratio DR
predicted by the boundary layer mixture model can be calculated by
Figure 2 shows the ratio of non dimensional resistance coecients of the bubble-water
mixture to the pure water with the parameter of the air volume fraction and thedrag reduction
ratio. The eect of the density of the mixture and Reynolds number on the micro-bubble drag
reduction technique is shown in Table 1. The eect of the Reynolds number is very small
when compared with the eect of density of the mixture. The density of the bubble mixture
becomes the key parameter for the micro-bubble drag reduction technique. The ratio of the
frictional resistance of the water-bubble mixture boundary layer to the water boundary layer
is almost directly proportional to the density ratio.
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FIG 2.2
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CHAPTER 3
Various Methods of Bubble Generation
3.1 Venturi tube type bubble generator

This bubble generator has a very simple structure as shown in Fig. 10(a). Air is injected at
upstream side of the throat. As the mixture of the air and water passes the nozzle throat, the
bubbles grow due to the pressure decreases caused by the increase in the velocity. Then the
bubbles collapse in the diverging part of the nozzle because of the recovery of the pressure. Due
to the decrease in the sonic speed in the bubbly flow, the flow velocity exceeds the sonic speed.
This forms a shock wave in the diverging region, and the bubbles are supposed to experience very
steep pressure recovery.
FIG3.1
The performance of this Venturi tube type bubble generator was evaluated for ranges
of air volume fraction and liquid flow rate. Fig. 10(b) shows the relation between the void
fraction
and the bubble size distribution. It is shown that bubble size distribution is quite
independent of the void fraction up to
= 20%. The arithmetic mean diameter is about 0.1
mm. The symbol Ds in the figure denotes the area equivalent diameter defined as
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FIG3.2
FIG3.3
Fig. 10(c) shows that bubble size distribution changes when the liquid flow rate is small.
This is due to the different collapsing behavior at a low and a high liquid flow rate.
FIG3.4
As shown in Fig. 10(d), at the liquid flow rate Qw = 6.7 l/min. bubbles collapse
suddenly, while change in the diameter is slower at Q w = 4.2 l/min.
The simple average
velocity V at the throat is 9.9 m/s at Qw= 4.2 l/min. and 15.8 m/s at Qw- 6.7 l/min. The
corresponding cavitation number = (P Pv)/0.5V2 is about 2.0 and 0.80 respectively. It
is supposed that the intensive collapse of bubbles occur when cavitation number <1
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3.2Tangential Water-jet
The diameter of bubbles generated by injecting air into a turbulent boundary layer
through array of holes or porous medium depends on the mean shear stress at the wall.
Therefore, one way to control the bubble diameter is to increase or decrease the local mean
wear stress at the wall where air is injected. This is achieved by two different methods in this
study. The first one
FIG3.5
described in this section uses a tangential water jet to increase the local shear stress on the
plate with array of holes through which air is injected. Fig.1 shows the set up of the
experiment carried out at National Maritime Research Institute, and Fig.11 shows a close
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view of the tangential water jet system. The inner diameter of the air injection holes is 0.5
mm. The channel is made of transparent acryl resin so that optical measurements and
observation of bubbles are possible. The test section is 15 mm in height, 100 mm in width,
and 3000 mm in length. The air injection chamber with the water jet system is attached to the
top wall. The results for the bulk mean velocity of U=3 m/s, and the water jet flow rate of
q=0 30 l/min. is observed. The ratio of the water jet flow rate to that of the main flow is 1:9
at Q=30 l/min.
3.3Foaming of dissolved air

The previous investigations have shown that the influence of the bubble size on the drag
reduction is negligibly small within the investigated range of bubble diameter. However,
there is still a prospect that bubbles that are sufficiently small compared to the characteristic
scale of turbulence may significantly influence the drag reduction rate.
Therefore, we
investigated a method to generate bubbles of 20 m 40 m in diameter; Bubbles of these

sizes are utilized for mixing a separation processes and are usually generated by foaming
micro-bubbles from air dissolved in liquid. Since the micro-bubble drag reduction requires
higher void ratio than other applications such as mixing or separation, we investigated
whether this method is applicable to the purpose of drag reduction.
Fig.11(a) shows the test section used in the experiment carried out at University of
Tokyo. The test section is 12050580 in height, width and length respectively. Sufficiently
aerated water under the absolute pressure of P1 = 0.8MPa in a pressure tank is introduced into
the test section through a slit.
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FIG3.6
The water from the pressure tank is depressurized to the absolute pressure level inside
the test section Po = 0.1MPa at the valve installed before the slit. Since the solubility of air in
water is proportional to the pressure, the excess air is separated and makes micro-bubbles.
The estimated void ratio
obtained by this procedure is given by
in which C is solubility of air in water (cm 3/cm3), which is 0.02 under P0 = 0.1MPa at the
temperature of 20o C. The void ratio
is estimated to be about 0.12 for P1 = 0.8MPa.
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FIG 3.7
In order to measure the diameter of bubbles, the depressurized foaming water was
introduced to a thin channel to which a microscope was mounted. Fig. 12 shows an example
of picture through microscope. The bubble diameter measured on the pictures by hand is
shown in a histogram in Fig. 13. The shape of the distribution is similar to that shown in Fig.
8 for bubbles generated by shear stress, but the range of the diameter is an order of magnitude
smaller. The most frequent diameter range is between 20 and 40 m, which includes one out
of two bubbles, and the calculated average diameter was 47 m. The void ratio estimated
from the bubble number distribution and the depth of the picture was about 5% which is on
the same order as the value estimated from the solubility of air in water.
This foaming water is introduced into the turbulent boundary layer inside the test section
through a slit at the rate of Q = 5 15 l/min. Fig. 14(a) shows a picture of bubbles in the test
section near the injection point at the free stream velocity of U = 1.5 m/s. and the flow rate
= 10 l/min. A picture of bubbles generated by injecting air through a porous plate at the same free
stream velocity is shown in Fig. 14(b) for comparison. The bubbles generated by the present
method look more like cloud or smoke. Due to the limitation of the apparatus, it was impossible to
measure the bubble diameter distribution accurately in the test section. However, the appearance
of bubbles was very similar to that in the channel for microphotography suggesting that the bubble
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diameter distribution is also similar. It was also noted that the appearance of the bubble cloud was
not dependent on the free stream velocity.
FIG3.8
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CHAPTER 4
Experimental set-ups
4.1Experimental set-ups
A series of model tests were conducted in a basin. The basin had a length of 50 m and width
of 40 m, and the water depth was maintained at a constant depth of 2 m. The experiments
were conducted for a Froude number of up to 0.65. The model was connected to the load cell
transducer at a point located amidships and vertically above the base line, allowing the model
to move freely in the vertical plane. Total resistance was measured for each run over the test
range of Froude numbers. In the resistance tests, the ship model was pulled by a wire rope
and the total longitudinal force acting on the model was measured for various speeds. During
the measuring run the ship model was free to heave and pitch. Fig. 1 shows the experimental
setup in the basin.
FIG4.1
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This set-up consisted of the ship models, electric motor, data interface, camera, load cell
anemometer, and compressor. The comparison of the total drag between ship models with
micro-bubbles and without micro-bubbles injection was analyzed. The model test was
conducted in order to have the total resistance values of the ship model (RT) at various
velocity conditions (V). During the model test experiments, the model ship was pulled by an
electric motor that was designed so that motor rotation could be used to pull the ship model
with a constant speed. Pull force was measured by using a load cell transducer. The load cell
was affixed to the ship model and connected to the rope pullers. The load cell was mounted
on the amidships of the model. Towing rope was connected to an electric motor whose speed
could be set and adjusted. The load cell gauge was connected to a data interface to obtain the
pull force when the ship was pulled. Bubble injection was positioned at around the mid ship
bottom. Distance between the bubble injectors was varied by 5 cm.
Fig. 2 shows the lines plan for test model. The bubble injectors are placed behind the midship. Positions varied from position 1, position 2, and position 3. These positions were
investigated and compared regarding the influence of micro-bubble injection. Position 1 was
5 cm in front of the mid ship position 2 was exactly at mid ship, and position 3was 5 cm
behind the mid ship. The nozzle diameter was the same as that with the bubble diameter of
about 0.5 mm.
FIG4.2
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4.2Test analyses
Froudes hypothesis and similarity law is followed in the extrapolation of the resistance test
results. According to Froudes hypothesis the resistance of a ship (or of its model) can be
split up into two independent components; one (the viscous component) is proportional to the
(frictional) resistance of a flat plate of the same length and wetted surface when towed at the
same speed, and another resistance component follows Froudes similarity law.
The total resistance coefficient can be defined as:
where CT is the coefficient of total resistance, Cr the coefficient of residual resistance, Cf

the coefficient of friction resistance, and (1+k) the form factor.
At low speed, Fr<0.2, is assumed to be a function of Fr , the straight line plot of CT/CF
versus Fr4/CF will intersect the ordinate (Fr=0) at (1+k), enabling the form factor to be
determined. Flat plate friction resistance (CF) is estimated with a reasonable precision using
ITTC-57.
From the experimental towing test results, for the models, the total resistance coefficient CT
has been calculated as:
where is water density and S the wetted area of the ship hull.
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The Froudes number and Reynolds number are defined as
where V is the speed of the ship, L the length of the ship, g acceleration of gravity, and the
kinematic viscosity of water.
The micro-bubble characteristics can be determined by the following formulas. The air layer
thickness is:
Where Qa is the injected air rate, Ba the width of the slot, and V the velocity of ship model.
Drag reduction is obtained by:
where CTO is the total coefficient resistance without micro-bubble injection and CT
is the total coefficient resistance with micro bubbles.
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4.3Results and discussion

A comparison with the micro bubbles and without the micro -bubbles applied to the ship
model was made to evaluate the resistance characteristics as shown in Figs. 35.
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between the total resistance coefficient and Froude number for
vessels with micro bubbles and without micro bubbles. The ship model with injected micro
bubbles will be varied for 3 variations of injector positioning. It appears that the ship model
with.micro-bubble, injection has a value of CT, which is relatively higher at low speeds.
When the Froude number increases further, Fr>0.46, in a certain range of values of CT
smaller than the ship model without micro bubbles. The effects can be seen in the microbubble injection at high Froude numbers where the turbulent flow drag coefficient of
resistance is smaller. On the other hand, it was found that the value of CT depends on the
position of the bubble injector. It appears that the ship model with bubble injection at position
3, has a smallest value of CT. This result agrees well with the experimental work of Kodama
et al. (2000) at a circulating water tunnel. In that study it was found that the skin friction
reduction was much greater when the position of bubbles was located at the rear. It can be
concluded that the injector position has an effect on the value of the resistance coefficient.
The dashed line indicates the resistance coefficient of a flat plate.
Fig. 4 shows the total resistance coefficient ratio as a function of air thickness. The horizontal
axis is the rate of air ejection in terms of the air layer thickness. As the flux of injected air
increases, the total resistance coefficient decreases. The effective air layer thickness is 4 mm
because in this area the ship model speed is 4 m/s and has the best performance. The
resistance coefficient ratio for position 3 is slightly higher than for position 2 and position 1.
This indicates that position 3 is the best position to reduce the total resistance that occurred.
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FIG4.3 AND FIG 4.4
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FIG 4.5
Fig. 5 shows the drag reduction that occurred. It is clear that drag reduction for position 3 is
greater than position 1 and position 2. The drag reduction starts at a Froude number of about
0.34 (V=22 kn). As the Froude number increases, drag reduction also increases. An effective
drag reduction of up to 9% at Fr=0.55 (V=25kn) can be gained for this study.
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CHAPTER 5
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
5.1CFD PREDICTION METHODS
In order to predict the drag reduction performance of bubbles at full scale, one must first
simulate the flow around a full scale ship, which is already very difficult. Second, one
must predict bubble trajectories by considering the bubbles as a group, which means the
two-way coupling approach. Skudarnov and Lin[17] also validated the density eect on
the drag reduction eect of micro-bubble drag reduction by using a 2D RANS simulation.
But the prediction model for the micro-bubble drag reduction technique is still not well
developed.
5.2Numerical simulation of micro-bubble drag reduction using population

balance model
The phenomenon of drag reduction by the injection of micro-bubbles into turbulent boundary
layer has been investigated using an EulerianEulerian two-uid model. Multiple-size group
(MUSIG) based on population balance models, which resolve a wide range of bubble sizes
taking into account the bubble break-up and coalescence have been used for this purpose. The
simulated results are compared against the experimental ndings of Madavan et al. [1984.
Reduction of turbulent skin friction by micro-bubbles. Physics of Fluids 27, 356363] and
also other numerical studies explaining the sophisticated phenomena of drag reduction. For
the two Reynolds number cases considered, the buoyancy with the plate on the bottom
conguration is investigated, as from the experiments it is seen that buoyancy seem to play a
role in the drag reduction. Numerical model employed in the investigation comprises of a
micro-bubble laden ow wherein two independent sets of Reynolds averaged NavierStokes
(RANS)transport equations were used to describe both the phases of the ow. The shear
stress transport (SST)turbulence model is used as the turbulent closure for the primary phase
and a zero equation turbulence model is used for the micro-bubbles. Change in the mean
stream wise velocity proles, void fraction, turbulence modication and other results are
presented and discussed with corresponding change in the gas injection rates. The complex
mechanism of drag reduction are scrutinised and explained in context to our numerical
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ndings. Special attentions have been also devoted to divulge the effect of bubble
coalescence and break-up caused by random collision and turbulent impact. Numerical results
showed good agreement for the skin-friction coefcients against experimental data
throughout various air injection rates. The MUSIG model was found to be one of the best
candidates to resolve the bubble dynamics in micro-bubble-induced drag reduction problems.
5.2.1Computational models
Two-uid model
MUSIG model
MUSIG break-up rate
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
6.1Conclusions
Considering the experimental model test results to evaluate the micro-bubble drag reduction
on a high speed vessel, the following conclusions can be stated; micro-bubble application to
ships is found to have a positive influence on ship resistance. The application of microbubbles can reduce the ship resistance significantly for a high speed vessel. The test results
show that an effective drag reduction of up to 9%at Fr=0.55 (V = 25 kn) can be achieved.
The air flow rate and location of the injection position are significant for achieving the
maximum drag reduction. Micro-bubble injection behind the mid-ship is the best location for
effective drag reduction. It is expected that more work will be carried out in order to gain
further understanding on this topic, in order to apply the method to full-scale ships.
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References
1) Micro-bubble Drag Reduction on a High Speed Vessel Model
Yanuar1*, Gunawan1 Sunaryo1 and A. Jamaluddin2 1. Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Indonesia, Jakarta 16424, Indonesia 2. Indonesian
Hydrodynamic Laboratory, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
2) Y. Kodama,et al.,:Experimental study on microbubbles and their applicability to

ships for skin friction reduction., International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow21
,2000.
3) Research ArticleBoundary LayerMixtureModel for aMicrobubble DragReduction
TechniqueJing-Fa Tsai and Chi-Chuan ChenDepartment of Engineering Science and
Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt
Road,Taipei 10660, Taiwan
4) Numerical simulation of micro-bubble drag reduction using population

balance modelK. Mohanarangama, S.C.P. Cheung a, J.Y. Tu a,, L. Chen baSchool of
Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Vic. 3083,
AustraliabMaritime Platforms Division, DSTO, Maribyrnong, Vic. 3032, Australi
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QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. Size of microbubble?
20 to 40miccro meter.
2. What is kn ?
Kn denotes kilonotes used to specify the velocity of ship.
3. What is the value of Reynolds no in the turbulent boundary layer?
Reynolds numbervalue is greater than 2e5 for turbulency.
4. Differentiate between pitching and rolling?
Pitching is the moment experienced in ships in the z direction while rolling is the moment
caused in ships in x direction.
5. Why at higher fraud number cd decreases ?
At higher fraud number void ratio ratio increases so water near to the ships goes into the
viod there by decresing cd.
6. For a actual ship where is it installed?
For actual ship it is installed in the mid region.
7.Why is pitching not considered?
Pitching has significance only when we consider wave drag originating because of the hull
shape as wave drag is negligible we can neglect pitching effect.Pitching does not contribute
to skin friction drag.
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SEMINAR REPORT 2014