Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit Overview
In the previous unit, we deliberated on the role of Information Communications and
Technology (ICT) and its implications in the field of education. In this unit, we will look into
more details on ICT, and specifically technology, regarding its role and implications of its use
in the spectrum of teaching and learning.
To begin with, we will examine the theoretical basis of learning designs which places
emphasis on the various theories, approaches, principles and domains in designing effective
and conducive learning environments. In this connection, we will also examine the concepts
androgogy and pedagogy, and attempt to understand how these concepts translate in the
promotion of meaningful learning interaction.
In the subsequent section, we will channel interest towards scrutinising the role of technology
in the context of delivering instruction. Instructional technology, in essence, is the study of
facilitating the teaching and learning process which involves effective instructional design
and implementation, and utilisation of relevant learning resources to enhance and sustain
content delivery and heightened interaction in the classroom.
The focus of the third section is on the various manifestations of computer-mediated
instructions, namely, computer-managed instruction and computer-assisted instruction, which
aim to highlight the role of computers and technology in supporting the learning experience.
In the last section of the unit, we will observe the role, benefits and challenges of using ICT
in teacher training and professional development of teachers. In this regard, you are
encouraged to understand and appreciate the breadth and depth of ICT, and its subtle
integration in augmenting the professional roles of teachers and relevant stakeholders.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Describe the theoretical basis of learning designs.
2. Explain the role of technology in facilitating the teaching and learning process.
3. Analyse the role of computer-mediated instruction in assisting and managing the
teaching and learning process.
4. Discuss the utilisation of ICT in teacher training and professional development of
teachers.
Enhancing
meaningful
Interaction in
On-line
Learning
Text Resources
Media Resources
George Siemens (2004) Connectivism: A
Learning Theory for the Digital Age
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/conne
ctivism.htm
George Siemens (2005) Learning
Development Cycle: Bridging Learning
Design and Modern Knowledge Needs
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.ht
m
Andragogy (Adult Learning)
Learning outcomes
By the end of the section, you should be able to:
1. Describe how the different theoretical positions such as behaviourism, cognitivism,
constructivism and connectivism contribute towards designing effective learning
environments.
Reading 2.1
Read the article Connectivism: A Learning Theory for Digital Age which presents the
insufficiency of traditional learning theories in explaining learning in a technology mediated
environment.
George Siemens (2004) Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age,
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
The article you read attempts to provides a detailed analysis of the traditional learning
theories Behaviourism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism and interprets how a new
theoretical paradigm such as Connectivism can only explain the collective learning that takes
place in a digital networked environment.
All of the three traditional learning theories hold the notion that knowledge is an objective (or
a state) that is attainable (if not already innate) through either reasoning or experiences. These
theories attempt to address how it is that a person learns.
1. Behaviourism states that learning is largely unknowable, that is, we cannot possibly
understand what goes on inside a person (the black box theory). Gredler (2001)
expresses behaviourism as being comprised of several theories that make three
assumptions about learning:
a. Observable behaviour is more important than understanding internal activities.
Reflection 2.1
More recently, some instructional theorists believe that the theories of behaviourism,
cognitivism and constructivism are inadequate to explain the collaborative learning process
within an electronically networked environment. Do you agree with this?
Reflect on this issue. You may like to discuss with other classmates or with your tutor.
Limitations of behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism
A central tenet of most learning theories is that learning occurs inside a person. Even social
constructivist views, which hold that learning is a socially enacted process, promotes the
principality of the individual (and her/his physical presence i.e., brain-based) in learning.
These theories do not address learning that occurs outside of people (i.e., learning that is
stored and manipulated by technology). They also fail to describe how learning happens
within organisations.
Learning theories are concerned with the actual process of learning, not with the value of
what is being learned. In a networked world, the very manner of information that we acquire
is worth exploring. When knowledge is abundant, the rapid evaluation of knowledge is
important. Additional concerns arise from the rapid increase in information. In today's
environment, action is often needed without personal learning that is, our actions require us
to draw on information that is outside of our primary knowledge. The ability to synthesise
and recognise connections and patterns is a valuable skill.
Many important questions are raised when established learning theories are seen through
technology. The natural attempt of theorists is to continue to revise and evolve theories as
conditions change. At some point, however, the underlying conditions have altered so
significantly, that further modification is no longer sensible. An entirely new approach is
needed.
Knowledge explosion
Knowledge is growing exponentially. In many fields, the shelf life of knowledge can now be
measured in months and years. Gonzalez (2004) describes the challenges of rapidly
diminishing lifespan of knowledge:
One of the most persuasive factors is the shrinking half-life of knowledge. The halflife of knowledge is the time span from when knowledge is gained to when it
becomes obsolete. Half of what is known today was not known 10 years ago. The
amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling
every 18 months according to the American Society of Training and Documentation
(ASTD). To combat the shrinking half-life of knowledge, organisations have been
forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction.
Some significant trends in learning
We are observing some significant trends lately due to rapid technological development and
social changes. These include:
1. Many learners will move into a variety of different, possibly unrelated fields over the
course of their lifetime.
2. Informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience. Formal education
no longer comprises the majority of our learning. Learning now occurs in a variety of
ways through communities of practice, personal networks, and through completion
of work-related tasks.
3. Learning is a continual process, lasting for a lifetime. Learning and work related
activities are no longer separate. In many situations, they are the same.
4. Technology is altering (rewiring) our brains. The tools we use define and shape our
thinking.
5. The organisation and the individual are both learning organisms. Increased attention
to knowledge management highlights the need for a theory that attempts to explain
the link between individual and organisational learning.
6. Many of the processes previously handled by learning theories (especially in
cognitive information processing) can now be off-loaded to, or supported by,
technology.
7. Know-how and know-what is being supplemented with know-where (the
understanding of where to find knowledge needed).
Reflection 2.2
Recent technological developments have led to changes in some social trends. Can you
identify some of these trends in your community? How do these trends impact on learning?
Discuss with your colleagues and reflect on this issue.
Let us now read the following paragraphs taken from George Siemens (2004) Connectivism:
A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.
An alternative theory
Including technology and connection making as learning activities begins to move learning
theories into a digital age. We can no longer personally experience and acquire all the
learning that we need to actin order to carry out our actions in the modern world. We derive
our competence from forming connections. Karen Stephenson (undated) states:
Experience has long been considered the best teacher of knowledge. Since we
cannot experience everything, other peoples experiences, and hence other people,
become the surrogate for knowledge. I store my knowledge in my friends is an
axiom for collecting knowledge through collecting people (undated).
Connectivism
Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and
self-organisation theories. Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of
shifting core elements not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as
actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organisation or a database),
and is focused on connecting specialised information sets. The connections that enable us to
learn more are more important than our current state of knowing.
Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering
foundations. New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions
between important and unimportant information is vital. The ability to recognise when new
information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday is also critical.
Principles of connectivism:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Reading 2.2
Read the following article Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and
Modern Knowledge Needs. You may like to take short notes while you read the article.
George Siemens (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and
Modern Knowledge Needs, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm
Learning domains
(Note: Paragraphs from George Siemens (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging
Learning Design and Modern Knowledge Needs.CC license has been as such used here
with minor changes.)
Learning can be classified according to various domains. Figure 2.1 depicts learning as
consisting of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Accretion
Transmission
Acquisition
Emergence domains
These terms do not appear to have a clear origin, though they have been used by Wilson
(1997) and Calhoun (undated) without clear attribution to the originating source. Classifying
learning in these domains assists designers in evaluating the object of each design task by
first determining the nature of learning required.
Accretion
Transmission
Learning is continuous
Function of environment
At the point of need
Variety of sources learning foraging
Courses
Lectures
Instructor-in-control
Exploratory
Inquiry-based
Learner-in-control
Metacognition
Reflection on life experiences
Cognition
Each unique learning domain serves a different purpose, and carries a different combination
of benefits and drawbacks. A designers first task is to evaluate the nature of the learning
required. Different knowledge needs require different models or approaches. For example,
someone new to a particular field or in need of compliance training will benefit most from
courses. Short-term knowledge needs (requirements which are not a part of a particular field,
but needed for cross-over understanding when dealing with other professionals or a particular
project) can often be provided by more information sources like magazines, websites,
journals, and newsletters. More developed knowledge need (but with less structure than a
course) can be met through apprentice-models like communities of practice.
More advanced and continual learning can best be provided through a networked or
ecological view of learning. Capable, self-aware learners are able to identify and meet their
own knowledge needs. This level of learning often occurs as a result of living life. The
process of living is in itself a learning experience that can result in the creation of a dynamic
knowledge network, allowing learners to integrate new information with existing knowledge,
enabling more effective decisions in work and personal affairs.
Learner in control
Learning is continuous
Reflection on life experiences
Instructor in Control
Learning by enquiry
Learning from variety of sources
Cognitive process
Suggested answers:
Nature of learning
Learner in control
Learning is continuous
Reflection on life experiences
Instructor in Control
Learning by enquiry
Learning from variety of sources
Cognitive process
4. Accretion domain
Networks, environments, and ecologies are the object of design in the accretion domain
of learning. Most learning happens in this domain. Learning at this level is a function of
creating connections, foraging for needed knowledge, and plugging in to learning
sources (as compared to possessing learning). Knowing where to find needed information
is valued above possessing information, due to how quickly information evolves and
changes. The designers role in this domain of learning is to create the construct and
opportunities for learners to pursue and provide for their own learning. The network itself
is the critical learning element. Connecting learners to networks and communities ensures
that knowledge is relevant and current.
Reflection 2.3
Some models of instructional design assume that the creation of an instructional process is
the intent of design. Is this view held by all domains of learning or does each domain have
different object of design. Discuss this with your colleagues and reflect on it.
Accretion domain:
Transmission domain:
Acquisition domain:
Emergence domain:
Suggested answers:
1. Accretion:
Learning is a continual/embedded process. Theory of connectivism. Underlying traits
are: learning is in the network, rapidly shifting core elements, connection making.
2. Transmission:
Learning as courses. Theories of behaviourism and cognitivism. Underlying traits are:
learning is receiving content, exploring ideas, pursuit of set targets.
3. Acquisition:
Learning as a self-selected process. Theories of cognitivism and constructivism.
Underlying traits are: learning is learner motivated, collaborative, varied sources.
4. Emergence:
Learning is cognition and reflection. Theories of cognitivism and constructivism.
Underlying traits are: learning is learner constructed, personal, subjective, and
cognitive.
Multimedia 2.1
A short video from the PC3 team focusing on Malcolm Knowles theory of andragogy or
adult learning.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLoPiHUZbEw
After watching the video and listening to the narration carefully, use the notes you have taken
down to summarise what you have learnt from the video.
Activity 2.1
Give the main points discussed in the video under the sections indicated below. You could
use the notes you prepared while seeing the video. If needed see the video again. You may
pause the video where ever needed to make sure that you have understood the content
correctly and completely.
1. Meaning of androgogy as compared to pedagogy.
2. Who is considered to be the first to formulate a theory of adult learning based on the
concept of androgogy?
3. Six assumptions of adult learning (Write the assumption with a short description in one or
two lines)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Assumption 1:
Assumption 2:
Assumption 3:
Assumption 4:
Assumption 5:
Assumption 6:
4. Will androgogic techniques of learning be applicable to children too? Give reasons why
or why not.
Now read a summary of the video script and see whether your answers correspond correctly
to what was presented in the video.
Meaning of androgogy
1. Androgogy (adult learning) refers to methods and techniques for teaching adults. This
compares to pedagogy, which refers to methods and techniques for teaching children.
2. The term androgogy was popularised when it was adopted by Malcolm Knowles in the
later part of the twentieth century, to describe his theory of adult learning.
3. Knowles proposes six assumptions about adult learners which determine how teaching of
adults should proceed.
Six assumptions about adult learners
1. The need to know: Adults need to know why they are learning something, what the
benefits are of knowing it and what they risk by not learning it. By knowing these they
will respond more positively to learning experiences. This leads to a need to include
adults in deciding what it is they learn and setting goals and plans for their learning.
2. Self concept: Adult learners have a self concept of being responsible for their own
decisions. They are naturally self-directed in their lives and in their thinking, which may
lead to self-management of learning. This has two elements viz. one, taking ownership of
learning in terms of making decisions about what and how to learn and two, self-direction
which includes self management, motivation and on assuring. Self concept is likely to be
context dependent, that is, it will vary between different learning situations.
3. Experience: Adult learners have experience and that experience is more diverse than is
the case of children. Learning can, therefore, draw on this experience much more fully.
However adults might also have ingrained ideas from this experience leading to bias or
single mindedness. Adults tend to associate experience with who they are. Their identity
is defined in terms of what experiences they have had. All of this means that learning
needs to be associated with existing knowledge and learning activities situated in real
experience. Learning should be active, constructive and collaborative and learners also
need to recognise that, sometimes, unlearning is required.
4. Readiness to learn: Adult learners need learning to be timely and relevant and focus on
what is useful in that particular context and situation. Pratt identifies two dimensions
along which adults vary in different learning situations.
a. Direction is how much assistance is needed and is a factor of the learners competence
in the subject area and their general dependency.
b. Support is how much encouragement is needed from others and is a factor of their
commitment and their confidence in their ability to learn.
5. Orientation to learn: Adult learning is life centred and focuses on tasks and problems
rather than on subjects, so learning needs to be contextualised and experiential learning is
most affective. Kolb proposed an experiential learning cycle where learners have concrete
experiences of the here and now.
a.
b.
c.
d.
They observe and recall their own experiences as well as that of others.
Reflect on those experiences.
Generalise from those experiences to develop concepts and theories.
Test these generalizations in new situations.
6. Motivation to learn: This may be extrinsic, for example, through rewards and grades but
in adults it is more likely to be intrinsic due to self satisfaction, enjoyment, having choice
and control of what is learned and value, feeling that what is learned is worthwhile.
Pedagogy and androgogy
1. Knowles argues there is an assumption in pedagogy that the teacher leads and makes keys
decisions and the learners are dependent with natural dependency decreasing from
childhood to adolescence. The learners own knowledge and experience is not considered
important. Knowledge comes from teachers and text books. The readiness to learn is
focused on what they are told they need to know. The learning is subject centred, and the
motivation is extrinsic, focusing on good grades and pleasing others.
2. Knowles characterised andragogy as process model of learning. A facilitator considers the
activities and steps needed for learners to acquire knowledge and skill rather than a
content model as in pedagogy where the teacher decides on what will be taught and how
it will be presented to the learner.
3. Knowles work has its critics. Some argue that the assumptions do not apply equally to all
adult learners or a diverse group with a huge range of backgrounds and experiences, or
even to any one individual all of the time.
4. Others argue that Knowles creates a false dichotomy between adult and child learners,
arguing that children have experiences that shape their learning as well, and benefit from
contextualised experiential learning. It can be argued that andragogy is not so much a
theory of adult learning, but a framework for good teaching.
5. Later, Knowles did adjust his position, acknowledging the need to look at which
assumptions apply when looking at a particular learning context, rather than looking
specifically at the age of the learner. The andragogist, he argued, even if starting from a
pedagogic perspective will try to move to andragogic practice as soon as possible.
6. This approach can be applied regardless of the age of the learner and suggests that
andragogy could be viewed simply as good teaching practice.
In the part of this section, you learnt about androgogy and the assumptions regarding adult
learners. These assumptions are applicable in whatever model they learn. The next part
discusses the importance of developing interactive online learning through connecting
learners and learners, learners and experts and learners and content.
Multimedia 2.2
View the following video and read the next part of this section. Do take notes while you view
the video. You may pause the video at appropriate places in order to make sure that you
understand the content well.
http://youtu.be/Zv-_GCFdLdo
Interview with Richard Culatta about the importance of developing interactive online
learning. Online learning should connect learners with each other and with experts and not
just content. The more online learning leverages social learning practices the more effective it
will be. Instructional design is essential to effective online learning.
You should have found the short video quite informative. The focus of the video is to look at
learning as a social activity and how individuals learn by engaging in social interaction.
Michael Moore talks about three types of interaction:
1. Learner-content interaction
2. Learner-expert interaction
3. Learner-learner interaction
Activity 2.2
Observe a regular classroom or a virtual group situation as web-conference or the
WawasanLearn in WOU and analyse the interactions in the given context. Calculate what
percentage of the interactions are learner-learner interaction and learnerteacher/tutor/expert interaction.
What was the nature of these interactions? What percentage of the interactions was related to
the content and learning outcomes? What percentage was related to organisational matters?
Discuss the result of your activity with your colleagues and in the tutorial.
Reading 2.3
Mohamed Ally (2004) Foundations of Educational Theory for Online Learning in Terry
Anderson and Fathi Elloumi (ed) Theory and Practice of Online Learning, Athabasca
University, 18-26.
Source: http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf
All learning theories do emphasise the need for interaction. Principles underlying the theory
of constructivism are considered to be very relevant and useful for designing an online
learning environment. Let us see below what are these principles which will enhance
effective and meaningful learning.
Implications of constructivism for online learning
1. Learning should be an active process. Keeping learners active while participating in
meaningful activities results in high-level processing, which facilitates the creation of
personalised meaning. Asking learners to apply the information in a practical situation is
an active process, and facilitates personal interpretation and relevance.
2. Learners should construct their own knowledge rather than accepting that which is given
by the instructor. Knowledge construction is facilitated by good interactive online
instruction, since the students will have to take the initiative to learn and to interact with
other students and the instructor.
3. Collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate constructivist
learning. Working with other learners gives learners real-life experiences of working in a
group, and allows them to use their metacognitive skills.
Learners will also be able to use the strengths of other learners, and to learn from others.
When assigning learners for group work, membership should be based on the expertise
level and learning style of individual group members, so that individual team members
can benefit from one anothers strengths.
4. Learners should be given control of the learning process. There should be a form of
guided discovery where learners are allowed to make decisions on learning goals, but
with some guidance from the instructor.
5. Learners should be given time and opportunity to reflect. When learning online, students
need the time to reflect and internalise the information. Embedded questions on the
content can be used throughout the lesson to encourage learners to reflect on and process
the information in a relevant and meaningful manner; or learners can be asked to generate
a learning journal during the learning process to encourage reflection and processing.
6. Learning should be made meaningful for learners. The learning materials should include
examples that relate to students, so that they can make sense of the information.
Assignments and projects should allow learners to choose meaningful activities to help
them apply and personalise the information.
7. Learning should be interactive to promote higher-level learning and social presence, and
to help develop personal meaning. Interaction is also critical to creating a sense of
presence and a sense of community for online learners, and to promoting transformational
learning. Garrison (1999) claimed that it is the design of the educational experience that
includes the transactional nature of the relationship between instructor, learners, and
content that is of significance to the learning experience.
Activity 2.3
You have learnt a number of reasons why on-learning situation should involve active
interaction. Is this equally relevant to a classroom?
Observe a classroom situation and record the different kinds of interactions occurring in the
class.
How does the teacher manage to create/facilitate such interactions?
2. Learners should construct their own knowledge rather than accepting that which is
given by the instructor.
3. Collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate
constructivist learning.
4. Learners should be given control of the learning process.
5. Learners should be given time and opportunity to reflect.
6. Learning should be made meaningful for learners.
7. Learning should be interactive to promote higher-level learning and social presence,
and to help develop personal meaning.
Types of interaction
Different kinds of interaction will promote learning at different levels. Hirumi (2002)
proposed a framework of interaction in online learning that consists of three levels.
1. Level one is learner-self interaction, which occurs within the learner to help the
learner monitor and regulate their own learning.
2. Level two interactions are learner-human and learner-non-human interactions, where
the learner interacts with human and non-human resources.
3. Level three is learner-instruction interaction, which consists of activities to achieve a
learning outcome.
We should go one step further and propose interactions that go from lower-level to higher
level interactions based on behaviourist, cognitivist, and constructivist schools of learning.
See Figure 2.4.
Learner-Interface interaction: At the lowest level of interaction, there must be learnerinterface interaction to allow the learner to access and sense the information. The interface is
where learners use their senses to register information in sensory storage. In online learning,
the interface is with the computer to access the content and to interact with others.
Learner-Content interaction: Once learners access the online materials, there must be
learner content interaction to process the information. Learners navigate through the content
to access the components of the lesson, which could take the form of pre-learning, learning,
and post-learning activities. These activities could access reusable learning objects from a
repository or they could use content that has been custom created by the designer or
instructor. Students should be given the ability to choose their own sequence of learning, or
should be given one or more suggested sequences.
Type 3: ..
Description:
Example:
Type 4: ..
Description:
Example:
Suggested answers:
Level 1: Learner-interface interaction
Description: At the lowest level of interaction, there must be learner-interface interaction to
allow the learner to access and sense the information.
Example: In online learning, the interface is with the computer to access the content and to
interact with others.
Level 2: Learner-content interaction
Description: Once learners access the online materials, there must be learner content
interaction to process the information.
Example: Learners navigate through the content to access the components of the lesson,
which could take the form of pre-learning, learning, and post-learning activities. These
activities could access reusable learning objects from a repository or they could use content
that has been custom created by the designer.
Level 3: Learner-support interaction
Description: Learners interacting with all types of human and non-human support.
Example: Learner-to-learner, learner-to-instructor, instructor-to-learner, and learner-toexpert interactions.
Level 4: Learner-context interaction
Description: There should be strategies to promote learner-context interaction to allow
learners to apply what they learn in real life so that they can contextualise the information.
Example: A teacher applying the knowledge of ICT in classroom learning and reflecting on
its effectiveness in helping students learn.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt the theoretical perspectives underlying the four learning
theories viz. behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism. These form the
Supporting Theoretical Background for explaining the learning process in an individual as
well as in a collaborative networked situation. While traditional learning theories such as
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism do contribute to designing learning
environment, the emergence of new technology new theoretical paradigms such as
connectivism also becomes relevant in designing a networked learning environment. You
have also learnt about the different domains of learning and seen the contribution of the
four learning theories to these domains. New theoretical understanding and assumptions
underpinning how adults learn and how principles based on different learning theories
contribute to creating effective learning designs are also discussed. All learning theories
emphasise the need for interaction. The principles underlying the theory of constructivism are
considered to be particularly relevant and useful for designing an online learning
environment. The section ends with a detailed discussion on how different kinds of
interaction will promote learning at different levels.
Text Resources
Lumsdaine, A A (1996) 'Educational
Technology, Programed Learning, and
Instructional Science, Classic Writing
on Instructional Design,
Media Resources
Instructional Technology:
Looking Backward, Thinking
Forward
http://youtu.be/KdwEIi22Dv8
Considerations
and constraints in
using technology
for instruction
Learning Outcomes
Multimedia 2.3
Watch the film to understand how new technologies have emerged and been integrated into
education over a period of time (reference).
Instructional Technology: Looking Backward, Thinking Forward
http://youtu.be/KdwEIi22Dv8
When we hear or read the term instructional technology (IT) the first thing which probably
comes to our mind will be that it constitutes two words viz. instruction and technology. You
might have come across many terms in the literature and also in this course which has one
common word technology, including terms such as Information Technology, Information
and Communication Technology, Teaching Technology. Each of these have very few
differences between each other and, in fact, have more in common with each other than not.
When we use the term instructional technology, it refers to the technology used for providing
instruction. Can any technology be termed as instructional technology? Probably the answer
is that not all technologies can be called as instructional technology. The reason for this will
be clearer when we look at the definition of Instructional Technology.
According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT)
Definitions and Terminology Committee, instructional technology is: The theory and
practice of design, development, utilisation, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning. In this you may notice that instructional technology involves the
application of theory from different fields, developing learning materials and using it, and
evaluating the outcome from the point of learner and professional teachers. Here the focus of
technology is to enhance or facilitate learning.
When you read the definition of educational technology, on the face of it you may feel that
both words are synonyms of one another. But when you look at the definitions critically, you
will see that there are differences between the two. According to Razavi (2005) Educational
technology covers instructional technology. It includes instructional technology and the field
study in human teaching and learning.
The focus of instructional technology is in using tools to facilitate student learning and the
teaching-learning process in general. It is not simply application of tools but beyond that as
well. The tools that are being used by teachers for instruction are wide and varied, and range
from writing boards to the iPad. It includes a range of tasks, such as designing and organising
the teaching content in relation to the tools being used for effective learning. In case the
teacher is not able to achieve the desired outcome, then he/she may analyse, modify the
design, reorganise the content, and change the tools by going through a number of steps
similar to the steps followed in action research.
To use the appropriate technology to teach a concept or a lesson, a teacher has to plan the
instruction of design an instruction which she/he would like to deliver. Teacher training
programmes often teach certain steps and develop various skills so trainees are equipped to
prepare lesson plans. A lesson plan will include the objectives to be achieved, strategy to be
adopted, teaching aids to be used, learning activities to be provided to students and evaluation
strategies and techniques to be adopted. Also some hands on experience will be incorporated
so as to try out their plans under supervision. This follows all the steps that will be discussed
in the in the next part covering the concept of instructional design.
Instructional design
To plan the delivery of instruction to the students in the actual classrooms or through distance
learning, it is always necessary to follow certain systematic and sequential steps to achieve
the desired goals .The process of doing this is known as instructional design. There are many
models available for developing an instructional design. Here we will discuss one model,
namely the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model.
These phases are:
1. Analyse This phase involves analysing the characteristics or profile of students, tasks to
be learnt by students, the environment in which it is to be taught, and the goal to be
achieved.
2. Design In this phase a teacher is required to develop instructional/learning objectives,
choose the teaching strategy including the methods to be followed, choose the selection of
technology tools and resources, and choose tools to assess the outcome which could be a
questionnaire, check list, interview schedule, etc.
3. Develop Once the learning objectives and teaching strategy are decided in the context
of the environment and student profile, the next phase will be to develop materials to be
used, including the learning activities, and check for its appropriateness and feasibility
through formative evaluation. This phase is important from the point of view of
instructional technology. Here the teacher has to identify the technology and the media to
suit the required content and context.
4. Implement In this phase the instruction is delivered to the intended target group, that is,
the students using the materials and activities developed in the previous stage.
5. Evaluate This last phase assesses the outcome of the instruction and whether the
intended instructional/learning objectives were achieved using the assessment tools
developed. If the objectives are not achieved, then one may have to re-examine all the
previous. This does not mean that the entire design has to be modified unless the
instruction performed especially poorly in achieving the goal. The exercise of examining
is meant to help in making the next lesson better. In this context it is necessary to note
that no teacher can ever deliver a perfect lesson, but is constantly striving to get as close
to perfection as possible. So it is always a learning process.
Another instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. The
model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled
The Systematic Design of Instruction. You may go through the following for details to gain a
detailed understanding of various instructional design models.
If you have time and access, go through the video film listed below. The film is 2 minutes
and 44 seconds. The film explains all the steps and some sub-steps in the process of
instructional design.
Additional references
Visit the following website and video clip to learn more about instructional design.
Instructional Design, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_noteDickCarey2005-29
Addie Instructional Design Process, http://youtu.be/0vXegHDzrBg
Reflection 2.4
Look at the definition of instructional technology given here and compare it with the
definition of educational technology (ET), given by AECT as Educational technology is the
study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. Find the differences
between the two. In this context you may recall or refer to the exercise you did in the section
1.5.
The Educational Technology is a broader term and deals with creating a system to improve
performance of students and it is based on a systems approach where as Instructional
Technology is more specific and attempts to identify the educational problems and challenges
of students, reorganises the content in the context of available technology resources and
delivers the instruction so as to ensure acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes etc. among
students as per the plan developed by the teacher.
Multimedia 2.4
Watch this video Technology in the classroom to learn more about technology in the
classroom.
http://youtu.be/4oEgxwLhvV8
Multimedia 2.5
Go through the video clips and list out the reasons to use technology in education, and
explain in brief each of the reasons.
Top 10 Reasons to Use Technology in Education: iPad, Tablet, Computer, Listening
Centres http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzi2RIt8_nk
ITC Understand Integrating Technology in the Classroom Teacher Professional
Development http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzpACGwXNlQ
Utilisation of media technology is no longer unfamiliar to the educational community. With
the recent developments of media technology in education, there are many benefits of
integrating media into the teaching and learning process, among these include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Activity 2.4
Try to recollect your experience with respect to remembering things, then check with the
information given in Figure 2.5. Which cone of experience best fits your case?
There are many media materials are available in the system for use by teachers. Teachers
with some background of training could be able to develop, adapt certain kind of materials
such as handouts, drawings, charts, graphs, overhead transparencies, slides, audio tapes etc.,
whereas other materials like filmstrips, video films, computer software etc. developed by
professional agencies and organisations can also be used. Each type has its own merits and
use in the type and nature of instruction delivered.
Reading 2.4
Please read Chapter 9: Instructional Media: Chalkboards to Video of the following book:
The Florida State University (2011) Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning
Practices Office of Distance Learning,
http://distance.fsu.edu/docs/instruction_at_fsu/Chptr9.pdf
Chapter 9 (FSU 2011) discusses different issues regarding the types of media that can be used
for instruction, the reasons to use each media type, and various instructional strategies
involving media. The chapter provides tips for using each media type, from chalkboards to
clickers and video. In addition it also provides an explanatory note on Dales Cone of
Experience.
Summary
This section discussed the meaning of instructional technology and its relevance in designing
instruction for delivery in the classrooms. The section attempted to highlight the need to
select media which is appropriate to the content to be delivered, learning objectives to be
achieved, the context, and the learning styles of students for maximum impact. These aspects
should be considered while selecting the appropriate technology for instruction.
Self-test 2.1
1. List the steps in involved in designing instruction for classroom teaching. Explain any one
step with appropriate examples.
2. Even today the teachers use predominantly the chalk board as classroom technology even
though the sophisticated technologies are available. Mention any three reasons for this.
3. Explain the importance of using media for teaching.
4. Look at the Figures 2.5 and explain:
a. If a teacher uses only lecture method, what learning outcomes he/she is likely to
achieve?
b. Explain how the students could be made more active learners in the classrooms
Suggested answers:
1. The five steps in designing instruction are
a. Analyse
b. Design
c. Develop
d. Implement
e. Evaluate
2. The reasons for using the chalk board could be
a. Cost effective
b. User friendly
c. Easy access
d. Familiarity
e. Not much prior preparation required
3. The probable answer could be the media materials have the potential to provide
opportunities for multi channel and multi sensory learning. It helps to hold attention. It
helps to create interest. Possible to make difficult concept easy to understand by visuals,
etc.
4. a. The lecture usually involves only hearing and reading. So this will result in enabling
students to perform the questions of the types describe, explain, define list etc.
b. To make students active learners the teachers have to provide opportunities for hands
on experience, projects, collaborative leaning, workshops.
_____________________________________
Text Resources
Poole et al. (2009) Education for the
Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized
Classroom, 7th edn,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEditio
n/Chapter7.pdf
Media Resources
Network Components
http://youtu.be/v1e9DNcczc
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) was the first computer assisted instruction
system originally designed at the University of Illinois.
2
TUTOR is an authoring language for designing instructional material and was applied to the PLATO systems.
Why use different Office of Distance Learning (2011) Instruction Top 10 Reasons to Use
media/technology at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning
Technology in
for instruction
Practices, The Florida State University,
Education: iPad, Tablet,
http://distance.fsu.edu/docs/instruction_at_fsu/C Computer, Listening
hptr9.pdf
Centres
http://youtu.be/mzi2RIt8
Chapter 9: Instructional Media: Chalkboards to _nk
Video (pp. 103-112)
ITC Understand
Integrating Technology
In The Classroom
Teacher Professional
Development
http://youtu.be/OzpACG
wXNlQ
Considerations
Waleed Mustafa Eyadat and, Yousef Ahmed
and constraints in Eyadat (2010) Instructional technology and
using technology creativity among university students: The
for instruction
missing link, World Journal on Educational
Technology, 2(2): 87-99, http://www.worldeducationcenter.org/index.php/wjet/article/view/164/pdf_
13
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In section 2.3 we shall move from looking at the history of computer mediated instruction to
now focus on the practical ways computers have been put to use in and out of the classroom
to support teaching and enrich learning.
proposition that machines communicate with each other is interesting; even more interesting
is the distances over which this communication can travel. The chapter is separated into three
parts. These are:
1. Scope of communications
As you are reading this unit, you are probably alone in your room sitting at your table.
But if you are reading this in the staff room or the school library, pause for a moment and
look around you. While many like you would be absorbed in their own work, others may
be in conversation. Observe the individuals in conversation. Besides just talking there are
also hand gestures, laughter and physical contact like holding hands. People are
communicating all the time. It is a very human trait. Most animals in the animal kingdom
communicate some, like Homo sapiens use language, others motor behaviour (bees,
birds, mammals), and yet others chemical signals (termites and ants). In the digital era the
ability to communicate seems to have been bestowed by human beings through digital
technology.
In the early days of computing machines worked in isolation. With rapid digitisation of
communication technologies the transfer of data from one appliance to another became
possible. Since there are literally millions of computers with enormous amounts of data in
them, the most efficient way to move the data from one computer to another, from one to
many, or from many to many is to simply get the machines to talk to each other. We
have done this through creating various machine languages (the binaries of 0s and 1s),
codes (protocols) and pathways (the networks).
Additional references
To learn more about Binary numbers and computers, please click at the link given below:
http://www.ghacks.net/2011/08/12/the-importance-of-binary-numbers-in-computing/
In Chapter 7, Section: Technology Transfer and the Challenge Posed by User Demand
(pp. 182-183) describes this development elegantly. Take note of the following as you
read this section:
a. The move from analogue (copper) based technology to digital (fiber) technology. This
single evolution of the technology instantly made possible all the communication
activities we undertake both in volume and speed.
b. Educational services are among the major beneficiaries. The new tools of
communication permitted interesting innovations in pedagogy.
c. How technology facilitated creative ways in which services in education could be
developed to make learning available for all in an exciting, rewarding and fascinating
way.
Activity 2.5
Consider how computer communications have enabled you as a teacher and your school as an
institution to enhance teaching and learning in the school.
Suggested answers:
The following are some ways in which computer communication has supported the
university:
Email.
File transfers between various departments.
The Learning Management system (WawasanLearn).
Public relations (Online version of Wawasan Link).
University announcements to its registered students.
Function
The Hub allows computers to share data packages.
Cables connect various parts of the components.
Client/Image/Print/File A machine that provides a service for other users. There include
Server
print servers, image servers, client servers, etc.
Gateways
Gateways convert data passing between different types of networks
so that each component can communicate with each other.
Modem
Modems convert analogue data between computers and telephones.
Table 2.2 Functions of the major components of a computer network
File sharing: Networking of computers which helps users to share data files.
Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CDROM drives, hard drives etc.
Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, which
allows the implementation of client/server applications.
User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups and video conferencing etc.
v.
Multimedia 2.6
Watch the video from CISCO at http://youtu.be/v1e-9DNcczc to get a broad overview of
computer networking.
3. Home-school communications.
a. At the end of this section, as an activity, you will be invited to develop your schools
strategy for a computer network. As one of your strategic goals you may wish to
consider such a network facilitating communication between the school and the home.
One of the many challenges our school systems face is the lack of regular and
informal communication between the school and the home. It is not a peculiarly
Malaysian situation it is fairly widespread. Schools generally limit their interactions
to formal situations via the Parent Teacher Associations rather than a more informal
personal approach of keeping parents informed of their childs progress in schools via
personal communication channels. While the tedium of maintaining communication
between school and home in earlier times was not encouraging, todays networked
environment makes it convenient and possible. There is clearly much value to be
derived through a more personalised communication environment between home and
school. In this section (Chapter 7, 200-205), Prof. Poole presents a strong case to
develop a much more proactive strategy to link the home and the school. As you read
this section pay particular attention to the following:
i.
The interdependency of the school and the parent to foster and nurture the
overall development of the child.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Many parents need help from the school to support their childs (especially
academic) development. In a nation like ours where the levels of educational
attainment, especially in non-urban areas is not high, this support is even more
critical.
As we progress towards a more egalitarian and fair society, schools must
assume a greater share of the responsibility to nurture the childs intellectual
development in association with the parent.
The school-child-parent triangular relationship provides a much stronger
framework working together for the childs development than as separate lines
a triangle is greater than the sum of the three line segments that form it.
This is because of its Gestalt. (Wertheimers Gestalt psychology).
The TransParent School Model proposed by Jerold Bauch of Vanderbilt
University considers a voice-based information exchange between teachers
and parents as a simple technology based system that benefits from todays
computer networked environment. E-mails, school websites and other
computer controlled devices all make it possible to bring school and home
together. Built within the model are also choices that can be applied in
situations where some homes may not have access to computer
communication facilities. Under those circumstances, other options such as
voice mail, facsimiles and ultimately the old fashion method of face-to-face
interaction can be used.
Activity 2.6
Develop a case and strategy for a networked computing environment for your school. List
down all of the required components to establish the network and present the positive impacts
you expect to derive from the investment and also how would you reduce any negative
consequences.
Suggested answers:
Table 2.2 and Figure 2.6 list the components as well as a configuration in an ideal situation.
It is likely that your school may not have an ideal situation and neither would it require a
sophisticated environment if the use is limited to exchanging e mails, presenting staff notices
and doing tasks such as word processing. When staff and students start exchanging files,
storing curriculum materials, organise learning management systems, student records and
manage all administrative documents, a full blown integrated system as illustrated in Figure
2.6 will be required. The benefits derived are greater administrative efficiencies and most
importantly improved teaching and learning.
system. It has been around for a while, gaining popularity in use as sophisticated computers
and software to support them became cheaper and easily available.
The early beginnings of CMI can be traced back to Stanford University (1967) with various
developments remaining a side stream activity till the late 70s, and becoming more or less
mainstream as part of higher education in the early 90s. There is no single definition that
describes CMI comprehensively. At the end of this section I have put together a short power
point presentation summarizing what we know about CMI that you may wish to view.
A comprehensive account of CMI is presented in Chapter 5 of Education for an Information
Age
(Poole
et
al.
2009,
103-141,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter5.pdf). This chapter is about how
the tools of computing are used to support and provide learning objectives, learning
resources, assessment of learning performance as well as tracking student progression. It is an
aid in the classroom. In all likelihood many of you will be familiar with a number of tools
(both hardware and software) mentioned in this chapter. What we will do in this section is to
highlight those aspects of CMI technologies that have a special value for learning, teaching
and administering activities.
Good tools do not make a good teacher, but a good teacher makes use of good tools. While
the teachers of yesteryear had blackboard, chalk, flip charts and overhead projectors, todays
teachers have available an arsenal of tools that help to increase productivity, save time and
relieve overburdened teachers with some leisure time. The chapter presents the CMI story in
two parts. The first is about tools that assist productivity and the second about other
applications that assist in matters of curriculum, content, assessment, planning and
communication between school and home. Before we continue, list 4 or 5 computing tools
that you have personally used as a teacher and the purpose for using them.
Activity 2.7
Make a list of all the productivity tools that you have used as a teacher in your school and
state for what purpose you used these tools.
Productivity tool
(E.g.) Microsoft Word
Purposes
Writing lecture notes, exam questions etc.
Suggested answers:
Productivity tools
The Ministry of Education Malaysia has continuously invested in providing computing
technologies to almost all national type schools in the country. The Government has also
provided free personal computers to thousands of teachers and invested in both formal
training of teachers to use computers both as tools to improve pedagogy and productivity.
Such investments are part of the strategy to ensure that Malaysian teachers benefit from the
capacities of computing by increasing productivity and students from quality of improved
instruction. As you have read in the Malaysian case studies presented in Unit 1, our track
record on realising the full potential has been somewhat modest for a variety of reasons. We
are not the only country that suffers from these shortcomings. In pages 104 and 105 of
Chapter 5 the authors Poole and Mclivan allude to some of the challenges faced by the US
system as well. One obvious solution to the greater and more effective use of computers to
manage instruction is to ensure that there is more regular and intensive re-training provided to
our teachers.
Thousands of software applications have been developed over the years, many for free, to
meet specific educational objectives, including:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Purposes
Creating documents from writing textbooks to letters,
reports, and memos.
Storing and retrieving data such as all kinds of students
information.
Crunching numbers besides financial management.
Creating visual aids for instruction, manipulating
illustrations, photographs.
Storing pre-drawn images that can be inserted into texts etc.
Similar to clip art but capturing and storing multi-media.
Programmes that turn numerical information into graphics.
Integrated applications
Presentation (authoring)
software including Power
Point Presentation
Web based presentation
Multimedia applications
Graphical organisers
Utilities
Besides productivity tools to support teachers in a variety of functions, there are other equally
valuable computer programmes that teachers can benefit from (read pp. 122-139 of Chapter
5). These programmes are useful in undertaking the tasks described below.
1. Electronic templates: a simple example of a template is a memo created with your
school letterhead and stored in the computer. You can use this letterhead to generate
memos for different purposes. Templates can be more complex than this simple
example.
2. Curriculum related work: Designing curriculum and writing a syllabus for it is a
complex task. Since curricula often require updating, revisions can be expedited if
earlier versions were stored electronically and retrieved. Designing the original
curriculum and revising them regularly would involve at least three tasks, .i.e.,
content development, outcomes, and assessment. Mind mapping using tools like
Inspiration (http://www.inspiration.com/) help planners to clarify the
interrelationships of the various aspects of the curriculum.
3. Lesson planning: Lessons or lectures will require revisions depending on changes in
curriculum, diversity of participating students, revisions or new editions of text books,
etc. Using templates, school teachers can design, revise and update their lessons as
needed and store them. This makes life a lot easier for many of us.
4. Content development: Similar to lesson planning, content development requires
regular updating. With information becoming available almost by the minute
everyday on the web in many formats the benefits of digitising content from design
through development is huge.
5. Electronic Boards (EB): These are used extensively in developed countries in place of
the old chalk and board. Connected to the Internet, the EB has tremendous versatility
but to maximise its potential, schools must have excellent and low cost connectivity.
The cost issue places limitations on the use of EBs in our country.
6. Desktop publishing: With the range of cheaply available printers and software like
Pagemaker, teachers can create almost textbook quality lesson notes.
7. Assessment and Test: Computerised tools to create banks of test items provide great
advantages to teachers. The advantage of manipulating test items digitally will
increase production of test items, permits refreshing the items and also individualising
them if necessary. Public examination authorities in most countries will have in
storage thousands of test items that permit them to produce test materials speedily and
efficiently. Increasingly on-line testing is also becoming available in some systems.
8. Rubrics: This is a template of sorts. Teachers can create templates to record individual
achievements of cohorts of students based on a scale of defined tasks or skills.
9. Portfolios: These are hard copies normally of individual students learning experience
and outputs. These can also be digitised permitting regular updating of student
performance.
10. Counselling: With increasing use of social media teachers are in an excellent position
to individualise advice and help students through the use of social media. However,
some caution is expected here of teachers who act as counsellors. Digitised exchanges
can be circulated through the net and meanings of messages misconstrued. Advice is
available to teachers on the proper way to handle such counselling exchanges.
Reading 2.6
Finally, for a quick review let us view the power point presentation (CMI Tour) summarising
the highlights of this section on CMI.
Activity 2.8
A useful exercise would be for you to get together with a few classmates or colleagues and
brainstorm to come up with a list of as many template possibilities as you can think of
(consider using a graphical organiser for this task!) and discuss them in WawasanLearn. Go
through the resulting list to separate critical from non-critical templates. The next step would
be to go ahead and create the templates, trying to use the best productivity tool for the task.
Save your templates and share them.
8. Provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average or gifted.
Development history of CAI
1. The earliest computer-aided instruction was invented in 1925 Presseys multiplechoice machine (developed by Sydney Pressey, Professor of Psychology at Ohio State
University). Presseys multiple-choice machine presented instruction, tested the user,
waited for an answer, provided immediate feedback, and recorded each attempt as
data.
2. In 1950, Norman Crowder developed a process for the U.S. Air Force in which a CAI
programme presented some content as text, tested the user, provided some feedback,
and then branched to corrective instruction or new information based on supplied
responses. Branching was thought to be an advance on Presseys multiple-choice
machine.
3. Much influenced by theories of behaviourism, in 1954 at the University of Pittsburgh,
Psychologist B. F. Skinner demonstrated a teaching machine for reinforcing and
not just teaching spelling and arithmetic with a machine. In addition, users as
reinforcement, may also access auditory material, listen to a passage as often as
necessary then transcribe it. The machine then reveals the correct text. Students may
listen to the passage again and again to discover the sources of any error and selfcorrect themselves.
Developers applied principles of data transmission and reinforcement theory to a
variety of educational situations. Skinner used reinforcement theory to downplay the
role of punishment in changing behaviour. He was convinced that behaviour could be
altered by simply using positive and negative types of reinforcement. Positive
reinforcers presented rewards (good grade or congratulatory comment) after the user
achieved a desired behaviour. Negative reinforcers remove aversive stimuli after the
user failed to achieve a desired behaviour.
Crowder applied these ideas to intrinsic programming so that a users responses
determined the material to be presented next. The main advantage of intrinsic
programming was that it did not waste the time of the fast learner with unnecessary
repetition. Its disadvantage was that it required a large amount of content to present
even a relatively small amount of material.
4. By the late 1950s, early computers were available and promised to offer a better
platform than mechanical devices for teaching machines. However, it was not until
the 1980s before there was widespread interest in the computer as an instructional
tool. These early applications of computers to education were mostly demonstrations
to show the potential of computers in education. Researchers extended Skinners work
and used sophisticated mathematical models of student learning to help design
instructional materials and strategies to achieve a level of individualisation.
5. Early computer based teaching system to enter commercial production was the SelfAdaptive Keyboard Instructor (SAKI), developed by Gordon Pask and Robin
McKinnon-Wood in 1956.
6. A project The Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO)
commenced at the University of Illinois in 1959. By the late 1960s, the PLATO
system was using time-sharing computers to allow large numbers of people to interact
with lesson modules created by the TUTOR programming language.
Reading 2.5
Please read Chapter 6: Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (pp. 158-176) of the following
book.
Poole et al. (2009) Education for the Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized
Classroom, http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter6.pdf
This chapter describe some of the uses of CAIs and issues relating to their use. Pay particular
attention to the seven categories of CAI each of which will require a different type of CAI.
They are tabulated below in Table 2.3.
CAI types
Drill and practice (pp. 155161)
Tutorials (pp. 161- 163)
Highlights
Drill and practice provide opportunities for students to
repeatedly practise the skills that have previously been
presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information
and its extension into different forms of work, including drill
and practice, games and simulation.
Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality
that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.
This approach helps children develop specific problem
solving skills and strategies.
Discovery approach provides a large database of information
specific to a course or content area and challenges the learner
to analyse, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.
This is made up of two components, computer aided
instruction (CAI) modules (often called courseware) and a
management system to manage the learning. The learning
management systems are more recent innovations.
Activity 2.9
Having read the various applications of CAI, list in Table 2.4 below the weaknesses of CAI.
The strengths are already listed for you.
Strengths
Activity 2.10
Please read the studies done by Malaysian academics on the use of CAI in schools and
universities.
1. Govindrarja, C et al. (2011) Computer Assisted Learning: Perceptions and
Knowledge Skills of Undergraduate Medical Students in a Malaysian Medical
School, National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy & Pharmacology, vol. 1, issue 2,
63 67.
2. Faizah bt Mohd Nor (et al.) (2008) Teachers Perceptions Of Lessons Using
Computer Assisted Language Learning.
3. Watch Barbara Glessner-Fines describe her experience designing CAI at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJmn764oRMc
For a quick review let us view the PowerPoint presentation on a CAI tour by Nancy Dowdle.
You can retrieve the articles in WOU MyDigitalLibrary, E-course reserves.
Summary
This section brought to attention the various ways in which computers have been used to
mediate and support teachers and learners. In the discussion, we explored how technology is
becoming an integral part of the teaching and learning environment providing mediation
between learners and the school. Clearly, technology provides another channel for teachers
and students to interact in very meaningful ways, and those who have used technology find
that teaching becomes effective especially in terms of quality when technology are used
sensibly. In this connection, we also studied the potential of computer-managed instruction
and computer-assisted instruction in permitting the learners and instructors to explore
individualised learning to suit the learning requirements, frequencies and styles of the learner.
All in all, with the proliferation of available instructional technologies, exercising the right
choice is crucial as it makes all the difference between puzzling content delivery to effective
execution of the teaching and learning process.
Self-test 2.2
Make a list of the differences between computer managed instruction and computer assisted
instruction.
Computer Managed Instruction
Suggested answers:
Computer Managed Instruction
CMI is a productivity tool
CMI supports the teacher
CMI improves administration
CMI supports integrating administration
Now in this section we look at the ICT from a different perspective that is how the
technology is used in teacher training. For a person to enter a teaching profession, he or she is
required to have a certificate, diploma or degree in teaching depending on the level in which
the individual would like to teach. After joining the teaching profession, one is required to
undergo frequent training or orientation of different durations which may be once every year
or two depending on the Government policies or the policies of the institution in which an
individual works. If teaching is considered as a profession then it is critical that every teacher
updates his/her knowledge and skill in the field as things do change over a period of time due
to many factors including the exponential growth of knowledge, education and technological
advancement and its influence on everyday life.
In this context this section looks at the ICT tools from the view point of its potentiality and
current practices of teacher professional development which is also referred to as teacher
preparation and education. We will also discuss the role of distance education in teacher
professional development and probable challenges and hurdles in using ICT in teacher
training.
This section will be presented in three parts as illustrated in the table below:
Title
Professional
development of
teachers
Technology and
teacher training
Teacher training:
Malaysian scenario
Text resources
Carlson and Gadio (2002) Technologies for Education: Potentials,
Parameters and Prospects,
http://www.ictinedtoolkit.org/usere/library/tech_for_ed_chapters/08.pd
f
Chapter 8: Teacher Professional Development in the Use of
Technology
Jung, I (2005) ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training:
Application Cases Worldwide, Eductaional Technology & Society,
8(2): 94-101, http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_2/8.pdf
Hazri Jamil et al. (2009) Teacher Professional Development in
Malaysia: Issues and Challenges, http://aadcice.hiroshimau.ac.jp/e/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf
UNESCO (2007) Malaysia's Experience in Training Teachers to Use
ICT, ICT in Teacher Education: Case studies from the Asia Pacific
Region, Bangkok,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Distance education
for teacher training
Challenges and
hindrances in using
ICT in teacher
training
Learning outcomes
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Explain the need for using the ICT tools in pre-service and in-service teacher training.
2. Identify the potential of radio, television and video conference in teacher training.
3. Identify the relative advantages and limitations of radio, television and video conference
in teacher training.
4. Identify the challenges in using ICT in teacher training.
5. Explain the advantages of using open distance education method in training untrained/un
qualified teachers.
6. Describe the initiatives of Malaysia in training teachers in using ICT.
of working they are enrolled in a training course lasting 2 or 4 years. To take care of the
qualification requirement and upgrade the knowledge and skills of the untrained/under
qualified teachers, they are encouraged/sponsored to take up the degree programmes of Open
Universities. Let us see how ICT facilitates the professional development of teachers.
Technology and teacher training
The training of teachers in the use of technology is critical and essential. The use of
technology in education should result in imparting quality education and to facilitate the
acquisition of knowledge and skills among students. The training could happen at the pre
service level and also at the in service level. In the pre service, level the focus of training is
more about making them to develop competency in teaching, managing classes,
reinforcing/enriching, content and knowledge and skills in using teaching aids. As part of
using teaching aids to cater to multi-channel learning, some efforts are made by the pre
service institutions in providing skills in the appropriate integration and effective use of
writing boards, posters, charts, audio and video tapes, transparencies etc for transacting the
content. So the skills developed in pre service stage to use technology sometimes may not be
comprehensive. Hence many agencies like Microsoft, Intel, etc. in collaboration with various
government agencies conduct short term in-service teacher training programmes to develop
competency in identifying and integrating technology in teaching.
Chapter 8 (Carlson and Gadio 2002)discusses the theoretical frame work in which the
professional development of teachers in the use of technology should be planned to make
them shift from one end of the continuum to the other on the ten dimensions of interactive
learning. For example with respect to pedagogical philosophy, the move is from instructivist
to constructivist, and similarly on the teacher role from didactic to facilitative.
Chapter 8 also details out what the training on using technology should accomplish and also
the key elements for the success of the training programme. The other issues discussed
include motivation and incentive to teacher participants, certification by the Ministry of
Education, reduced isolation, increased professional satisfaction (intrinsic), and enhanced
productivity (extrinsic).
Activity 2.11
Read Chapter 8: Teacher Professional Development in the Use of Technology (pp. 120-123)
of the following book.
Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf
Attempt the following activities to further strengthen your understanding on professional
development of teachers:
1. List out all the ten dimensions of interactive learning. In case you had received training
on using technology for education either as part of pre-service or in-service training,
identify which of the dimensions have been attempted and to what degree the shift has
taken place in the continuum of interactivity.
2. Briefly explain any two key elements found to be responsible for the success of the
programme that you attended. In case you have not got any input on educational
technology in your training, discuss with your professional colleagues to identify the two
elements.
Suggested answers:
Your answer will have two sections. One section deals with the ten dimensions (listed below)
and the other deals with the extent of the shift as a result of having undergone training.
The ten dimensions are:
1. Pedagogical philosophy.
2. Learning theory.
3. Goal orientation.
4. Task orientation.
5. Source of motivation.
6. Teachers role.
7. Meta- cognitive support.
8. Collaborative learning strategies.
9. Cultural sensitivity.
10. Structural flexibility.
The two key elements could be from among the list given, with some explanation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Incentive.
Certification by accredited agency or government.
Recognition by supervisors.
Professional satisfaction from having learnt something new and useful.
Enhancement of academic productivity of the teachers.
Activity 2.12
Go through Chapter 15: Teacher training with Technology: Notes from the field (pp. 177179) of the following book.
Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf
List at least two training purposes for which the technology was used in Morocco, Namibia
and Brazil.
Suggested answers:
Training purposes served by the use of technology in Morocco, Namibia, and Brazil include:
Countries
Morocco
Brazil
Namibia
Focus
Selecting appropriate ICT in
facilitating learning and
evaluation of students
Example
Singapores initial teacher
training
performance
ICT use as part of
teaching methods
The standing committee meeting on Teacher Education, North and South Challenges to
Teacher education and Research North and South held on 9-10 October 2003 in Dublin,
Ireland commented that IT in Teacher Education is used for three different reasons:
1. Provision of appropriate ICT skills, as part of teacher education.
2. Development of the students capacity to make appropriate use of ICT in their teaching.
3. Use of virtual environment to provide support to students and teachers.
Reading 2.6
Read through the following article by Prof. Insung Jung ICT-Pedagogy Integration in
Teacher Training: Application Cases Worldwide to understand the details about the ways the
ICT is used in teacher training and also to understand the possible challenges one has to come
across in the implementation.
Source: http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_2/8.pdf
At the in-service level, the training programmes of one- to five-day duration are organised to
update teachers about the content, new development and practices. Also provision has been
made for the non graduate teacher to acquire a degree thorough an open university.
Among the initiatives undertaken by the Malaysian Government to improve professional
development of teachers in the context of ICT include:
1. The Smart Teacher Training Course.
2. 14 weeks of Professional Development of teachers in ICT.
3. A one year full time specialist training.
The Ministry of Education with support from different agencies such as Microsoft and
UNESCO has made an attempt to develop the capacity of persons to work as ICT leaders,
who could use ICT in teacher training courses. Through the Malaysian grid for learning
programme, teachers are able to have access to teaching learning materials. To overcome the
funding constraints the Government made a budget provision of RM 12,888 million for ICT
related programmes.
Reading 2.7
Read through the article Teacher Professional Development in Malaysia: Issues and
Challenges by Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abd. Razak, Reena Raju and Abdul Rashid Mohamed.
Source: http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf
Activity 2.13
Go through the article Malaysias Experience in Training Teachers to Use ICT by
Bismullah Khatoon Bhinti Abdul Khader and list:
1. The objectives of Teachers Continuing Professional Development in ICT (BBPT).
2. The anticipated skills to be acquired by the teachers in using ICT.
3. The feedback of the teachers who participated in BBPT Programme.
Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Suggested answers:
1. Objectives of BBPT:
To make them competent to use and to integrate ICT in their lesson plans.
Reading 2.8
Please read the report titled Microsoft Partners in Learning Programmes in Five ASEAN
Countries (pp. 23-27). This article discusses the case studies of training teachers of ASEAN
countries to use ICT. The study examines the impact of the programme in facilitating the
integration of ICT into education among five countries, namely Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.
Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Europe, and Australia, Mary Burns has identified the potential role of technology in teacher
professional development, its strengths and limitations. While the technologies used to
support distance learning are important for a well-functioning distance education programme,
more critical for teacher learning are the type and quality of instruction offered with and
through these technologies (Jegede, Fraser and Fischer 1998). Let us look at the three key
technologies which are being used predominantly in Distance Education programmes of most
of the courtiers. They are: print, audio and televisual.
1. Print
Print-based correspondence courses used in upgrading the skills of unqualified or
untrained teachers. The print is least expensive but probably only feasible in some
countries like Ghana (e.g., Untrained Teachers Diploma in Basic Education) and in
Tanzanias National Correspondence Institute, combined print study guides with radio
broadcasts, with residential programme. It is the same in India (IGNOU), where teachers
content and skills are upgraded through print materials as main stay with some additional
support through contact programme and school based activities.
2. Audio
It includes radio broadcasts; Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI); one- and two-way audio
instruction. In many programmes of audio, the teachers are secondary target group. It has
the advantage of being affordable, being capable of reaching any part of the country and
capable of focusing on issues perceived as difficult by teachers to handle.
3. Televisual
Televisual methods include visual broadcast media as television, video and
videoconferencing. It provides opportunities to see trainers and trainees in action and
leads to credibility as it is said seeing is believing. Actual classrooms could be created. It
can provide models. It also has the potential to explain the difficult concepts to make an
individual understand.
The choice of technology in Distance Education is required to be based on learners needs,
nature of curriculum content and student support system, which leads to the consideration of
certain factors. The eight factors listed in the book Distance Education for Teacher Training:
Modes, Models, and Methods by Mary Burns is given below in the box for your reading.
1. Support the goals of the instructional program. Distance learning programs should not
start with the question, How can we teach teachers using online learning? Rather, the
first question should be, What should teachers know and be able to do as a result of this
instructional program? The second question should be, How best can we do this: faceto-face, via distance, or both?
2. Select the instructional system distance or non-distance. Once these programmatic
goals have been defined, policymakers and planners should consider the delivery system
that can best help teachers attain these knowledge and skills. The technology or
technologies selected must serve as the best vehicle to address the needs and goals of the
teachers the distance education program is designed to serve.
3. Facilitate learning. The technology/technologies selected must be appropriate for
curriculum delivery and support teacher effectiveness (Farrell and Isaacs 2007). Initial
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
development of distance learning programs should begin with two fundamental questions:
What should teachers know and be able to do as a result of this distance program? What
is the best possible way to help them attain that knowledge and those skills? Neither of
these questions have anything to do with hardware, software, or connectivity nor should
they.
Support best practices in instruction. The technology or technologies selected must
support best practices in learning: learner-centred instruction, interactivity with content
and people, communication, collaboration, reflection, accessing and constructing
information in multiple formats, exposure to new opportunities and practices, and
assessment (Farrell and Isaacs 2007; Kleiman 2004; Capper 2003; Mayer 2001).
Include backup and support. Technology breaks down. When computers lie unused
because of unavailable tech support, when television broadcasting ceases because of
storm damage to a broadcast tower or satellite dish, when IRI broadcasts stop because of
broken radios, education and professional development efforts are lost and money wasted
(Gaible and Burns 2007). Any technology-based distance education system must plan for
such contingencies and eventualities.
Build on existing infrastructure. The technology or technologies selected for distance
learning must build on a countrys available communications, networked or broadcast
infrastructure, available equipment, physical infrastructure, and human infrastructural
supports content developers, instructional designers, and instructors within that
particular distance education medium as well as distance technology-specific
assessment systems.
Design with ease of use in mind. Different distance technologies require different
technical skills and dispositions on the part of potential users. The existing skills and
readiness of distance instructors and learners is a critical consideration in selecting a
particular mode of distance education delivery. The technology medium identified must
be easy enough for instructors and learners to use so that technology and difficulties
operating it do not obscure the focus on teaching and learning. The use of any
technology will obviously and necessarily involve some form of technology training. But
fluent technology skills do not guarantee fluency in teaching and learning with
technology (McGhee 2003; Dimock et al. 2001). Any distance learning program must
devote less time, effort, and resources to teaching about technology and more time, effort,
and resources to helping its teachers and learners teach and learn with and through
technology.
An eye to the future. New technologies offer options to expand educational
opportunities and improve educational quality. In selecting, designing, and making
technology-related decisions, no entity should begin planning a distance/education
program without thinking very carefully about the convergence among technologies,
trends in technology (hardware, software, types of computing, use, and digital content),
and how they impact teacher training programs.
Additional References
There are other modes of distance learning that include Multimedia-based Distance Learning,
Web-based Models for Distance Learning. For details you may go through the chapter 5, 6
and 7 of the book of Mary Burns Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models,
and Methods.
Source: http://www.sabes.org/resources/dl/edc-distance-ed-methods-2011.pdf
Activity 2.14
Read through the pages 16-17, 30-31, 47-48, 61-62, 89, 105-106, 121-122 of the book
Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models, and Methods and Section 2 of
ICTs for Teacher Professional Development at a Glance. Mention any three strengths and
two limitations for each of the key technologies in the box given below:
Technology/Strengths
/Limitations
Strength 1
Audio/
Radio
Televisual/
Television
Online/Web
based
Multimedia
Strength 2
Strength 3
Limitation 1
Limitation 2
Suggested answers:
Technology/
Strengths/
Limitations
Strength 1
Audio/Radio
Televisual/
Television
Online/Web
based
Multimedia
Easily portable
Powerful
medium
Flexible
Strength 2
Does not
involve
sophisticated
Instructional
Address equity
and access
issue
Can reach
large and
distant
population
The internet
blends all
print, audio,
videos
Can interact
with experts
and peer group
Games and
simulations
can bridge
gaps in content
Design
Strength 3
Limitation 1
Limitation 2
Works any
Audio/ Radio
time, any place production
skills are
available
Success
Value of
depends on
content may
high reading
degrade over a
ability
period time
Difficult to
Dissatisfaction
explain
or boredom if
abstract
used daily
concepts
Could bring
viewers to site
of events and
phenomena
Always access
to electrical
power could
be difficult
Requires
sophisticated
skills in
production
Supports to
varied learning
styles
knowledge of
teachers
Supports
collaborative
learning
Regular
accessibility to
internet
Complex
software
require skills
Computer and
language skills
required to use
and interact
Accessibility
to hard ware
and soft ware
by every
institution
The role of technology in the new distance education model has changed from broadcast,
information delivery, static media presentation to interactive, explorative and information
exchange. Likewise other aspects relating to role of instructors and learners, learning,
assessment has changed. For details on this refer to Figure 8.1 Paradigm Shift in Distance
Learning Models (Burns 2011, 123) (adapted from Naidoo and Ramzy 2004, 96; Trilling and
Hood 1999).
Activity 2.15
Go through Chapter 10: Television for Secondary Education: Experience of Mexico and
Brazil (pp. 146-149) of the following book.
Haddad and Draxler (2002) Technologies for Education: Potentials, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf
Briefly describe how television was used in Mexico to carry the teaching load and enabling a
single teacher to handle all subjects.
Suggested answers:
Your response could include the process involved in using television by teachers in the
classroom and their preparation to do so. Some of the points could be:
Teachers use the guide book to understand the learning objectives of the lesson and
instructions to be adopted.
At the end, evaluation of what has been learnt by the students is assessed followed by
the review of material taught.
Reading 2.9
Here is another article ICT In Initial Teacher Training First Findings and Conclusions of an
OECD Study which you should like to go through which details about Barriers and
Obstacles in the context of ICT in Initial Teacher Training by Katerina Ananiadou and
Caroline Rizza.
Source: http://crell.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download/ananiadou-rizzaVF.pdf
Additional reference
You may refer to the following link for getting more details regarding the challenges in
Integrating ICT in Education.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ICT_in_Education/Key_Challenges_in_Integrating_ICTs_in_Ed
ucation#Key_Challenges_in_Integrating_ICTs_in_Education
Activity 2.16
Go through the article Malaysias Experience in Training Teachers to Use ICT (pp. 10-22)
by
Bismillah
Khatoon
Binti
Abdul
Khader
(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf) and attempt the following
activity:
List the obstacle and challenges encountered in the implementation of Smart school
Integrated Solution (SSIS) programme.
Suggested answers:
Some of the points may include:
Lack of connectivity.
Delay in producing and supply of courseware materials due to lengthy procurement
procedures.
Teachers are unable to develop materials as they are not trained and they are used to
use supplied materials.
Lack of support system to teachers in case of malfunctioning of technology.
Summary
This section sheds light on the undiscovered potential of technology in the promotion of
teacher training and professional development of teachers. Clearly, these are two aspects that
are absolute necessary where up-skilling of knowledge and skills are concerned. To this
effect, we learn to understand and value the role of ICT in pre-service and in-service teacher
training and in the larger context of professional development of teachers. While we do
establish consensus that ICT definitely plays a critical role and projects many advantages in
these aforementioned processes, yet we acknowledge that these come with minor challenges
that we must tackle by exercising the right decisions.
Self-test 2.3
1. Describe the steps initiated by the Malaysian Government to train teachers in using
ICT for teaching.
2. List any three challenges that must be looked into while using ICT for the
professional development of teachers.
3. Differentiate between training in using ICT to deliver content and ICT to deliver
content in teacher training programme.
4. List the eight factors that require attention while choosing a technology for DE
environment.
Suggested answers to self-test 2.3
1. You answer could include the three programmes initiated by the Government with a few
lines explaining each one of them highlighting the issues covered. For example the first
one, smart teacher training course. The course is aimed at integrating ICT into education
with materials developed in four subject areas of English, Malay, mathematics and
science. Eighty-seven teachers underwent training with inputs on introduction to
computers, related applications, software and courseware into classrooms and teaching
and learning process.
2. Challenges that required to be looked into while using ICT for professional development
of teachers:
3. The training in using ICT will include hands-on experience in handling ICT tools,
integrating tools to deliver instruction to students whereas the ICT delivered content will
focus on the delivery of content to the trainee and training will focus mostly how to use
technology to receive content and interact through ICT.
4. The eight factors that required to be looked into while choosing a technology for DE
environment.
Summary of unit 2
This unit addressed some important concerns regarding the use of technology in the teaching
and learning process. We have learnt the theoretical perspectives of designing an active
learning environment that promotes encouraging learning interactions among students.
Subsequently, we extended this awareness into the context of instructional technology where
we deliberated on several key aspects for effective delivery of instruction, including: learning
objectives, learning approaches, students' learning styles and relevant learning resources. In
the following section, we explored how technology is rapidly advancing to become a critical
face of any teaching and learning process. On this note, we also explored how technology is,
and can be, projected into other forms such as computer-managed instruction and computerassisted instruction that allow us tremendous flexibility to facilitate instructions more
effectively. Finally, the unit shed some light on how technology is utilised for teacher training
and in the promotion of professional development of teachers.
References
Bismullah Khatoon Bhinti Abdul Khader (2007) Malaysias Experience in Training
Teachers
to
Use
ICT,
ICT
in
Teacher
Education,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education: Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://www.ictinedtoolkit.org/usere/library/tech_for_ed_book.pdf
Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abd. Razak, Reena Raju and Abdul Rashid Mohamed (2010) Teacher
Professional Development in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges, http://home.hiroshimau.ac.jp/cice/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf
Jung, I (2005) ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases
Worldwide, Educational Technology & Society, 8 (2), 94-101.
Ananiadou, K and Rizza, C (2010) ICT In Initial Teacher Training First Findings and
Conclusions of an OECD Study, Proceedings of EDULEARN10 Conference, Barcelona.
Mahmud, R and Ismail, M A (2010) Impact of Training and Experience in Using ICT on InService Teachers Basic ICT Literacy, Malaysian Journal of Educational Technology, 10(2):
5-10.
Burns, M (2011) Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models, and Methods,
Education Development Centre, Inc. Washington, DC.
Mohamed Ally (2004) Foundations of Educational Theory for Online Learning in
Anderson, T and Fathi Elloumi (ed.) Theory and Practice of Online Learning, Athabasca
University, 18-26, http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf
Poole, B J (2009) Chapter 7: Computers and Communications (C&C), Education for an
Information
Age:
Teaching
in
the
Computerized
Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter7.pdf
Poole, B J (2009) Chapter 5: Computer Managed Instruction, Education for an Information
Age:
Teaching
in
the
Computerized
Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter5.pdf
Poole, B J (2009) Chapter 6: Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), Education for an
Information
Age:
Teaching
in
the
Computerized
Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter6.pdf
Siemens, G (2004) Connectivism: A Learning
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
Theory
for
the
Digital
Age,
Siemens, G (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and Modern
Knowledge Needs, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm
The Florida State University (2011) Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning
Practices
Office
of
Distance
Learning,
http://ctl.fsu.edu/explore/onlineresources/docs/chptr9.pdf
The World Bank (2005) Chapter 2 ICTs for Teacher Professional Development at a Glance
in Using Technology to Train Teachers, Appropriate Uses of ICT for Teacher Professional
Development in Developing Countries The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, N.W., Washington, D.C.
Vincent Quah (2007) Microsoft Partners in Learning Programmes in Five ASEAN
Countries,
ICT
in
Teacher
Education,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Waleed Mustafa Eyadat and Yousuf Ahmed Eyadat (2010) Instructional technology and
creativity among university students: The missing link, World Journal on Educational
Technology.
Dick, W and Carey, L (1978) The Systematic Design of Instruction,
http://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=a0gdmLZwI8IC&oi=fnd&pg=PA71&dq
=The+Systematic+Design+of+Instruction&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20Systematic
%20Design%20of%20Instruction&f=false
Content Attributions
Learning Theories and Learning Domains is an adaptation of Learning Development
Cycle:
Bridging
Learning
Design
and
Modern
Knowledge
Needs
(http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm) 2005 by George Siemens, used under a
Creative Commons License.
Supporting Theoretical Background is an adaptation of Connectivism: A Learning Theory
for the Digital Age (http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm) 2004 by
George Siemens, used under a Creative Commons License.
Supporting Theoretical Background is an adaptation of Learning Development Cycle:
Bridging
Learning
Design
and
Modern
Knowledge
Needs
(http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm) 2005 by George Siemens, used under a
Creative Commons License.
Addie Instructional Design Process (http://youtu.be/0vXegHDzrBg) 2010 by
marielangton, used under a Standard YouTube License.
Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models, and Methods 2011 by Mary
Burns, used with permission.
Education for an Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized Classroom
(http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter13.pdf) 2009 by Bernard John
and Sky-McIlnain, used with permission.
Andragogy (Adult Learning) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLoPiHUZbEw) 2010
by janetfinlay, used under a Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed).
2011
by
Simplek12Team, used under a Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed).
Network Components (http://youtu.be/v1e-9DNcczc) 2009 by computingstudies1, used
under a Standard YouTube License.
Teacher Professional Development in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges
(http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf) 2010 by Hazri Jamil,
Nordin Abd. Razak, Reena Raju and Abdul Rashid Mohamed, used with permission.
Technologies for Education: Potentials, Parameters and Prospects 2002 by Haddad and
Draxler, used with permission.
Technology in the classroom (http://youtu.be/4oEgxwLhvV8) 2011 by jeru333, used
under a Standard YouTube License.
Top 10 Reasons to Use Technology in Education: iPad, Tablet, Computer, Listening
Centres (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzi2RIt8_nk) 2011 by amplivoxsound, used
under a Creative Commons Attribution license (reuse allowed).
Malaysias
Experience
in
Training
Teachers
to
Use
ICT
(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf) 2007 by Bismullah Khatoon
Bhinti Abdul Khader, used with permission.