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TireTechInformationAlignment

TIRETECH
Alignment
(Leaenespaol)

Whileit'softenreferredtosimplyasan"alignment"or"wheelalignment,"it'sreallycomplexsuspension
anglesthatarebeingmeasuredandavarietyofsuspensioncomponentsthatarebeingadjusted.Thismakesan
alignmentanimportantsuspensiontuningtoolthatgreatlyinfluencestheoperationofthevehicle'stires.
Outofalignmentconditionsoccurwhenthesuspensionandsteeringsystemsarenotoperatingattheirdesired
angles.Outofalignmentconditionsaremostoftencausedbyspringsagorsuspensionwear(balljoints,
bushings,etc.)onanoldervehicle.Theycanalsobetheresultofanimpactwithapotholeorcurb,orachange
invehiclerideheight(loweredorraised)onanyvehicleregardlessofage.
Incorrectalignmentsettingswillusuallyresultinmorerapidtirewear.Therefore,alignmentshouldbechecked
whenevernewtiresorsuspensioncomponentsareinstalled,andanytimeunusualtirewearpatternsappear.
Alignmentshouldalsobecheckedafterthevehiclehasencounteredamajorroadhazardorcurb.

"...analignmentanimportantsuspensiontuningtoolthatgreatlyinfluences
theoperationofthevehicle'stires...Incorrectalignmentsettingswillusually
resultinmorerapidtirewear."
FrontEnd,ThrustAngleandFourWheelAlignment
Thedifferenttypesofalignmentsofferedtodayarefrontend,thrustangle,andfourwheel.Duringafrontend
alignment,onlythefrontaxle'sanglesaremeasuredandadjusted.Frontendalignmentsarefineforsome
vehiclesfeaturingasolidrearaxle,butconfirmingthatthefronttiresarepositioneddirectlyinfrontoftherear
tiresisalsoimportant.
Onasolidrearaxlevehicle,thisrequiresathrustanglealignmentthatallowsthetechniciantoconfirmthatall
fourwheelsare"square"witheachother.Thrustanglealignmentsalsoidentifyvehiclesthatwould"dogtrack"
goingdowntheroadwiththerearendoffsetfromthefront.Ifthethrustangleisn'tzeroonmanysolidrear
axlevehicles,atriptoaframestraighteningshopisrequiredtoreturntherearaxletoitsoriginallocation.
Onallvehicleswithfourwheelindependentsuspensions,orfrontwheeldrivevehicleswithadjustablerear
suspensions,theappropriatealignmentisafourwheelalignment.Thisprocedure"squares"thevehiclelikea
thrustanglealignment,andalsoincludesmeasuringandadjustingtherearaxleanglesaswellasthefront.
Notallvehiclesareeasilyadjustableorfullyadjustable.Somevehiclesrequireaftermarketkitstoallow
sufficientadjustmenttocompensateforaccidentdamageorthechangeinalignmentduetotheinstallationof
loweringsprings.
Whenaligningavehicle,it'sappropriateforthevehicletobecarryingits"typical"load.Thisisimportantfor
driverswhocontinuouslycarryloadsintheirvehicles,suchassalesrepresentativeswithsamplesorliterature
inthetrunk.Additionally,whenavehicleisusedforautocrossortrackevents,someracerswillsitintheircar,
orhavethealignmentshop"ballast"theirvehicletoincludetheinfluenceofthedriver'sweightonthe
suspensionangles.
Theprimarystaticsuspensionanglesthatneedtobemeasuredandadjustedarecaster,camber,toeandthrust
angle.Here'sadefinitionofeachangleanditsinfluenceonavehicleanditstires.

Camber
Thecamberangleidentifieshowfarthetireslantsawayfromverticalwhenvieweddirectlyfromthefrontor
backofthevehicle.Camberisexpressedindegrees,andissaidtobenegativewhenthetopofthetiretilts
inwardtowardthecenterofthevehicleandpositivewhenthetopleansawayfromthecenterofthevehicle.

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Sincestreetsuspensionscannotcompletelycompensatefortheoutertiretippingtowardstheoutsidewhenthe
vehicleleansinacorner,thereisn'tamagicalcambersettingthatwillallowthetirestoremainverticalwhen
travelingstraightdowntheroad(formoreevenwear),andremainperpendiculartotheroadduringhard
cornering(formoregenerousgrip).
Differentdrivingstylescanalsoinfluencethedesiredcamberangleaswell.Anenthusiasticdriverwhocorners
fasterthanareserveddriverwillreceivemorecorneringgripandlongertirelifefromatirealignedwithmore
negativecamber.Howeverwiththeaggressivenegativecamber,areserveddriver'slowercorneringspeeds
wouldcausetheinsideedgesofthetirestowearfasterthantheoutsideedges.
What'sthedownsidetonegativecamber?Negativecamberleansbothtiresontheaxletowardsthecenterof
thevehicle.Eachtiredevelopsanequalandoffsetting"camberthrust"force(thesameprinciplethatcausesa
motorcycletoturnwhenitleans)evenwhenthevehicleisdrivenstraightahead.Ifthevehicleencountersa
bumpthatonlycausesonetiretolosesomeofitsgrip,theothertire'snegativecamberwillpushthevehiclein
thedirectionofthetirethatlostgrip.Thevehiclemayfeelmore"nervous"andbecomemoresusceptibleto
tramlining.Excessivecamberwillalsoreducetheavailablestraightlinegriprequiredforrapidacceleration
andhardstops.
Appropriatecambersettingsthattakeintoaccountthevehicleanddriver'saggressivenesswillhelpbalance
treadwearwithcorneringperformance.Forstreetdrivenvehicles,thismeansthattirewearandhandling
requirementsmustbebalancedaccordingtothedriver'sneeds.Thegoalistouseenoughnegativecamberto
providegoodcorneringperformancewhilenotrequiringthetiretoputtoomuchofitsloadontheinneredge
whiletravelinginastraightline.Lessnegativecamber(untilthetireisperpendiculartotheroadatzero
camber)typicallywillreducethecorneringability,butresultsinmoreevenwear.
Eventhoughtheyhavesomeofthemostrefinedsuspensionsintheworld,thenexttimeyouseeaheadon
photoofaFormula1carorCARTChampCarsetupforaroadcourse,noticehowmuchnegativecamberis
dialedintothefrontwheels.Whilethisiscertainlyanexampleofwearnotbeingasimportantasgrip,negative
camberevenhelpsthesesophisticatedracingcarscornerbetter.

Caster
Thecasterangleidentifiestheforwardorbackwardslopeofalinedrawnthroughtheupperandlowersteering
pivotpointswhenvieweddirectlyfromthesideofthevehicle.Casterisexpressedindegreesandismeasured
bycomparingalinerunningthroughthesteeringsystem'supperandlowerpivotpoints(typicallytheupper
andlowerballjointsofanAarmorwishbonesuspensiondesign,orthelowerballjointandthestruttower
mountofaMcPhersonstrutdesign)toalinedrawnperpendiculartotheground.Casterissaidtobepositiveif
thelineslopestowardstherearofthevehicleatthetop,andnegativeifthelineslopestowardsthefront.

Averyvisualexampleofpositivecasterisamotorcycle'sfrontsteeringforks.Theforkspointforwardatthe
bottomandslopebackwardatthetop.Thisrearwardslopecausesthefronttiretoremainstablewhenriding
straightaheadandtilttowardstheinsideofthecornerwhenturned.
Casteranglesettingsallowthevehiclemanufacturertobalancesteeringeffort,highspeedstabilityandfront
endcorneringeffectiveness.
Increasingtheamountofpositivecasterwillincreasesteeringeffortandstraightlinetracking,aswellas
improvehighspeedstabilityandcorneringeffectiveness.Positivecasteralsoincreasestireleanwhen
cornering(almostlikehavingmorenegativecamber)asthesteeringangleisincreased.
What'sthedownsidetopositivecaster?Ifthevehicledoesn'thavepowersteering,anoticeableincreasein
steeringeffortwillbefeltaspositivecasterisincreased.Otherthanthat,theeffectsofpositivecasterarepretty
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much"positive,"especiallyincreasingtheleanofthetirewhenthevehicleiscorneringwhilereturningittoa
moreuprightpositionwhendrivingstraightahead.

CrossCamberandCrossCaster
Moststreetcaralignmentscallforthefrontcamberandcastersettingstobeadjustedtoslightlydifferent
specificationsontherightsideofthevehiclecomparedtotheleftside.Theseslightsidetosidedifferencesare
calledcrosscamberandcrosscaster.
Forvehiclessetuptodriveonthe"right"sideoftheroad,therightsideisalignedwithalittlemorenegative
camber(about1/4degree)andalittlemorepositivecaster(again,about1/4degree)tohelpthevehicleresist
theinfluenceofcrownedroadsthatwouldcauseittodrift"downhill"totherightgutter.Sincemostroadsare
crowned,crosscamberandcrosscasterarehelpfulthemajorityofthetime,howevertheywillcauseavehicle
todrifttotheleftonaperfectlyflatroadoraroadthatleanstotheleft.
Usingcrosscamberandcrosscasterisnotnecessaryfortrackonlycars.

Toe
Thetoeangleidentifiestheexactdirectionthetiresarepointedcomparedtothecenterlineofthevehiclewhen
viewedfromdirectlyabove.Toeisexpressedineitherdegreesorfractionsofaninch,andanaxleissaidto
havepositivetoeinwhenimaginarylinesrunningthroughthecenterlinesofthetiresintersectinfrontofthe
vehicleandhavenegativetoeoutwhentheydiverge.Thetoesettingistypicallyusedtohelpcompensatefor
thesuspensionbushingscompliancetoenhancetirewear.Toecanalsobeusedtoadjustvehiclehandling.

Arearwheeldrivevehicle"pushes"thefrontaxle'stiresastheyrollalongtheroad.Tirerollingresistance
causesalittledragresultinginrearwardmovementofthesuspensionarmsagainsttheirbushings.Becauseof
this,mostrearwheeldrivevehiclesusesomepositivetoeintocompensateforthemovement,enablingthe
tirestorunparalleltoeachotheratspeed.
Conversely,afrontwheeldrivevehicle"pulls"thevehiclethroughthefrontaxle,resultinginforward
movementofthesuspensionarmsagainsttheirbushings.Thereforemostfrontwheeldrivevehiclesusesome
negativetoeouttocompensateforthemovement,againenablingthetirestorunparalleltoeachotherat
speed.
Toecanalsobeusedtoalteravehicle'shandlingtraits.Increasedtoeinwilltypicallyresultinreduced
oversteer,helpsteadythecarandenhancehighspeedstability.Increasedtoeoutwilltypicallyresultin
reducedundersteer,helpingfreeupthecar,especiallyduringinitialturninwhileenteringacorner.
Beforeadjustingtoeoutsidethevehiclemanufacturer'srecommendedsettingstomanipulatehandling,be
awarethattoesettingswillinfluencewetweatherhandlingandtirewearaswell.
Excessivetoesettingsoftenbringwiththemdrivabilityproblems,especiallyduringheavyrain.Thisisbecause
thedailypoundingoftractortrailersonmanyhighwaysleaverutsthatfillwithwater.Sinceexcessivetoe
meansthateachtireispointedinadirectionotherthanstraightahead,whenthevehicleencountersapuddle
thatcausesonlyonetiretolosesomeofitsgrip,theothertire'stoesettingwillpush(excessivetoein)orpull
(excessivetoeout)thevehicletotheside.Thismaymakethevehiclefeelunsettledandvery"nervous."
Additionallythevehicle'stoeisoneofthemostcriticalalignmentsettingsrelativetotirewear.Atoesetting
thatisjustalittleoffitsappropriatesettingcanmakeahugedifferenceintheirwear.Considerthatifthetoe
settingisjust1/16inchoffofitsappropriatesetting,eachtireonthataxlewillscrubalmostsevenfeet
sidewayseverymile!Extenditoutandyou'lldiscoverthatratherthanrunningparalleltoeachother,thefront
tireswillscrubover1/4milesidewaysduringevery100milesofdriving!Incorrecttoewillrobyouoftirelife.

ThrustAngle
Thethrustangleisanimaginarylinedrawnperpendiculartotherearaxle'scenterline.Itcomparesthedirection
thattherearaxleisaimedwiththecenterlineofthevehicle.Italsoconfirmsiftherearaxleisparalleltoits
frontaxleandthatthewheelbaseonbothsidesofthevehicleisthesame.

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Ifthethrustangleisnotcorrectonavehiclewithasolidrearaxle,itoftenrequiresatriptotheframe
straighteningshoptocorrectlyrepositiontherearaxle.
Avehiclewithindependentrearaxlesmayhaveincorrecttoeinortoeoutonbothsidesoftheaxle,ormay
havetoeinononesideandtoeoutontheother.Thesuspensiononeachsideofthevehiclemustbeadjusted
individuallyuntilithasreachedtheappropriatetoesettingforitssideofthevehicle.
Anincorrectthrustangleisoftencausedbyanoutofpositionaxleorincorrecttoesettings.Soinadditionto
thehandlingquirksthataretheresultofincorrecttoesettings,thrustanglescanalsocausethevehicleto
handledifferentlywhenturningonedirectionvs.theother.

AlignmentRanges
Thevehiclemanufacturers'alignmentspecificationsusuallyidentifya"preferred"angleforcamber,casterand
toe(withpreferredthrustanglealwaysbeingzero).Themanufacturersalsoprovidetheacceptable"minimum"
and"maximum"anglesforeachspecification.Theminimumandmaximumcamberandcasterspecifications
typicallyresultinarangethatremainswithinplusorminus1degreeofthepreferredangle.
Ifforwhateverreasonyourvehiclecan'treachwithintheacceptablerange,replacingbentpartsoran
aftermarketalignmentkitwillberequired.Fortunatelythereisakitforalmosteverypopularvehicleduetothe
needsofbodyandframeshopsdoingcrashrepairsanddrivingenthusiaststuningthesuspensionsontheircars.

Recommendations
Anaccuratewheelalignmentiscriticaltobalancethetreadwearandperformanceavehicle'stiresdeliver.
Regularwheelalignmentswillusuallysaveyouasmuchintirewearastheycost,andshouldbeconsidered
routine,preventativemaintenance.Sincethereare"acceptable"rangesprovidedinthemanufacturer's
recommendations,thetechnicianshouldbeencouragedtoalignthevehicletothepreferredsettingsandnot
justwithintherange.
Ifyouareareserveddriver,aligningyourvehicletothevehiclemanufacturer'spreferredsettingsis
appropriate.
Ifyouareanassertivedriverwhoenjoysdrivinghardthroughthecornersandexpresswayramps,a
performancealignmentisappropriateforyourcar.Aperformancealignmentconsistsofusingthevehicle
manufacturer'srangeofalignmentspecificationstomaximizethetires'performance.Aperformancealignment
callsforthemanufacturer'smaximumnegativecamber,maximumpositivecaster,andpreferredtoesettings.
Whileremainingwithinthevehiclemanufacturer'srecommendations,thesealignmentsettingswillmaximize
tireperformance.
Ifyouareacompetitiondriverwhofrequentlyrunsautocross,trackorroadraceevents,you'lltypicallywant
themaximumnegativecamber,maximumpositivecasterandmostaggressivetoesettingsavailablefromthe
carandpermittedbythecompetitionrules.Iftherulespermit,aftermarketcamberplatesandcaster
adjustmentsaregoodinvestments.
Manyoftoday'salignmentmachinesareequippedwithprintoutsthatcomparethe"before"and"after"
alignmentangleswiththemanufacturers'specifications.Requestingapostalignmentprintoutcanhelpyou
confirmthethoroughnessofthealignmenttechnicianandpreservearecordofyourvehicle'sintendedsettings
inthecaseofanencounterwithasuspensiondamagingroadhazard.

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