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Vinka Grbavac

Different levels of coordination in English

Zavrni rad

Mostar, 2016.

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Content

1. Introduction..3
2. Coordination in English4
3. Semantic implications of coordinator and7
3.1. An example and analysis7
4. Semantic implications of coordinator or...9
4.1. An example and analysis.9
5. Semantic implications of coordinator but.11
5.1. An example and analysis11
6. Different levels of coordination in English...13
6.1. Phrase level.13
6.2 Clausal level.14
6.3. Sentence level..17
6.4. Text level.20
7. An example in a short story An Arrest...22
8. Conclusion.25
9. Literature...26

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1. Introduction

This paper deals with different levels of coordination in English. Coordination

is a grammatical term which denotes relation between parts of a complex syntactic
unit. It concerns the structure of sentences or clauses or their parts. There are three
different types of coordination: conjunctive coordination, disjunctive coordination and
adversative coordination which will be later discussed in detail.
The main theme this paper deals with is different levels of coordination. There
are four levels: phrase, clause, sentence and text level. As these things are being more
discussed, it is interesting to see how words interact with each other or how different
or the same thoughts can be connected in various ways. They are usually connected
with coordinators: and, but and or, but they are some other ways which will be shortly
discussed.
All the theory about coordination will be supported with examples for easier
understanding of what has been said and how coordination is important for English
grammar. It helps a speaker or a writer to express himself or herself in a better way, it
makes the conversation, either written or spoken, to flow more easily.
In chapter 2 the term coordination will be discussed in detail. In chapters 3, 4
and 5 semantic implications of coordinators and, but and or will be discussed. In
chapter 6 different levels of coordination will be discussed which is the main theme of
this paper, and in chapter 7 examples in a short story will be shown and analysed.

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2. Coordination in English
Coordination is a grammatical term which denotes relation between parts of a
complex syntactic unit. It concerns the structure of sentences or clauses or their parts. 1
There are three different types of coordination: conjunctive coordination, disjunctive
coordination and adversative coordination.2 In the conjunctive coordination a
coordinator and is used, in the disjunctive the coordinator or and in the adversative the
coordinator but. This is shown in the following examples:
Mary and Kate walked together.
It was Tom or Jerry who break it.
I will do it but I am not happy about it.
The term coordination is sometimes used for both syndetic and asyndetic
coordination. In the syndetic coordination coordinators are present while in the
asyndetic coordination they are absent.3 This can be seen in the following example.
First sentence being an example of syndetic coordination and second an example of
asyndetic coordination.
Beautiful and colorful was the flower she found yesterday.
Beautiful, colorful was the flower she found yesterday.
Arne Lohman in her book English Coordinate Constructions gives a definition of
coordination. It refers to syntactic constructions in which two or more units of the
same type are combined into a larger unit and still have the same semantic relations
with other surrounding elements.4 This can be seen in the following example:
Susan and her mother bought the same red dress.
Both coordinators have the same semantic relations with the rest of the sentence (verb
phrase). Both Susan and her mother bought the same red dress.

1 Fabricius-Hansen, Cathrine and Wiebke Ramm, Subordination and coordination

from different perspectives, University of Oslo,2008, p.2
2 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, University of Vienna,
Cambridge University Press, 2014, p.5
3 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
Longman House, Burnt Mill, Hallow, 1985, p.253
4 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, p.7

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Having some basic things said about English coordinate constructions, this
paper now turns to issues of their analysis. Early syntactic models assumed a flat
structure, while in more recent models they are analysed hierarchically. According to
some experts if the coordinate clauses are broken up into two clauses, the coordinator
is in the second clause.5 This can be seen in the following example:
Anna fell and she didnt make a sound.
Anna fell. And she didnt make a sound.
The coordinate constructions can also be analysed using phonology and intonational
pauses. First, an example of typical intonational pause will be represented:
( Mia (and Emma) (and Tom)) all like going to their grandmas.
Here are also some examples of not so typical intonational pauses:
((Mia and) (Emma and) (Tom) all like going to their grandmas.
((Mia) (and) (Emma) (and) (Tom) all like going to their grandmas.
One more widely debated issue with coordinate constructions is the question of which
constituents can or cannot be coordinated, as it has been observed that the two
elements that are coordinated are in some sense equal or alike. The question that still
seems difficult to answer asks on which level of description the equality must be
assumed and what exceptions are allowed. Some experts assume constraints on three
levels: the syntactic, the semantic and to a lesser degree, also the pragmatic level. All
of these constraints are argued to apply jointly, thus no one level explains another. The
syntactic constraint states that both constituents have equal syntactic status, thus both
belong to the same phrasal category. This constraint explains why, for example, a
coordination of two adverbial phrases, is grammatical and where is an adjective phrase
and a noun phrase, is not.6 This can be seen in the following example:
Nevil ate quickly and greedily.
*Nevil ate quickly and a grilled cheese sandwich.

5 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, p.8

6 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, p.9

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But, as we earlier said, it does not always have to be true. There could be two phrases
that belong to different syntactic categories which are coordinated and still
constituting a well-formed sentence. In the following example and adjectival phrase
and a prepositional phrase are coordinated7:
Nevil ate quickly and with a good appetite.
It has also been said that both elements must be equal on the semantic level in
taking on a parallel function in the construction. This will be explained on the
following example:
Nevil ate with his son and with his grandchildren.
*Nevil ate with his son and with good appetite.
Even though both coordinated clauses belong to the same semantic category, the
semantic functions are the same only in the first example but not in the second one.
That is why only the first sentence is grammatical and the second is not, because there
is a conflict created within it. In the first sentence both phrases denote Nevils
company, but in the second sentence an accompaniment and a manner phrase are
coordinated which created a conflict.8

7 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, p.9

8 Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions , p.10

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3. Semantic implications of coordinator and

The coordinator and denotes a relationship between the contents of clauses.
The relationship can be made explicit by adding and adverbial. This is shown in the
following examples.
(1) The event in the second clause is a consequence or result of the event in the first:
She heard a new gossip and called her best friend.
(2) The event in the second clause is chronologically sequent to the event in the first:
She heard a bell ring and she opened the door.
(3) The second clause introduces a contrast. When this implication is present the
coordinator and can be replaced with the coordinator but.
Tom is tall and Sarah is little.
(4) The second clause is a comment on the first:
He passed the exam and that did not surprise anyone.
(5) The second clause introduces an element of surprise in view of the content of the
first. In this implications, once again the coordinator but can replace and.
She run fast and (yet) she didnt win.
(6) The first clause is a condition of the second:
Get an A and you will be rewarded.
(7) The second clause makes a point similar to the first:
Getting a big cake for the wedding should be no problem and yellow flowers
could be arranged.
(8) The second clause is a pure addition to the first9:
Everyone in his family is very tall and they are all good at basketball.
3.1. An example and analysis
Now, examples of the coordinator and in a text will be shown. Following text
is paragraph from the book A History of Western Art.
Athenian men were required by law to marry daughters of Athenian citizens. As
a result, some men developed relationships outside marriage with hetairai, or
courtesans. Hetairai generally came from Ionia and were more intellectual and better
educated than Athenian women. The best-known hetaira of the fifth century b.c. is the
Milesian Aspasia, who was the companion of Perikles. He eventually divorced his wife
to marry her. Ideas about female emancipation begin to appear in literature from the
end of the fifth century b.c., and some of the most memorable characters in Greek
plays are females, although they were acted by young males. From the fourth century
onward and increasingly so in the Hellenistic period (third to first century b.c.)
education was accessible to certain women. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder
9 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.257

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mentions by name one Iaia of Kyzikos, who lived in the early first century b.c. Her
hand, he wrote, was quicker than that of any other painter, and her artistry was of
such high quality that she commanded much higher prices than the most celebrated
painters of the same period. Sappho, the most famous woman poet in antiquity, lived
at the turn of the seventh century b.c. and was much admired by Plato and other
writers. Little is known of her life except that she was born on the island of Lesbos
(from which comes the term lesbian). Her poems, inspired by Aphrodite, tell of her
love for girls as well as boys and were accompanied by the music of the lyre.10
The sentences from the text which contain the coordinator and are:
(1) Hetairai generally came from Ionia and were more intellectual and better
educated than Athenian women.
Here we have three clauses. The coordinator and in the second and third clause
is used to put those clauses as pure addition to the first clause.
(2) From the fourth century onward and increasingly so in the Hellenistic period
(third to first century b.c.)education was accessible to certain women.
Here the second clause is inserted between parts of the first clause as pure
addition, as well as in the first example.
(3) Her poems, inspired by Aphrodite, tell of her love for girls as well as boys and
were accompanied by the music of the lyre.
Here the second clause is an addition to the first, as well as in the first two
examples, which tells how that usage is very common.

10 Schneider Adams, Laurie, A History of Western Art, Fifth edition, City

University of New York, McGraw Hill Companies, Inc, 2011. Print., p.85

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4. Semantic implications of coordinator or

(1) Usually, the coordinator or expresses the idea that only one of the possibilities can
be realized.
You can stay home alone or you can come with us.
When the content of the sentence allows the realization of more than one alternative,
we can exclude the combination by adding either:
We can either go fishing or on a picnic.
(2) Sometimes or is understood as inclusive, allowing the realization of combination
of the alternatives and we can explicitly include the third possibility by a third clause:
We can have pizza for dinner, or sandwiches or we can have both.
(3) The alternative expressed by or may be a restatement or a correction of what is
said in the first conjoin:
She is very excited about the trip or she appears to be excited.
(4) The coordinator or can also imply negative condition:11
Give me that or you will be punished.
4.1. An example and analysis
Now, examples of the coordinator or in a text will be shown.
Collage (from the French word coller, meaning to paste or to glue)
developed in France from 1912. It is a technique that involves pasting lightweight
materials or objects, such as newspaper and string, onto a flat surface. A technique
related to collage, which developed slightly later, is assemblage. Here, heavier objects
are brought together and arranged, or assembled, to form a three-dimensional image.
Both techniques make use of found objects (objets trouvs), which are taken from
everyday sources and incorporated into works of art. Picassos witty 1943 assemblage
titled Bulls Head (fig. 27.8) is a remarkable example of his genius for synthesis. He
has fused the ancient motif of the bull and the traditional medium of bronze with
modern steel and plastic. He has also conflated the bulls head with African masks
and effected a new spatial juxtaposition by reversing the direction of the bicycle seat
and eliminating the usual space between it and the handlebars. He cast the object in
bronze and hung it on a wall. In this work, Picasso simultaneously explores the
possibilities of new media, of conflated imagery, and of the spatial shifts introduced by
Cubism.12
11 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.258
12 Schneider Adams, Laurie, A History of Western Art, p.483

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The sentences from the text which contain coordinator or are:

(1) Collage (from the French word coller, meaning to paste or to glue) developed
in France from 1912.
Here the coordinator or connects two verb phrases and not two clauses. It
expresses the idea of more possibilities.
(2) It is a technique that involves pasting lightweight materials or objects, such as
newspaper and string, onto a flat surface.
In this example the usage of coordinator or is the same as in the first example.
It connects two noun phrases and it expresses the idea of more possibilities.
(3) Here, heavier objects are brought together and arranged, or assembled, to form a
three-dimensional image.
In this example the usage of coordinator or is the same as in the first two
examples. It connects two verb phrases and it expresses the idea of possibilities, which
confirms that this usage is among the most common ones.

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5. Semantic implications of coordinator but

The coordinator but denotes a contrast.
(1) The contrast may be because what is said in the second conjoin is unexpected in
view of what is said in the first conjoin:
James is very small but he is good at basketball.
(2) The contrast may be a restatement in affirmative terms of what has been said or
implied negatively in the first conjoin:13
She didnt waste any of her time but practiced hard every day.
Previously discussed semantic implications of coordinator and, but and or are
concerned with clauses, so coordination on clause level was discussed. More of this,
as well as coordination on other levels, such as: phrase, sentence and text, will be
discussed in the following paragraphs.
5.1. An example and analysis
Now, examples of the coordinator but in a text will be shown.
Today her work survives only in fragments, but she is known to have written
nine books of odes, elegies, and epithalamia (lyric odes to a bride and bridegroom).
She composed in various metersthe Sapphic meter is believed to have been her
invention (). Michelangelos influence can be seen in the sculptural, carved
appearance of the draperyespecially that worn by the figure seen from the back at
the rightas well as in Christs pose (cf. fig. 16.14). But the ambiguous space, the
pink-and-blue palette, and the stony rather than fleshy forms create an entirely
different effect. ()Venus and her son Cupid are easily recognizable as the two figures
in the left foreground. Both are nude, and bathed in a white light that creates a
porcelain skin texture. Cupid fondles his mothers breast and kisses her lips. To the
right, a nude putto with a lascivious expression dances forward. All three twist in the
Mannerist serpentinata pose. But only the puttos pose seems consistent with his
action. The undulating forms of Venus and Cupid are rendered for their own sake
rather than to serve the logic of the narrative. A more purposeful gesture is that of
Time, the old man who angrily draws aside a curtain to reveal the incestuous
transgressions of Venus and Cupid.14
The sentences from the text which contain coordinator but are:
13 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.259
14 Schneider Adams, Laurie, A History of Western Art, p.85; p.308

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(1) Today her work survives only in fragments, but she is known to have written nine
books of odes, elegies, and epithalamia (lyric odes to a bride and bridegroom).
The coordinator but denotes contrast. In this example contrast is because what
is said in the second clause is unexpected in view of what was said in the first clause.
(2) But the ambiguous space, the pink-and-blue palette, and the stony rather than
fleshy forms create an entirely different effect.
In this example contrast is because what is said in this clause is unexpected in
view of what is said in the previous clause.
(3) But only the puttos pose seems consistent with his action.
In this example contrast is just like in the previous example; because what is
said in this clause is unexpected in view of what is said in the previous clause.
However, it should be mentioned that in the last two examples, coordinator but is more
used as a conjunct from adverbial group.

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6. Different levels of coordination in English

In this chapter, different levels of coordination will be discussed. There are four
levels: phrasal, clausal, sentence level and text level.
6.1. Phrasal level
The main coordinators for phrasal coordination are and and or. The
coordinator but is used only to link adjective phrases and adverb phrases. 15 First, some
implications with noun phrase will be shown:
(1) Noun phrases are commonly conjoined.
Mary-Kate and Ashley went home.
(2) Within noun phrase there may be ellipsis of the head.
Small and tall kids are able to do it, instead of Small kids and tall kids are able
to do it. This ellipsis of the head of the noun phrase in the second conjoin happens
often when and adjective is present:
She wanted red dress but the blue (dress) is much better for her.
(3) Previously mentioned ellipsis of the head of the noun phrase can occur with
modifiers other than adjectives, for example postmodifying prepositional phrases:
He has students from Germany and (students) from Spain in his class.
The ellipsis can also occur with numerals:
There were five (essay questions) or six essay questions on the exam.
(4) Demonstratives can be linked to each other or to other determines in the noun
phrase, but the singular forms of demonstratives are normally not linked to their
corresponding plurals:
This (table) and that table.
These (flowers) and those flowers.
(5) An article in the first conjoin of a noun phrase is often ellipsed in the second
conjoin:
15 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.267

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I cant tell if this is a boy or (a) girl T-shirt.

(6) The coordinators and and or can link more than two noun phrases:16
Mary, Sarah, Emily and Amy have been best friend since kindergarten, instead of
Mary and Sarah and Emily and Amy have been best friends since kindergarten.
Now, some examples of phrasal coordination of other units than noun phrase will be
shown.
(1) Verb phrase:
Cooking and looking after kids at the same time is not an easy job.
(2) Prepositional phrase:
It was snowing in February and in March.
(3) Adverb phrase:
She walked slowly but excitedly.
(4) Adjective phrase:
His song was sad and heart-breaking.

6.2. Clausal level

In the following paragraphs some implications of coordination on clausal level
will be shown through examples.
(1) The clause coordinators are restricted to initial position in the clause:
Tom play the guitar and he likes to listen AC/DC.
However, if conjunctions, such as though, as and that are used to link clauses,
or perhaps some conjuncts such as moreover, the position does not have to be initial:
Though he did the exam well, he is sad.
He likes cake, his best friend, moreover, prefers ice-cream.
16 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum , A University grammar of English,
pp.268-71

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(2) Clauses beginning with a coordinator cannot be moved in front of the preceding
clause without producing unacceptable sentences or at least changing the relationships
of the clause:
They are living in Germany, or they are visiting relatives.
*Or they are visiting relatives, they are living in Germany.
(3) The coordinators, as well as for and so, do not allow another conjunction to
precede them.
Elizabeth did not want to go, and yet she did.
(4) The coordinators allow ellipsis of the subject of the clause they introduce if the
subject is co-referential with that of the preceding linked clause:
I may visit you in two day or may just phone you.
(5) The coordinators and and or can link more than two clauses, and all but the final
instance of these two conjunctions can be omitted:
Jim will eat sandwich, his friend will eat french fries and Jims mom will just
have a glass of water.
Something more about ellipsis in coordinated clauses will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
(1) Identical subjects of coordinated clauses are ellipsed:
Thomas heard of the new movie and (Thomas) went to see it.
If the subject and the auxiliaries is identical, ellipsis of both is normal:
He has come home, (he has) changed his clothes and (he has) gone out again.
However, if the subjects of the clauses are different, there may be ellipsis of an
identical auxiliary:17
She should go to the movies and he (should) go to the theatre.

17 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum , A University grammar of English,

pp.255-61

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(2) If the clause contains an object with an object complement, the subject must be
ellipsed as well:
His proposal mad her happy, but (his proposal) mad her mum dislike him.
(3) If there is a verb phrase plus subject complement which is repeated, one of it is
ellipsed:
She was the prom queen in 2010, and her mum (was a prom queen) in 1985.
The ellipsis also happens if there is verb phrase or lexical verb plus direct object:
She will made the dinner tonight, and her husband (will made the dinner)
tomorrow.
(4) The ellipsed form of the auxiliary or lexical verb sometimes varies from that of the
realized form when one is 3rd person singular present and the other is not:
I work in school and she (works) in a restaurant.
In general, most co-occurrences are allowed, when there is, for example, present and
modal verb:
They play football and he will (play football) soon.
There is one major exception and that is that ellipsed passive does not occur with any
other verb forms except passive:
He read the book, but the book wasnt read by his parents.
*He read the book, but the book wasnt by his parents.
(5) The predication can be ellipsed completely. If that happens, the predication is
usually realized in the first clause and ellipsed in subsequent clauses:
Peter will go see a movie and John might (go see a movie) too.
It is also possible to have the predication realized in the subsequent clause and then it
is ellipsed in the first clause:18
Peter will (go see a movie) and John might go see a movie.
18 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum , A University grammar of English,
pp.262-63

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(6) The direct object can be ellipsed. If that happens the realized items must be in the
last clause:
She likes (horror movies) and her friend hates horror movies.
Also, if the subject complement alone is ellipsed and the verb in the last clause is other
than be, the realized items must be in the last clause:
Tom was (excited) and his girlfriend seemed excited.
However, it would be more common to have the pro-form so in the second clause then
to have any ellipsis:
Tom was excited and his girlfriend seemed so.
When the verb in the last clause is be, the realized items can be either in the first
clause or in the last clause:19
Tom was excited and his girlfriend certainly was (excited).

6.3. Sentence level

There are many factors that interact in pointing to links between sentences.
First, a paragraph will be shown, with numbered sentences, and later on the factors
will be explained.
(1) We sometimes thoughtlessly criticize a government announcement which
refers to 'male persons over the age of eighteen years'. (2) What ridicilous jargon, we
think; why couldn't this pompous official have used the word 'man'! (3) But the official
may be forced into a jargon by the lack of precision of ordinary words. (4) 'Man' may
seem to be exactly the same as 'male person over the age of eighteen years', but would
latter be our automatic interpretation if the word 'man' has been used? (5) We often
use it of even younger males of sixteen or seventeen, and it can be applied to a schoolboy of ten ('the team is a man short'). (6) It may simply mean 'brave person', as when
we tell a little boy of four to 'stop crying and be a man'. (7) Or it may mean 'human
being', without regard to seks, as in a phrase like 'not fit for man or beast'. (8) It may
even mean a wooden disc-as in the game of draughts.
19 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.264

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There are three factors that enter into sentence connection which can be seen in
the paragraph above. Those are: implication in the semantic content, lexical
equivalence and syntactic devices. There are also prosodic features of connection in
speech, but that will not be discussed. Semantic relationships are implied between
sentences that are next to each other. For example, sentences (6), (7) and (8) present a
series of alternatives linked to the joint content of (5), but only in (7) the coordinator
or can be found, marking the alternatives.20
Successive sentences can be expected to show some relationships through their
vocabulary, some equivalence in the lexical items. The simplest form for such lexical
equivalence is through the repetition of words or phrases. For example, man, which
first appears in (2), recurs twice in (4), and once in (5), (6) and (7). Lexical equivalents
are often synonyms or near-synonyms, but they need not to be synonyms. A more
general term may be used as the equivalent of a more specific term (human being (7)
-man or woman). Or the relationship may be established in the context (a
governement announcement in (1) - this pompous official in (2)). Furthermore, lexical
connection between sentences may involve antonyms. For example, the connection on
the antithesis between men and women:21
Discrimination is undoubtedly practissed against women in the field of scientific
research. We don't find men complaining that they are not being interviewed for
positions that they are clearly qualified to fill.
The previously shown paragraph contains syntactic devices for sentence
connection. First, time relaters will be discussed. Time-relationships between
sentences can be signalled by temporal adjectives or adverbials or by tense, aspect and
modality in verbs. Once a time-reference has been established, certain adjectives and
adverbials may order subsequent information in relation to it. There are three major
divisions of time-relationship:22
20 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.284
21 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.285
22 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
pp.285-86

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(1) previous to given time-reference:

Adjectives: earlier, former, preceding, previous
e.g. He handed in a good essay. His previous essays were all poor. ('previous to that
good essay).
Adverbials: already, as yet, before, earlier, first, so far; phrases with pro-forms: before
that, before then, until now
e.g. I shall explain to you what happened. But first I must give you a cup of tea.
('before explaining what happened')
(2) simultaneous with given time-references:
Adjectives: contemporary, simultaneous
e.g. The death of the president was reported this afternoon on Cairo radio. A
simultaneous announcement was broadcast from Baghdad. ('simultaneous with the
report of the death of the president on Cairo radio')
Adverbials: at present, at this point, meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime
e.g. Several of the conspirator have been arrested but their leader is as yet unknown.
Meanwhile the police are continuing their investigations into the political sympathies
of the group. ('at the time as the arrests are being made')
(3) subsequent to given time-references:
Adjectives: following, later, next
e.g. I saw him on Friday and he seemed to be in perfect health. The following day he
died. ('following the Friday just mentioned)
Adverbials: afterwards, again, immediately, since, then, after that
e.g. The manager went to a bord meeting this morning. He was then due to catch a
train to London. ('after the bord meeting')
There are also place relaters. Words denoting place-relationship can play a part
in sentence connection. Some place adverbs are: here, there and where.23
23 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,
p.287

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e.g. All my friends have been to Paris at least once. I am going there next summer for
the first time. ('to Paris')
To conclude about sentence connection, logical connector and will be shortly
discussed. The possible relationships between sentences linked by and are in general
the same as those between clauses linked by and. The coordinator and can link its
sentence with a unit comprising several sentences, as in the following example:24
e.g. It was a convention where the unexpected things were said, the predictable things
were done. It was a convention where the middle class and the middle aged sat. It was
a convetion where there were few blacks and fewer beards. And that remains the
Republican problem.

6.4. Text level

When talking about coordination on text level, it usually refers to discourse
structure. It is aimed at modeling textual coherence by assigning discourse relations
recursively to pairs of neighboring text spans of increasing length, starting with
elementary discourse units of clause length. The text is assumed to be coherent if it is
possible to assign a discourse relation to all discourse units contained in the text. The
coordination on the text level will be shown in the next example followed by an
analysis.25
A: Hey!
B: Hi!
A: How are you?
B: I'm fine. And you?
A: Fine, thank you. What are you doing tonight? We could grab a coffee. We
haven't seen each other for ages.

24 Quirk, Randolph and Sydney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,

pp.287-88
25 Fabricius-Hansen, Cathrine and Wiebke Ramm, Subordination and
coordination from different perspectives, p.27

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B: But it is already late. How about tomorrow?

A: Yeah, sure. Let's say around 8 o'clock.
B: That sounds great.
A: Galley's? They have that new coffee I've been wanting to try for a while.
B: Or perhaps Seven Dials? Trust me, they have the best coffee in town.
A: Ok then. See you tomorrow.
B: See you. Bye.
In the previous example, the usage of all three coordinators and, but and or can
be seen. The coordination on the text level is different from the, for example, clause
level. In the text level, when there is a discourse like the one in the example, there is
more than one person, so there are more thoughts and opinions which can be
connected. One person's opinions, thoughts and statements can be connected as well as
opinions of one person with the opinion of the other.
The coordinator and connects thoughts of just one person. It is used as an
addition to what has been previously said. The coordinator but is used to connect
opinions of two different persons. The first person made a suggestion and the other
person shows dissapproval. The coordinator or is also used to connect thoughts of two
different persons. The first person made a suggestion and the other person made her on
suggestion as a reply to the first.

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7. An example in a short story An Arrest

Before the conclusion, a short story An Arrest will be shown in paragraphs.

Different usage of coordinators and coordination on different levels will be shown and
analyzed. This short story was written by Ambrose Bierce from his book Present at a
Haniging and Other Ghost Stories with other great stories. Sentences are marked for
the easier analysis. Here is the story divided in paraghraphs and each paraghraph is
followed by an analysis:
Having murdered his brother-in-law, Orrin Brower of Kentucky was a fugitive
from justice.(1) From the county jail where he had been confined to await his trial he
had escaped by knocking down his jailer with an iron bar, robbing him of his keys
and, opening the outer door, walking out into the night.(2) The jailer being unarmed,
Brower got no weapon with which to defend his recovered liberty.(3) As soon as he
was out of the town he had the folly to enter a forest; this was many years ago, when
that region was wilder than it is now.(4)
The coordinator and has been used in the sentence (2). It is a clausal level and
the coordinator and has been omitted in all clauses except the last one. The action in
the final clause is chronologically sequent to the actions in the previous clauses.
The night was pretty dark, with neither moon nor stars visible, and as Brower
had never dwelt thereabout, and knew nothing of the lay of the land, he was,
naturally, not long in losing himself.(1) He could not have said if he were getting
farther away from the town or going back to it--a most important matter to Orrin
Brower.(2) He knew that in either case a posse of citizens with a pack of bloodhounds
would soon be on his track and his chance of escape was very slender; but he did not
wish to assist in his own pursuit.(3) Even an added hour of freedom was worth having.
(4) () Eventually they entered the town, which was all alight, but deserted; only the
women and children remained, and they were off the streets.(5) Straight toward the
jail the criminal held his way.(6)26

26 Bierce, Ambrose, Present at a Hanging and Other Ghost Stories; An Arrest, Indy
Publish, 2006., p.7

Grbavac23

In the sentence (1) coordinator and has been used twice. In both cases it has been used
as addition to the first part of the sentence. In the sentence (2) the usage of coordinator
or is seen. It expresses an idea of more possibilities. In the sentence (3) coordinators
and and but have been used. The coordinator and can be found in the second
subclause and that clause is used as an addition to the first. The coordinator but can be
found in the third clause, and is used to denote contrast. In the sentence (4) for the
second time there is a usage of coordinators and and but. They are used for the same
purpose as in the previous sentence, but for contrast and coordinator and for addition.
Suddenly he emerged from the forest into an old road, and there before him
saw, indistinctly, the figure of a man, motionless in the gloom.(1) It was too late to
retreat: the fugitive felt that at the first movement back toward the wood he would be,
as he afterward explained, "filled with buckshot."(2) So the two stood there like trees,
Brower nearly suffocated by the activity of his own heart; the other--the emotions of
the other are not recorded.(3)
The coordinator and has been used in the sentence (1). This is a clausal level
and the action in the second clause is a chronologically sequent to the action in the
first clause.
A moment later--it may have been an hour--the moon sailed into a patch of
unclouded sky and the hunted man saw that visible embodiment of Law lift an arm
and point significantly toward and beyond him(1). He understood.(2) Turning his
back to his captor, he walked submissively away in the direction indicated, looking to
neither the right nor the left; hardly daring to breathe, his head and back actually
aching with a prophecy of buckshot.(3)
The coordinator and has been used in the sentence (1) three times. First two
coordinators are on clausal level, they connect clauses. The second clause is a
chronologically sequent to the action in the first clause. The third coordinator and is
used on phrasal level. It connects two adverbial phrases. The coordinator and has also
been used in the sentence (3) on phrasal level, where it connects two noun phrases.
Brower was as courageous a criminal as ever lived to be hanged; that was
shown by the conditions of awful personal peril in which he had coolly killed his
brother-in-law.(1) It is needless to relate them here; they came out at his trial, and the

Grbavac24

revelation of his calmness in confronting them came near to saving his neck.(2) But
what would you have?--when a brave man is beaten, he submits.(3)
The coordinator and has been used in the sentence (2). It is used on clausal
level, where the event in the second clause is a chronological sequent to the event in
the first clause, but it is also an addition. The coordinator but has been used in the
sentence (3) on the sentence level. The thought of this sentence is connected to the
actions of the previous sentence.
So they pursued their journey jailward along the old road through the woods.
(1) Only once did Brower venture a turn of the head: just once, when he was in deep
shadow and he knew that the other was in moonlight, he looked backward. His captor
was Burton Duff, the jailer, as white as death and bearing upon his brow the livid
mark of the iron bar.(2) Orrin Brower had no further curiosity.(3)
The coordinator and has been used in the sentence (2). It is used on clausal
level where the second clause is an addition to the first clause.
Eventually they entered the town, which was all alight, but deserted; only the
women and children remained, and they were off the streets.(1) Straight toward the
jail the criminal held his way.(2) Straight up to the main entrance he walked, laid his
hand upon the knob of the heavy iron door, pushed it open without command, entered
and found himself in the presence of a half-dozen armed men.(3) Then he turned.(4)
Nobody else entered.(5) On a table in the corridor lay the dead body of Burton Duff.
(6)
In the sentence (1) there are three coordinators. The coordinator but has been
used on phrasal level, and it implies contrast. The coordinator and has been used
twice. In the second clause it is used on phrasal level where it connects two noun
phrases, but in the third clause it is used on clausal level, as an addition to the previous
clauses. The coordinator and has also been used in the sentence (3). It has been used
on clausal level, and the second clause is a chronologically sequent to the action in the
first clause.

Grbavac25

8. Conclusion

In conclusion we will start to summarize what has been said about coordination
in this paper. Coordination is a relationship between parts of a complex syntactic unit.
There are four different levels of coordination: phrase, clause, sentence and text level.
Words, phrases and sentences are usually connected with coordinators: and, but and
or. However, there are other ways of connection. Some adjectives and adverbials can
be used for connections, such as: previous, following, later, at this point, afterwards,
since etc.
English grammar and English language can exist without coordination. A
perfect example for that is a famous writer Ernest Hemingway and his work. He is
famous for writing short sentences, hardly using any kind of connection. Even though,
it is possible without coordination, perhaps it is better with it. It gives a speaker or a
writer different ways to express his or her feelings. In this way many new words can
be created and enrich English language.

Grbavac26

9. Literature

Fabricius-Hansen, Cathrine and Wiebke Ramm, Subordination and coordination

from different perspectives, University of Oslo. 2008.

Lohmann, Arne, English coordinate constructions, University of Vienna,

Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Quirk, Randolph and Sidney Greenbaum, A University grammar of English,

Longman House, Burnt Mill, Hallow, 1985.

Schneider Adams, Laurie, A History of Western Art, Fifth edition, City University

of New York, McGraw Hill Companies, Inc, 2011.

Bierce, Ambrose, Present at a Hanging and Other Ghost Stories; An Arrest, Indy
Publish, 2006.