Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Aircraft Design: a distinct discipline in aeronautical engineering

Designer must be well versed in all disciplines

The intellectual engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine
that either meets certain requirements and performance objectives, or explores
new concepts, technologies and innovations

Three phases of design:

Conceptual:

First step in the design process

In response to a certain design goal (requirements or exploration)
Overall (fuzzy) shape, size, weight, performance of airplane configuration
Basic drivers are aerodynamics, propulsion, and performance
Some, but not much, consideration for stability/control, cost, no detail design

Andersons 7 Intellectual Pivot Points

Requirements
Weight-first estimate
Critical performance parameters:
Clmax
L/D
T/W
W/S
Configuration Layout
Better weight estimate
Performance analysis
Optimization
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Raymers Design Wheel

Sizing
Trade Studies
Design
Analysis

Requirements

Design
Concept
Dr. Danielle Soban
Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Next 2 Phases of Aircraft Design

Preliminary Design: major design features locked in, only minor changes allowed. Substantial
analysis begins to take place, including CFD and wind tunnel tests. By the end of this phase,
the manufacturer will decide if the program is a go or no-go.
Detailed Design: Precise and detailed decisions are made. By this time, the aero, propulsion,
structures, etc are locked in. Only very subtle details are left to make the design a realistic
vehicle capable of being manufactured.

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Requirements

Often put forth in a document called an RFP (Request for Proposal)

Outlines basic design requirements and goals
Basic mission or mission profile
Examples:
payload and type of payload
range/loiter requirements
cruise speed and altitude
field length for takeoff/landing
FAR 23- normal, utility, aerobatic, commuter
fuel reserves
FAR 25- transports
climb requirements
maneuvering requirements
Certification base (experimental, FAR 23, FAR 25, military)
Can be specific or vague

Initial Weight Estimation

WTO = WOE + Wf + WPL

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WTO

Takeoff Gross Weight

WOE
Wf
WPL

Operating Empty Weight

Mission Fuel Weight
Payload Weight

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Further,

WOE = WE + Wtfo + Wcrew

WE

Empty Weight = manufacturers empty weight + fixed equipment weight

Wtfo

Weight of all trapped (unusable) fuel and oil

Wcrew

Weight of crew

For initial weight estimation, we want to estimate WTO, WE and Wf

Step 1: Determine mission payload weight
passengers and baggage
cargo
military loads (bombs, ammunition, etc)

Rules of Thumb:
passenger aircraft: 175 lbs per person
30 lbs luggage per person, short to medium flights
40 lbs luggage per person, long flights
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Crew Weight:
passenger:
military:

175 lbs per crew member, 30 lbs baggage

200 lbs per crew member, no baggage

Step 2: Guess a likely value of take-off weight

Base this guess on existing similar aircraft

Step 3: Determine mission fuel weight, Wf

Wf = WFused + WFres
Wfres are the fuel reserves required for the mission.
As a fraction of WFused
As a requirement for additional range to an alternate airport
As a requirement for loiter time
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

To find Wfused, use fuel fraction method

Break down mission into a number of mission phases and calculate fuel used in each phase
based on simple calculations or experience.

Fuel Fraction: for each phase is defined as the ratio of end weight to begin weight
Phase 1: Engine Start and Warm Up
W1/WTO
Use Handout Table 2.1
Phase 2: Taxi
W2/W1
Use Handout Table 2.1

Phase 3: Takeoff
W3/W2
Use Handout Table 2.1

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Phase 4: Climb to Cruise and Accelerate to Cruise Speed

W4/W3
Use Handout Table 2.2
and
Use Breguets Endurance Equation
(you will need to assume appropriate values for L/Dclimb,
specific fuel consumption, time to climb [or rate of climb])

E = 550pr
cV
E=

1
ct

L
D
L
D

ln

ln

W0
W1

(prop)

W0
W1

Phase 5: Cruise
W5/W4
Use Handout Table 2.2
and
Use Breugets Range Equation
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Be careful using these equations. You must use

consistent units!

(jet)
R = 550pr L
D
c
R= V
ct

ln

W0
W1

L ln W0
W1
D

(prop)
(jet)
Dr. Danielle Soban
Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Phase 6: Loiter
W6/W5
Use Handout Table 2.2
and
Breguets Endurance Equation
Phase 7: Descent
W7/W6
Use Handout Table 2.1
Phase 8: Landing, Taxi, and Shutdown
W7/W6
Use Handout Table 2.1

Now calculate the mission fuel fraction:

Mff = multiply all phase fractions together
WFused = (1 - Mff) WTO
WF = (1 - Mff) WTO + WFres
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Step 4: Calculate Tentative WOE

WOEtent = WTOguess - WF - WPL

Step 5: Calculate Tentative Value for WE

WEtent = WOEtent - Wtfo - Wcrew
Wtfo can be as high as 0.5% for some airplanes, often neglected at this stage

Step 6: Find Allowable Value for WE

For most aircraft of a defined type, there exists a linear relationship between log10WE and log10WTO.
Use existing graphs or use Handout Table 2.15.
If you dont have graphs or Handout Table 2.15, create your own by plotting WE and WTO of
similar aircraft and regressing the curve yourself.
For completely new aircraft, try and extrapolate existing data, or use non-traditional techniques
(GT advanced design sequence in graduate program)
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

This linear relationship looks like this:

Regression Curve: Assumes WE

was designed to be lowest possible
for best cost/performance, so each
point represents state of the art.

Empty
Weight, lbs

log10 scale!!!
Gross Takeoff
Weight, lbs

Regression Equation: inv log10 {[log10WTO - A]/B}

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A and B are the regression constants

(slope and intercept) of the line. Use
Handout Table 2.15 for values for types
of aircraft, or plot your own regression
curve and estimate your own A and B.

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Step 6: Compare WEtent and WE

Compare the two values.
Make an adjustment to WTOguess and repeat Steps 3-6.
Continue until the two values agree with each other to some tolerance (0.5%)

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

T/W vs. W/S Sizing Plot

T/W and W/S are two of the most important parameters in aircraft design and performance.
Earlier we have seen how often the two are interrelated, and we understand the performance
tradeoffs and interrelationships.
Good estimates of T/W and W/S are critical in conceptual design.
In general, want the lowest T/W and the
highest W/S, while still meeting all
other criteria. This establishes the
design point

Example: if we chose the design point shown, we

would have to achieve a landing CLmax of about 2.0
(maybe with high lift devices), and a takeoff CLmax of
2.0. We would meet all of our climb requirements,
and our T/W would be 0.35 with a W/S of 62 psf.
Because we have already estimated our weight, we can
then calculate the thrust required (which sizes our
engine) and the wing area required (aerodynamics).

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

In addition to range, speed, and endurance criteria, aircraft must also be designed to meet performance
objectives, such as
stall speed
takeoff field length
landing field length
cruise speed (or maximum speed)
climb rate (all engines operating AEO and one engine inoperative OEI)
time to climb to some altitude
maneuvering
The parameters that have a major impact on these performance objectives are:
Wing Area, S
Takeoff Thrust, TTO, or Takeoff Power PTO
Maximum Required Takeoff Lift Coefficient with flaps up, CLmax(clean)
Maximum Require Lift Coefficient for Landing, CLmaxL
We now use methods and equations to estimate these parameters for a range of W/S and T/W.
Then, it usually follows that the combination of these factors that produce the highest wing loading
and the lowest thrust loading which still meet all performance requirements will result in the airplane
with the lowest cost and lowest weight.

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Sizing to Stall Speed

Minimum stall speeds are often put into the requirements. They can also be found in the FARs.

FAR 23:

single engine; Vstall < 61 kts at WTO

multi engine < 6000 lbs; Vstall < 61 kts at WTO unless they meet a climb requirement
can be met flaps up or down

FAR 25:

no minimum stall speed requirements

For a given Vstall:

Vstall =

2(W/S)
CLmax

establishes a maximum W/S for a given CLmax

CLmax is a function of:

1. wing/airfoil design
2. flap type and flap size
3. center of gravity location
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Sizing to Takeoff Distance Requirements

Normally takeoff requirements are given in terms of takeoff field length, either specifying the
ground run or the total length
W
S

sTOG

h
0

sTOG

TO

W
P

TO

= TOP23

CLmaxTO

= takeoff ground roll distance

TOP = takeoff parameter, a simple metric, referring to the appropriate FAR

W
P

= power loading for a prop aircraft (most FAR23 aircraft are props)
TO

CLTO
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CLmaxTO
1.21
Dr. Danielle Soban
Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

sTO = 1.66 sTOG

sTOG = 4.9 TOP23 + 0.009TOP232

sTO = 8.134TOP23 + 0.0149TOP232
These relationships are all based on regressed data and correlations.
So, first determine if sTO or sTOG should be used.
Example: Requirements in RFP are stated as
STOG < 1000 feet and
STO < 1500 feet

at 5,000 ft altitude, standard atmosphere

Using sTO = 1.66 sTO G, then sTO that corresponds with the first requirement is sTO < 1660 ft. Note this is larger
than the second sTO requirement. so the second sTO dominates. Thus, we use

sTO = 8.134TOP23 + 0.0149TOP232

Now solve for TOP23
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Now use
W
S

TO

W
P

TO

= TOP23

CLmaxTO

h
0

Make a table. For each CLmaxTO, plot W/S vs. W/P

CLmaxTO

W/P

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W/S

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

For FAR 25, use:

W
S
sTOFL

h
0

TO

CLmaxTO

= TOP25
T
W

TO

sTOFL = 37.5TOP25
For military, use:
usually sTOG is specified.

K1
sTOG

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CLmaxTO K2

T
W

W
S

TO

- g
TO

-0.72CD0
Dr. Danielle Soban
Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

(jet)

K1 =0.0447

(prop) K2 =0.0376

K2 = 0.75

K2 = lp

(5+)
(4+)
h
0

NDp2
PTO

= bypass ratio
1/3

lp = 5.75 (constant speed props)

lp = 4.60 (fixed pitch props)

T=P
N = number of engines
NDp2
PTO
g

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= propellor disk loading

= ground friction coeff.

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Sizing to Climb Requirements

In order to size for climb, we must have an estimate for the drag polar. Roskam has one method for
this, or use experience or another method.

Let G = (T - D) = climb gradient = ratio of vertical and horizontal distance traveled

W
Rearranging a familiar equation:

W
S

T
W

-G

T
W

- G - 4CD0
eAR

2/ (qeAR)

This relates a required climb gradient to W/S and T/W. Also note that the quantity under the square root
must be positive. In words, this says that the T/W must always be greater than the required climb
gradient.

AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology

Lecture- Traditional Aircraft Design

Sizing to Maneuver
Usually maneuver requirements are specified through load factor specification at some speed and
altitude.
Rearranging some familiar equations:

If nmax is specified, use

T
W

qCD0
W
S

W n2
max
S

eARq

If turn rate is specified at a given speed, use

nreqd =

VW
g

1/2

+1

then plug this nreqd into first equation to get T/W, W/S relationshop
AE 3310 Performance

Dr. Danielle Soban

Georgia Institute of Technology