DEN102

Stress Analysis

Principal Stress

Dr P.H. Wen
 Aims
1. Recognise the stress and strain tensors ;
2. Understand stress state of point and how to
calculate principal stresses and their directions;
3. Recognise why principal stresses and their
directions are useful;
4. Understand what a yield criterion is and how it
can be used.
Structure Stress Analysis

• Analytical solution
Hand calculation: beam, truss, shaft
• Numerical solution
ANASYS, ABAQUS, DYNA, IDEAS
 8.1. Normal and Shear Stresses in Solid
• In general objects, i.e. multi-
dimensional objects, they are
generated by exterior forces F,
distributed loads or pressures p.
• Exterior loads result in interior
forces, which are resultants of
interior stresses.
• At an arbitrary cut at S-S (see
• The stress vector t at a point P is
figure), these stresses act on the
defined by r r
surface. r ∆F d F
• There are normal stresses σ t = lim = 8.1
∆A→ 0 ∆A dA
(orthogonal to the surface) and
tangential or shear stresses τ • It is a vectorial sum of shear and
(parallel to the surface). normal stress:
r r r r r
r d F d Fn + d Fτ d Fn d Fτ τ σ
t= = = + =σ+τ t
dA dA dA dA P = P

• On the opposite surface of the cut,

stresses occur in the opposite t τ
direction. Force diagram:
σ
Page 4
8.2. General Stress State (Three Dimensional Element)

• ELEMENT
y
σy
A three dimensional rectangular
element is of differential size:
τ yz τ yx
dx×dy×dz=dV τ xy
τ zy
Positive surfaces +ve dy σx
Negative surfaces -ve
σz τ zx τ xz
Element is in a state of uniform x
stress.
z dz
dx

Page 5
 y
• The stresses depend on the direction σy
of the cut, i.e. the orientation of the τ yx
surface area A. τ yz
τ zy τ xy
• Generally, a Cartesian coordinate
σx
system is chosen (see Figure 8.1)
• The total stress state is determined τ zx τ xz
σz x
by the normal and shear stresses at
six surfaces of an infinitesiminal z
volume element (see Figure 8.1).
• This element is normally defined with Figure 8.1
surfaces orthogonal to the coordinate
directions. y
σy
• The values of all stresses change if the τ yx
volume element is cut in a different τ yz τ xy
orientation (i.e. coordinate σx
τ zy τ zx
transformation 8.2).
τ xz x
• Positive direct stress are defined as σz
tensile stresses ; negative as
compressive stresses .
z
Figure 8.2
Page 6
 8.3. General Stress State (in Matrix Form)
• The normal and shear ⎡σ x τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
stresses are represented σ=⎢ ⎥; σ = ⎢τ yx σ y τ yz ⎥ (8.2)
by the stress matrix also τ
⎣ yx σ y⎦
⎢τ zx τ zy σ z ⎥
named stress tensor ⎣ ⎦
• Stresses with non- Two-dimension Three-dimension
identical indices are shear
stresses, the other are
normal stresses; the Normal stresses
latter are on the diagonal
of the matrix.
⎡σx τxy τxz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
y σ ⎢τyx
= σy τyz ⎥
σy
⎢τzx τzy σz ⎥
τ yx ⎣ ⎦
τ yz
τ xy Shear stresses
τ zy
σx ⎡σ x τ xy τ xz ⎤
τ zx τ xz
⎢ ⎥
σz x σ = ⎢τ yx σ y τ yz ⎥
z ⎢τ zx τ zy σ z ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Figure 8.3
Page 7
 8.4. Corresponding Shear Stresses
• This can be seen by taking the sum of y
the moments with respect to point O, σy
i.e. σ τ xy = τ yx
y y τ yz τ yx
τ yx τ xy
τ xy τ xy τ zy
τ yz = τ zy
σx σx σx
dy τ xz
τ zx
dx x σz x
O
τ yx z τ xz = τ zx
Figure 8.4
σy
∑M O = 0: dy(τ yx dxdz) − dx (τ xy dydz) = 0 • The consequence is that the stress
therefore (τ yx − τ xy ) dV = 0
matrix is symmetric

⇒ τ yx = τ xy (8.3a)
⎡σ x τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = ⎢τ xy σ y τ yz ⎥
• Shear stresses at two surfaces, which
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥
are perpendicular to one another are ⎣ ⎦
equal • There are hence for each point if the
structure 6 unknown stresses to be
τ xy = τ yx ; τ yz = τ zy ; τ xz = τ zx (8.3b)
determined in stress analysis

Page 8
 8.5. Two Dimensional Element (Plane Stress)

Plane stress state: τ xz = τ yz = σ z = 0

• The stress tensor in matrix form is
then

⎡σ x τ xy 0⎤
σ = ⎢⎢τ xy σ y 0⎥⎥ (8.4)

⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦
or
⎡σ x τ xy ⎤
σ=⎢ ⎥ (8.5) y σy
τ
⎣ xy σ y⎦ τ yx
σy τ xy τ xy
σx σx
τ xy dy
σx dx x
τ yx σy
Figure 8.5
Page 9
Example 8.0:
Illustrate stress state using stress tensor in matrix form (unit= N/mm2)

50 80 40

70 30 30

150 100 60

(a) (b) (c)

Page 10
 8.6. Stresses in Straight Bar
• Normal exterior forces F leads to F cut S-S S F
normal stresses σ in the interior
(constant over the cross section A) S
F A F
F
σ= [ N/m 2 ] (8.6)
A σ σ
• Interior normal force N is the F F
resultant forces of normal stresses σ
N N
N = ∫ σ d A = σ ⋅ A [ N] (8.7)
Figure 8.6
A Non-perpendicular cut S-S (glue)
• If the cut is not perpendicular to the F S θ F
axis of the beam, a normal force F
leads to normal stresses σ and σθ S
shear stresses τ τθ θ
F F
Fn F cos θ F
σθ = = = cos 2 θ = σ cos 2 θ
Aθ A / cos θ A Aθ =
A Fn Fτ
F
Fτ F sin θ F cos θ θ
τθ = = = sin θ cos θ = σ sin θ cos θ Fτ Fn
Aθ A / cos θ A
(8.8) Figure 8.7
Page 11
 8.7. Normal Stresses due to Bending Moments
• Bending moment leads to linear Mb cut S-S S Mb
distributions of normal stresses
S

Mb
σz = y [ N/m 2 ] (8.8) σ
Ix
equivalent
to
Undeformed beam
Mb
σ
Deformed beam

x z

x
y
z x
z
σmax σmax
y
y

Figure 8.8

Page 12
 8.8. Shear Stress in Cylinder by Torque
T0 cut S-S S T0
• Normal exterior torque T0 leads to
shear stresses τ in the interior S

Tr TR T0 A
τ= [ N/m ], τ max =
2 (8.9)
J J T
• Interior torque T is the resultant
forces of shear stresses τ τmax

T 2
T = ∫ τ (r )r d A = ∫ r d A=T (8.10)
A
JA

τmax

Figure 8.9 Page 13

Summary of Today

1. State of Stress at Point (Element)

2. State of Plane Stress

3. Stress Tensor

Page 14
Example 1 (individual)
A hollow shaft, of external diameter D2 and internal
diameter D1, where D1/D2=1/3, is required to transmit a
torque of 100kNm and compressive axial load 1500kN as
shown in Figure. If D2 is selected as 200mm, illustrate
stress state on outer surface of the shaft using stress tensor
in matrix form (unit= N/mm2)

propeller 1500kN
shaft
100kNm
D1 D2
 8.9. Coordinate Transformation
• If stresses are known for one coordinate system and y σy
stresses for another coordinate system are to be τ xy
derived, one uses the following equations (balance of τ xy τ xy
force in local coordinate x oy ): σx
dA
∑F i
x = 0 in x direction (dA = c × t, t is thickness of element) : x
O
σ x dA − (σ x dA cos θ ) cos θ − (τ xy dA cos θ ) sin θ τ xy t
− (σ y dA sin θ ) sin θ − (τ xy dA sin θ ) cos θ = 0 σy

∑F i
y = 0 in y direction x (normal)
τ xy dA + (σ x dA cos θ ) sin θ − (τ xy dA cos θ ) cos θ y
− (σ y dA sin θ ) cos θ + (τ xy dA sin θ ) sin θ = 0
y τ xy σx
θ θ
σx
Therefore b τ xy
c
a x
1 1
σ x = (σ x + σ y ) + (σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2 τ xy
1 (8.12) σy Figure 8.10
τ xy = − (σ x − σ y ) sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2 Page 16
Example 8.1
At a point of steel plate, the state of plane stress (2D) is defined by σ,
where
⎡100 50⎤
σ=⎢ ⎥ N/mm 2
⎣ 50 50⎦

with respect to the axes xoy. Fine the stresses (normal and shear) for the
same point acting on the plane orientated at angle 450 to the x-axis.

50
50
100
450
100 x
50

50
Page 17
Example 8.2
At a point of steel plate, the state of plane stress (2D) is defined by σ,
where
⎡150 75⎤
σ=⎢ ⎥ N/mm 2
⎣ 75 50⎦

in the coordinate xoy . Determine the stress matrix σ for the same point
with respect to the axes x oy , where x lies at 400 anticlockwise from x. Sketch
the element in the axes x oy and the stresses acting on its faces.

50 x
75
40 0 40 0
x
150

Page 18
Example 8.3
Variation of stresses (normal and shear) with rotation angle of normal to the
x-axis
32
σ x = 64 N/mm 2
σx
20 τ xy
σ y = −32 N/mm 2

θ
τ xy = 20 N/mm 2
σx θ
64
64
20
32

θ0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180

σx
τ xy

Page 19
 Example 8.3
Variation of stresses (normal and shear) with rotation angle of normal to the
x-axis
32
σ x = 64 N/mm 2
σx
20 τ xy
σ y = −32 N/mm 2
θ
τ xy = 20 N/mm 2
θ
64
Answer: Stresses acting on the face
64
orientated with θ from (8.12) are 20
σ x = 16 + 48 cos 2θ + 20 sin 2θ 32
τ xy = −48 sin 2θ + 20 cos 2θ
80

60

40
σx
20

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
-20

-40 τ xy
-60
Page 20
 8.10. Principal Stresses (Method 1)
• The value of the stresses depend on
the choice of the coordinate system:
we do not know the highest normal 1
or the highest shear stress.
• For evaluation of yield, failure or
fatigue independent (invariant)
quantities are required;
• The extreme normal stresses θ*
(maximum and minimum values) are
obtained via
dσ x
=0 Figure 8.11
dθ
This leads to 2τ xy
− (σ x − σ y )sin 2θ + 2τ xy cos 2θ = 2τ xy = 0
* * ∴ tan 2θ * =
σ x −σ y
• Two angles are determined by

1 2τ xy π
θ = tan
* −1
then θ p = θ * ; θ pp = θ * ± (8.13)
2 σ x −σ y 2

Page 21
• Substituting equation (8.13) into (8.12)
leads to the principal stresses

1 1
σ x (θ p ) = (σ x + σ y ) + (σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ p + τ xy sin 2θ p (8.14)
2 2 (14)
1 1
σ x (θ pp ) = (σ x + σ y ) + (σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ pp + τ xy sin 2θ pp
2 2

• Shear stresses

τ xy (θ p ) = τ xy (θ pp ) = 0 (8.15)

• Inserting equation (8.13) into (8.14)

leads to the principal stresses

(σ x + σ y ) (σ x − σ y ) 2
σ 1, 2 = ± + τ xy2 θ * or (θ * ± π / 2)
2 4
(8.16)
σ 1 = max{σ x (θ p ), σ x (θ pp )} Figure 8.12

σ 2 = min{σ x (θ p ), σ x (θ pp )}
Page 22
Example 8.4
32
In a concrete structure a two-dimensional
stress state was computed with
20
σ x = 64 N/mm 2 θ*
σ y = −32 N/mm 2
64
τ xy = 20 N/mm 2

Determine:

1. The normal and shear stresses

under an angle of 60°
2. The principle stresses and the
principles directions
3. Sketch the element
corresponding to principal
stresses
4. In which direction do you
expect fractures (concrete)?

Page 23
 8.11. Principal Stresses (Method 2)
• An easier way to compute principle Example 8.5
stresses is obtained by the
mathematical scheme to compute ⎡σ x τ xy ⎤ ⎡10 10⎤
Eigen value (natural values) of a ⎢τ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ xy σ y ⎦ ⎣10 10 ⎦
matrix:
σx −λ τ xy Determine principal stresses by method 2.
det σ − λI = det =0
τ xy σy −λ

(8.17)
• Therefore:
(σ x − λ )(σ y − λ ) − τ xy2 = 0
λ2 − λ (σ x + σ y ) + (σ xσ y − τ xy2 ) = 0

(σ x + σ y ) (σ x − σ y ) 2
λ1 = + + τ xy2 = σ 1
2 4
(σ x + σ y ) (σ x − σ y ) 2
λ2 = − + τ xy2 = σ 2
2 4

(8.18) Page 24
 8.13. Principal Shear Stress
• The extreme shear stresses
(maximum and minimum values) are τ xy (θ s )
obtained via σ x (θ s )
dτ x y
=0
dθ 1
This leads to
− (σ x − σ y )cos 2θ ** − 2τ xy sin 2θ ** = 0 θ **
Two angles are determined by θ*
σ x −σ y
tan 2θ = − **

2τ xy Figure 8.15

1 σ −σ y π
θ ** = − tan −1 x then θ s = θ ** ; θ ss = θ ** ± (8.19)
2 2τ xy 2
1 1
σ x (θ s ) = σ x (θ ss ) = (σ x + σ y ) = (σ 1 + σ 2 )
2 2
2
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞ σ −σ 2
τ xy (max) = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy2 = ± 1 [from eq.(8.14)] (8.20)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Page 25
• Maximal shear stress is obtained
when an angle of 45° with respect to
the principle directions is chosen
• Maximal shear stress is equal to

1 1
τ max = ± (σ 1 − σ 2 ) σ = (σ 1 + σ 2 ) (8.21)
2 2

σ2
τ max
σ σ
σ1 σ1
450

σ σ
σ2 τ max
Figure 8.16
Page 26
 8.14. Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law)
• In one dimension we have
σ = E ⋅ε (8.22)
∆L ∆L ∆L
• E is Young’s modulus and
describes the stiffness of the L0
material (i.e. it depends only on the
material) as long as it is elastic
• Steel: E = 210.109 N/m² L0 =
original
• Aluminium E = 70.109 N/m² length
• Beyond the elastic limit (yield 600
stress), the material reacts

Stress σ =F/A
plastically.
400
• In elastic state, material can be Yield stress: σ yield
loaded and unloaded without
remaining strains, i.e. the loading
200
procedure is reversible E
• Material may show linear or non-
linear elastic behaviour 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Strain:ε = ∆L / L 0
Figure 8.18 Page 27
 8.15. Multi-dimensional Linear Elasticity
• In the multi-dimensional case,
stresses in one direction generate
strains also in the other directions;
we have (2D):

εx =
1
(σ x −νσ y )
E Figure 8.19

ε y = (−νσ x + σ y )
1
(8.28) • Shear strains are related to shear
E stresses via (G is the shear modulus)
τ xy
γ xy =
G

ν is the Poisson coefficient E

G= (8.29)
• In linear elasticity, it is sufficient to 2(1 + ν )
describe the material by two
parameters, e.g. Young’s modulus
and Poisson coefficient; but you can
use as well other parameters

Page 28
 8.16. Strain Matrix and Strain Principle Values
• In analogy to stresses, the strains • Natural values:
are grouped into a strain matrix
(or strain tensor) ε x − λ γ xy / 2
det =0
⎡ εx γ xy / 2⎤
⎡ εx
⎢
γ xy / 2 γ xz / 2⎤
⎥
γ xy / 2 ε y − λ
ε=⎢ ⎥ ε = ⎢γ yx / 2 εy γ yz / 2⎥ (8.23)
γ ε
(ε x − λ )(ε y − λ ) − γ xy2 / 4 = 0
⎣ / 2 ⎦
yx y
⎢γ zx / 2 γ zy / 2 ε z ⎥⎦
⎣

(2 Dimension) (3 Dimension) λ2 − λ (ε x + ε y ) + (ε xε y − γ xy2 / 4 ) = 0

• The strain matrix is as well • The natural values are the principal
symmetric values
γ xy = γ yx ; γ xz = γ zx ; γ yz = γ zy (8.24) ε 1 = λ1 and ε 2 = λ2
• Principle strains can be computed by ⎡ε 1 0 ⎤
ε=⎢ (2D) (8.26)
0 ε ⎥;
⎣ 2⎦
(ε x + ε y ) (ε x − ε y ) 2 + γ xy2
ε1 = + ⎡ε 1 0 0⎤
2 4
ε = ⎢⎢ 0 ε 2 0 ⎥⎥
(3D) (8.27)
(8.25)
(ε x + ε y ) (ε x − ε y ) 2 + γ xy2
ε2 = − ⎢⎣ 0 0 ε 3 ⎥⎦
2 4
Page 29
Example 8.7

A stress (matrix) tensor for the plane stress elasticity is given by

⎡100 40 ⎤
σ=⎢ ⎥ N/mm 2

⎣ 40 − 50 ⎦
The Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratioPrinciple
of thisdirections
material are subjected
of a beam
E=200×103N/mm2 and ν=1/3 respectively. to a central unit force

(1) Draw a square element with the above stress components acting
on its sides;
Compression
(2) Calculate the strain tensor in matrix form;
(3) Determine the principal stresses and their directions;
(4) Determine the principal strains. Tension

Page 30
 8.17. Equivalent Stress and structure failure
• To determine failure, the multi- • Simple approaches to determine the
dimensional stress state should be equivalent stress (the choice between
taken into account; them depends on the material):
• Although the one-dimensional stress – Normal stress hypothesis:
limit is not reached, the structure Failure occurs when maximal
may fail when subjected to multi- normal stress is reached
dimensional stresses; σ equiv = σ 1 (8.31)

• Multi-dimensionality of the stress – Shear stress hypothesis (2D):

state might improve or weaken. Failure occurs when the maximal
• To obtain simple measures to shear stress is reached (Tresca)
evaluate multi-dimensional stress
states, the concept of equivalent
σ equiv = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) = 2τ max = (σ x − σ y ) + 4τ xy2
2

(8.32)
stress is used, i.e. a single value is – Energy hypothesis (2D):
obtained from the stress matrix, Failure occurs if the maximal
which is then compared to the one- elastic energy is reached
dimensional limit stress (yield stress, (von Mises)
ultimate stress, etc.)
σ equiv = σ 12 + σ 22 − σ 1σ 2
σ equiv ≤ σ Limit / n (8.30) (8.33)

n is the safety factor = σ x2 + σ y2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2

Page 31
Example (individual)
A hollow shaft, of external diameter D2 and internal
diameter D1, where D1/D2=1/3, is required to transmit a
torque of 100kNm and axial load 1500kN (compressive). If
D2 is selected as 200mm, ultimate stress σLimit=300N/mm2,
safety factor n=2.5 and von Mises criterion is considered,
check whether the shaft is safe.

propeller 1500kN
shaft
100kNm
D1 D2