Classical Music

First Family
Contents
1
First Family of the United States
1.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Family of Donald Trump
2.1
Immediate family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Melania Trump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
Grandparents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
Genealogical table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coats of arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Trump University logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2
Trump International Golf Links logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
2.3
2.4
3
Music of Vienna
3.1
Viennese classicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Schrammelmusik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Wienerlied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4
Music Festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classical period (music)
4.1
Classicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
History
4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Baroque/Classical transition c. 17301760
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2
17501775 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3
17751790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
4.3.4
Circa 17901820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
First Viennese School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
ii
CONTENTS
4.5
Classical inuence on later composers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.6
Classical period instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.6.1
Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.6.2
Woodwinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.6.3
Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.6.4
Brasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.7
Role of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.9
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
History of sonata form
17
5.1
Late Baroque era (ca 1710 ca 1750)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.2
Classical era (ca 1750 ca 1825) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.3
Romantic era (ca 1825 ca 1910)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
5.4
Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Symphony
21
6.1
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
6.2
18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
6.3
19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
6.4
20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
6.5
Other modern usages of symphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
6.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
6.8
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
6.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Musical development
28
7.1
The division of a theme into parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.2
Alteration of pitch intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.3
Rhythmic displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.4
Sequence and the development of two or more themes in combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
Tonality
30
8.1
30
Characteristics and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
iii
8.1.1
Systematic organization
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
8.1.2
Theoretical arrangement of pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.3
Contrast with modal and atonal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.4
Pre-modern concept
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.5
Referential tonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.6
Tonal theories
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.7
Synonym for key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.8
Other perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
8.1.9
Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
8.1.10 Consonance and dissonance

8.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
8.1.11 Tonal musics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
History and theory
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
8.2.1
18th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
8.2.2
19th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
8.2.3
20th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
8.3
Theoretical underpinnings
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.4
Outside common-practice period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.5
Computational methods to determine the key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.7
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
8.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
List of period instruments
41
9.1
Renaissance (14001600) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.1.1
Woodwinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.1.2
Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
Baroque (16001750) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.2.1
Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.2.2
Woodwind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.2.3
Brasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.2.4
Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Classical (17501820) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.3.1
Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.3.2
Woodwinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.3.3
Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.3.4
Brasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
9.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
9.2
9.3
10 List of Classical-era composers

10.1 Early Galante era composers Transition from Baroque to Classical (born before 1710) . . . . . .
45
45
iv
CONTENTS
10.2 Early Classical era/Later Galante era composers (born 17101730) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
10.3 Middle Classical era composers (born 17301750) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
10.4 Late Classical era composers (born 17501770) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.5 Classical era/Romantic transition composers (born 17701800) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
10.6 Timeline of Classical composers (partial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
10.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
10.8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
10.8.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
10.8.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
10.8.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Chapter 1
First Family of the United States

This article is about the U.S. First Family. For other their ongoing protection as well as for the sake of brevity,
uses, see First Family.
clarity, and tradition.
See Tfd
1.1 See also

Adams family
Bush family
Clinton family
Harrison family
Kennedy family
Lincoln family
Obama family
Trump family
The current First Family of the United States, the Obama family, pictured in the Blue Room at the White House with extended
family members on Inauguration Day held on January 20, 2013.
Members of the current First Family include President Barack
Obama, his wife First Lady Michelle, and their daughters Malia
and Sasha. Extended members of the First Family in this photograph include Craig Robinson, Leslie Robinson, Avery Robinson,
Marian Shields Robinson, Akinyi Manners, Auma Obama, Maya
Soetoro-Ng, Konrad Ng, Savita Ng, and Suhaila Ng.
Roosevelt family
Taft family
1.2 References
[1] Haberman, Maggie (November 20, 2016). Melania
and Barron Trump Won't Immediately Move to White
House. The New York Times. Retrieved November 21,
2016.
The First Family of the United States (FFOTUS) is

the unocial title for the family of the President of the
United States, who is both head of state and head of government of the United States. Members of the First Family consist of the President, the First Lady of the United
States, and any of their children. However, other close
relatives of the President and First Lady, such as parents,
grandchildren, stepchildren, and in-laws, may be classied as members of the First Family if they reside in the
Executive Residence of the White House Complex.
In the United States, the term First Family in casual
reference to the Presidents immediate family, is most often used by the media and in particular, the White House
press corps. Individually, each member of the First Family is designated a Secret Service codename by the United
States Secret Service. Used by special agents, these code
names uniquely identify members of the First Family for
1
Chapter 2
Family of Donald Trump

This article is about the immediate family of Donald Trumps presidential campaign. They had all been reguTrump. For the history of the Trump family as a whole, lar guests on national news programs and served as Donsee Trump family.
ald Trumps surrogates.[2] After Trumps victory, all three
of them were named as members of Trumps presidential
The family of Donald Trump, the President-elect of the transition team. They are currently all Executive Vice
Presidents at The Trump Organization, and are set to take
United States, is a prominent American family active in
control
of the company when Donald Trump goes into
real estate, entertainment, business, and politics. Donald
oce.[3]
Trump's immediate family circle will become the First
Family of the United States on January 20, 2017. They
are part of the broader Trump family originating from
Germany.
Tiany Trump
2.1 Immediate family
Main article: Tiany Trump
2.1.1
Tiany Trump is the only child of Donald Trump and

Marla Maples. In 2016, Tiany was mostly absent from
the campaign trail, in part because she was busy attending
the University of Pennsylvania, her fathers alma mater.[4]
Shortly after graduating in sociology and urban studies,
she made a rare speech for her father at the Republican
National Convention at age 22.[5]
Melania Trump
Melania Trump (ne Knavs), the third wife of Donald

Trump, was born on April 26, 1970, in Novo Mesto,
Yugoslavia (present-day Slovenia). She has had a lengthy
modeling career and is scheduled to become the second
foreign-born First Lady of the United States on January
20, 2017.[1]
2.1.2
Children
Barron Trump
See also: List of children of the Presidents of the United Barron William Trump (born March 20, 2006)[6] is DonStates Donald Trump
ald Trumps youngest child, and his only child with
Melania Trump. He is attending the Columbia GramTrump has ve children from three dierent marriages: mar & Preparatory School in Manhattan. Barron is uDon Jr., Ivanka, and Eric Trump with Ivana Trump, ent in English and Slovene.[7] During his early childhood,
Tiany Trump with Marla Maples, and Barron Trump Trump made several television appearances, including on
The Apprentice and The Oprah Winfrey Show.[8] Barron
with First Lady-designate Melania Trump.
Trump will not immediately be living in the White House,
but will remain at Trump Tower with his mother so that
Don Jr., Ivanka, and Eric
his education will not be interrupted.[9]
He has only made rare appearances during the 2016 elecMain articles: Donald Trump Jr., Ivanka Trump, and tion. Melania Trump said she wanted to keep him out
Eric Trump
of the spotlight.[10] He made a total of three public appearances on the campaign trail; appearing at a campaign
Donald Trumps three eldest children, all from his rst rally in South Carolina, and attending his fathers RNC
marriage with Ivana Trump, played major roles during acceptance speech and presidential victory speech.[11]
2
2.3. COATS OF ARMS
2.2 Ancestry
3
Trump Organization and served as its chairman and president until assuming the oce of U.S. President.[19]
Further information: Trump family

Mary Trump
Donald Trumps paternal ancestry is traceable to
Kallstadt, a village in the Palatinate, Germany. The
Trump surname is on record there from the 17th
century.[12] Johann Philipp Trump had established himself as a winegrower in Kallstadt by the late 17th
century.[13] Trump has said that he is proud of his German heritage, and he served as grand marshal of the
1999 German-American Steuben Parade in New York
City.[14][15]
2.2.1
Grandparents
Frederick Trump
Further information: MacLeod

Born as Mary MacLeod (19122000) in Tong, a small
village near Stornoway, in the Western Isles of Scotland,
she was the daughter of sherman Malcolm MacLeod
and Mary MacLeod (ne Smith).[20] At age 17, she immigrated to the United States and started working as a
maid in New York.[20] Mary and Donald Trumps father Fred Trump met in New York and married in 1936,
settling together in Queens. Mary became a U.S. citizen in 1942.[20][21] Donald Trump has said that he feels
Scottish.[14][15]
In 1885, Donald Trumps grandfather, Friedrich Trump, 2.2.3 Genealogical table

emigrated from Kallstadt (then part of the Kingdom of
Bavaria) to the United States at age 16. He anglicized Main article: Trump family
his name to Frederick in 1892 when he became a U.S.
citizen.[16] During the Klondike Gold Rush, he amassed a
fortune by opening restaurants and hotels for gold seekers
on their way to the region. After his death, his fortune 2.3 Coats of arms
was passed on to his wife and son. Frederick Trump was
a second cousin of Henry J. Heinz, founder of H. J. Heinz
Company.
Elizabeth Christ Trump
Further information: Christ (surname) and Hartung
Donald Trumps grandmother, Elizabeth Christ Trump,
ne Christ, was born in 1880 and died on June 6, 1966.
She was the matriarch of the Trump family. Born Elisabeth Christ, she married Frederick Trump in 1902
and moved to the United States with him. Like her
husband, she was a native of Kallstadt, born as the
daughter of Philipp and Marie Christ. Philipp Christ
was descended from Johannes Christ (16261688/9)
of Flrsheim, Hesse.[17] Elizabeth Christ Trump was a
descendant of organ builder Johann Michael Hartung
(17081763) through her paternal grandmother Sabina
Christ.[17]
2.2.2
Parents
Fred Trump
Donald Trumps father, Fred Trump (19051999), born
in New York, was one of the biggest real estate developers in New York City.[16][18] Using his inheritance,
Fred Trump and his mother Elizabeth founded Elizabeth Trump & Son. Donald Trump later renamed it The
Logo of the Trump International Golf Links Scotland golf resort

in the form a coat of arms adopted in 2012
The German Trump family as such does not have a coat

of arms, but Donald Trump has used a number of dierent logos in the style of coats of arms for his businesses.
It is not known if Donald Trump intended any of these
as a personal or family coat of arms for himself and his
descendants, or if they were just intended as business logos. According to German heraldic tradition, anyone can
CHAPTER 2. FAMILY OF DONALD TRUMP
freely assume a coat of arms if they so desire, although [10] Transcript: George Stephanopoulos Interviews Donald
and Melania Trump. ABC News. October 27, 2016. Rethe use of certain elements implying a specic rank may
trieved November 11, 2016.
historically have been legally restricted.
2.3.1
Trump University logo
[11] Lopez, Marina (July 17, 2016). What Does Barron

Trump Think of His Dad Running for President? He
Hasn't Given Interviews. Romper. Retrieved November
11, 2016.
Trump University used as its logo a newly designed logo

in the form of a coat of arms in red and gold featuring a [12] spelling variants Drumb, Tromb, Tromp, Trum, Trump,
Dromb. Kate Connolly, Kallstadt, Germany: on the
lion rampant.[22]
2.3.2
Trump International Golf Links logo
trail of 'the Donald' in the Trump ancestral home, The

Guardian, 29 January 2016. (Blair 2001:26) cites Hanns
Drumpf, recorded in 1608, as the rst known bearer of
the name in Kallstadt.
In 2012 Donald Trump adopted a British-style coat of

[13] Blair, Gwenda (2001). The Trumps: Three Generations of
arms to be used as the coat of arms for the Trump
Builders and a Presidential Candidate (1st ed.). Simon &
International Golf Links Scotland, a golf resort in
Schuster. p. 26. ISBN 9780743210799.
Scotland.[23] According to a spokesperson for Trump, the
coat of arms will ocially represent the Scottish brand [14] Carrell, Severin (June 9, 2008). "'I feel Scottish,' says
Donald Trump on ying visit to mothers cottage. The
Trump International Golf Links Scotland and brings toGuardian. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
gether visual elements that signify dierent aspects of the
Trump family heritage and importance of this project [15] Frates, Chris (August 24, 2015). Donald Trumps immiwhich is set to be the jewel in the crown of Trumps
grant wives. CNN. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
golf resorts in Scotland.[23][24]
[16] Blair, Gwenda (August 24, 2015). The Man Who Made
From 2014 Trump used the same logo for Trump InternaTrump Who He Is. Politico. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
tional Golf Links and Hotel Ireland, the golf resort built
[17] GEDBAS: Vorfahren von Frederick Christ TRUMP.
from his acquisition of Doonbeg Golf Club.[25][26]
2.4 References
[1] The Model American. The New Yorker. May 9, 2016.
Retrieved November 10, 2016.
[2] Donald Trumps kids might have saved the convention.
CNN. July 22, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
[3] Trump Kids To Run Business While On Transition
Team. The Hungton Post. November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
[4] US election: Trump children - who is the new rst family?". BBC News. November 9, 2016. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
[5] Who Is Donalds Lesser-Known Daughter, Tiany
Trump?". Vogue (magazine). July 20, 2016. Retrieved
November 10, 2016.
[6] Alison Fox (2016-11-21). Get to know Barron Trump,
the president-elects 5th child. am New York. Retrieved
2016-12-15.
[7] Dziemianowicz, Joe; Pesce, Nicole (November 10, 2016).
Meet future First Kid, Barron 'little Donald' Trump.
New York Daily News. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
[8] Barron Trump on IMDb. IMDb. Retrieved November
11, 2016.
[9] Haberman, Maggie (November 20, 2016). Melania
and Barron Trump Won't Immediately Move to White
House. The New York Times. Retrieved November 21,
2016.
[18] Mary MacLeod Trump Philanthropist, 88. The New

York Times (Obituary). August 9, 2000. Retrieved May
12, 2016.
[19] Trump Organization Next Generation: Donald Jr Ivanka
Eric Trump Hotel Collection Real Estate Casinos Golf
Clubs Restaurants Merchandise Corporation Company
Publications. Retrieved May 14, 2016.
[20] Pilon, Mary (June 24, 2016). Donald Trumps Immigrant Mother. The New Yorker.
[21] McGrane, Sally (April 29, 2016). The Ancestral German
Home of the Trumps. The New Yorker.
[22] Nuzzi, Olivia (1 June 2016). How Trump U Suckered Its
Victims.
[23] Guest (17 January 2012). Donald Trump awarded Scottish coat of arms after four year battle.
[24] Donald Trump awarded Scottish coat of arms after four
year battle. Deadline. January 17, 2012. Retrieved
November 17, 2016.
[25] Trump conrms Doonbeg buy - rebranded Trump International Golf Links, Ireland"". irishgolfdesk.com. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
[26] About the Course - Trump International Golf Club 2016
- Doonbeg. trumpgolreland.com. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
Chapter 3
Music of Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria, and has along with bass guitarist Anton Strohmayer and helped
long been one of the major centers for cultural develop- bring the music to the middle- and upper-class Viennese,
ment in central Europe.
as well as people from surrounding areas. With the adMusic organizations in Vienna include the Gesellschaft dition of a clarinetist, George Dnzer, they formed the
Schrammel-Quartett, and Schrammelmusiks form setder Musikfreunde, which has been promoting musical development in the city since 1812. The Vienna Boys Choir tled on a quartet.
has an even longer history, dating back to 1498, while the Neuwirth is a younger performer who has incorporated
Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra is also renowned .
foreign inuences, most especially the blues, to some
Major music venues in Vienna include the State Opera criticism from purists. He is the leader of the band
House, the Peoples Opera House, the Burgtheater, and Extremschrammeln.
the Theater an der Wien, the former three of which are
owned by the federal government .
3.3 Wienerlied
3.1 Viennese classicism
Main article: Wienerlied
Main article: Viennese classicism
The Wienerlied is a unique and very popular song genre

from Vienna. There are approximately 60,000 70,000
Wienerlieder[1]
The city was home to many great composers of the

classical music era, during the early 19th century, such as
Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven; this was called
Viennese classicism .
3.4 Music Festivals

Yearly the Waves Vienna Music Festival & Conference
takes place in October. This festival is a showcase festival
for European pop music acts.
3.2 Schrammelmusik
Main article: Schrammelmusik
3.5 References
The most popular form of modern Austrian folk music is Viennese schrammelmusik, which is played with
an accordion and a double-necked guitar. Modern performers include Roland Neuwirth, Karl Hodina and Edi
Reiser.
[1] Wiener Volksliederwerk, Zum Wienerlied
Schrammelmusik arose as a mixture of rural Austrian,

Hungarian, Slovenian, Moravian and Bavarian immigrants crowded the slums of Vienna. At the time, waltzes
and lndlers mixed with the music of the immigrants
absorbing sounds from all over central and eastern Europe and the Balkans. The name Schrammelmusik comes
from two of the most popular and inuential performers in Schrammelmusiks history, brothers Johann and
Josef Schrammel. The Schrammels formed a trio called
5
Chapter 4
Classical period (music)

This article is about the Western art music written from
1730-1820; see Classical music for an article about Western art music from the middle ages to the contemporary
era.
The dates of the Classical period in Western music are
mainly homophonic, using a clear melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment,[2] but counterpoint was
by no means forgotten, especially later in the period. It
also makes use of style galant which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroques dignied seriousness and
impressive grandeur. Variety and contrast within a piece
became more pronounced than before and the orchestra
increased in size, range, and power.
The harpsichord was replaced as the main keyboard instrument by the piano (or fortepiano). Unlike the harpsichord, which plucked strings with quills, pianos strike
the strings with leather-covered hammers when the keys
are pressed, which enables the performer to play louder
or softer and play with more expression; in contrast, the
force with which a performer plays the harpsichord keys
does not change the sound. Instrumental music was considered important by Classical period composers. The
main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio,
string quartet, symphony (performed by an orchestra) and
the solo concerto, which featured a virtuoso solo performer playing a solo work for violin, piano, ute, or another instrument, accompanied by an orchestra. Vocal
music, such as songs for a singer and piano (notably the
work of Schubert), choral works, and opera (a staged dramatic work for singers and orchestra) were also important
during this period.
The best-known composers from this period are Joseph
Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van
Beethoven, and Franz Schubert; other notable names
include Luigi Boccherini, Muzio Clementi, Antonio
Salieri, Leopold Mozart, Johann Christian Bach, Carl
Philipp Emanuel Bach, and Christoph Willibald Gluck.
Ludwig van Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic
composer or a Classical period composer who was part
of the transition to the Romantic era. Franz Schubert
is also a transitional gure, as were Johann Nepomuk
Hummel, Luigi Cherubini, and Carl Maria von Weber.
The period is sometimes referred to as the era of Viennese Classic or Classicism (German: Wiener Klassik),
since Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Salieri, and Beethoven all
worked in Vienna and Schubert was born there.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (seated at the keyboard) was a child

prodigy virtuoso performer on the piano and violin. Even before
he became a celebrated composer, he was widely known as a
gifted performer and improviser.
generally accepted as being between about the year 1730

and the year 1820. However, the term classical music is
often used in a colloquial sense as a synonym for Western
art music which describes a variety of Western musical
styles from the Middle Ages to the present, and especially
from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth. This article is about the specic period in most of the 18th century to the early 19th century, though overlapping with
the Baroque and Romantic periods.[1]
The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the
Romantic periods. Classical music has a lighter, clearer
texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is
6
4.1. CLASSICISM
4.1 Classicism
7
a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms
and be both well-articulated and orderly. This taste for
structural clarity began to aect music, which moved
away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period
toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody
is played over a subordinate harmony.[3] This move meant
that chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a
single part. As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of
music became more audible.
The new style was also encouraged by changes in the
economic order and social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter, funny comic operas. This led to
changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial
of which was the move to standard instrumental groups
and the reduction in the importance of the continuothe
rhythmic and harmonic groundwork of a piece of music, typically played by a keyboard (harpsichord or organ)
and usually accompanied by a varied group of bass instruments, including cello, double bass, bass viol, and
theorbo. One way to trace the decline of the continuo
and its gured chords is to examine the disappearance
of the term obbligato, meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of chamber music. In Baroque compositions, additional instruments could be added to the
continuo group according to the group or leaders preference; in Classical compositions, all parts were specically
noted, though not always notated, so the term obbligato
became redundant. By 1800, basso continuo was practically extinct, except for the occasional use of a pipe organ
continuo part in a religious Mass in the early 1800s.
Classicist door in Olomouc, The Czech Republic. An example of

Classicist architecture, which shows the style that also inuenced
music of the era.
In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move

toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the
arts, generally known as Classicism. This style sought
to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity, especially
those of Classical Greece.[3] Classical music was still
tightly linked to aristocratic Court culture and supported
by absolute monarchies. Classical music used formality
and emphasis on order and hierarchy, and a clearer,
cleaner style that used clearer divisions between parts
(notably a clear, single melody accompanied by chords),
brighter contrasts and tone colors (achieved by the use
of dynamic changes and modulations to more keys). In
contrast with the richly layered music of the Baroque
era, Classical music moved towards simplicity rather than
complexity. In addition, the typical size of orchestras
began to increase,[3] giving orchestras a more powerful
sound.
Economic changes also had the eect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in
the late Baroque, a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the musical
forces available at an aristocratic hunting lodge or small
court were smaller and more xed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having simpler parts for ensemble
musicians to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso
group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for
certain instruments, as in the case of the Mannheim orchestra, or virtuoso solo parts for particularly skilled violinists or autists. In addition, the appetite by audiences
for a continual supply of new music carried over from the
Baroque. This meant that works had to be performable
with, at best, one or two rehearsals. Indeed, even after
1790 Mozart writes about the rehearsal, with the implication that his concerts would have only one rehearsal.
Since polyphonic textures with interweaving melodic

lines were no longer the main focus of music (excluding
in the development section), a single melodic line with accompaniment became the main texture. In the Classical
The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philos- era, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for
ophy" had already established itself in the public con- dynamics and phrasing. This contrasts with the Baroque
sciousness. In particular, Newtons physics was taken as era, when melodies were typically written with no dy-
8
namics, phrasing marks or ornaments, as it was assumed
that the performer would improvise these elements on the
spot. In the Classical era, it became more common for
composers to indicate where they wanted performers to
play ornaments such as trills or turns. The simplication
of texture made such instrumental detail more important,
and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such
as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march
rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.
Forms such as the concerto and sonata were more heavily
dened and given more specic rules, whereas the symphony was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The concerto grosso (a concerto for more than one musician), a very popular form in
the Baroque era, began to be replaced by the solo concerto
(a concerto featuring only one soloist, accompanied by orchestra). Given that Classical concertos only had a single
soloist, composers began to place more importance on the
particular soloists ability to show o virtuoso skills, with
challenging, fast scale and arpeggio runs. There were, of
course, some concerti grossi that remained, the most famous of which being Mozarts Sinfonia Concertante for
Violin and Viola in E at Major.
CHAPTER 4. CLASSICAL PERIOD (MUSIC)

nounced than before. Composers used a variety of keys,
melodies, rhythms and dynamics. Classical pieces dynamic changes such as crescendo (an instruction to gradually get louder), diminuendo (an instruction to gradually get softer) and sforzando (a sudden strong, loud attack). Classical pieces had frequent changes of dynamics,
mood and timbre, in contrast to Baroque music. Melodies
tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with
clear-cut phrases and distinct cadences. The orchestra increased in size and range; the harpsichord or pipe organ
basso continuo role in orchestra gradually fell out of use
between 1750 and 1800. As well, the woodwinds became
a self-contained section, consisting of clarinets, oboes,
utes and bassoons. As a solo instrument, the harpsichord
was replaced by the piano (or fortepiano, the rst type of
piano which was invented ca. 1700). Early piano music
was light in texture, often with Alberti bass accompaniment, which used arpeggios in the left hand to state the
harmonies. Over the Classical period, the pieces became
richer, more sonorous and more powerful.
While vocal music such as comic opera was popular, great
importance was given to instrumental music. The main
kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string
quartet, symphony, concerto (usually for a virtuoso solo
instrument accompanied by orchestra), and light pieces
such as serenades and divertimentos. Sonata form developed and became the most important form. It was used
to build up the rst movement of most large-scale works
in symphonies and string quartets. Sonata form was also
used in other movements and in single, standalone pieces
such as overtures.
4.3 History
See Tfd
A modern string quartet. In the 2000s, string quartets from the

Classical era are the core of the chamber music literature. From
left to right: violin 1, violin 2, cello, viola
4.2 Main characteristics

Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than
Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly
homophonic[4] a clear melody above a subordinate
chordal accompaniment. Counterpoint was by no means
forgotten, especially later in the period, and composers
still used counterpoint in religious pieces, such as Masses.
Classical music also makes use of style galant, which contrasted with the heavy strictures of the Baroque style.
Galant style emphasized light elegance in place of the
Baroques dignied seriousness and impressive grandeur.
Variety and contrast within a piece became more pro-
4.3.1 Baroque/Classical
17301760
transition
c.
See also: History of sonata form

At rst the new style took over Baroque formsthe
ternary da capo aria and the sinfonia and concertobut
composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation, rather than the improvised ornaments that were
common in the Baroque era, and more emphatic division of pieces into sections. However, over time, the new
aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put
together, and the basic formal layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic eects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One of the big textural changes was a shift away from the complex, dense
polyphonic style of the Baroque, in which multiple interweaving melodic lines were played simultaneously, and
towards homophony, a lighter texture which uses a clear
single melody line accompanied by chords.
4.3. HISTORY
9
success.
The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the dierent demands of taste, economics
and worldview, goes by many names. It is sometimes
called Galant, Rococo, or pre-Classical, or at other times
early Classical. It is a period where some composers still
working in the Baroque style ourish, though sometimes
thought of as being more of the past than the present
Bach, Handel, and Telemann all composed well beyond
the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the
ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads:
the masters of the older style had the technique, but the
public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C.
P. E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood
the older forms quite well and knew how to present them
in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.
4.3.2 17501775
Gluck, detail of a portrait by Joseph Duplessis, dated 1775

(Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
See also: Symphony

By the late 1750s there were ourishing centers of the
The Italian composer Domenico Scarlatti was an important gure in the transition from Baroque to Classical
style. His unique compositional style is strongly related
to that of the early Classical period. He is best known
for composing more than ve hundred one-movement
keyboard sonatas. In Spain, Antonio Soler also produced valuable keyboard sonatas, more varied in form
than those of Scarlatti, with some pieces in three or four
movements.
Baroque music generally uses many harmonic fantasies
and polyphonic sections that focus less on the structure of
the musical piece, and there was less emphasis on clear
musical phrases. In the classical period, the harmonies
became simpler. However, the structure of the piece, the
phrases and small melodic or rhythmic motives, became
much more important than in the Baroque period.
Another important break with the past was the radical
overhaul of opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck, who cut
away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornaments and focused on the points of modulation and
transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more of a focus, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these transitions, he used changes in instrumentation
(orchestration), melody, and mode. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, one of whom was Antonio Salieri. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and
in other vocal music such as songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of
music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest public
Haydn portrait by Thomas Hardy, 1792
new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens

of symphonies were composed and there were bands of
players associated with musical theatres. Opera or other
vocal music accompanied by orchestra was the feature
of most musical events, with concertos and symphonies
(arising from the overture) serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services.
Over the course of the Classical period, symphonies and
concertos developed and were presented independently
of vocal music.
The normal orchestra ensemblea body of strings
supplemented by windsand movements of particular
10
rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in elements.

Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was
still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual
movements still focused on one aect (musical mood) 4.3.3 17751790
or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and
their length was not signicantly greater than Baroque See also: Musical development
movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated the- Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music
ory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment
ripe for a breakthrough.
Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by
C. P. E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C. P.
E. Bach and Gluck are often considered founders of the
Classical style. The rst great master of the style was
the composer Joseph Haydn. In the late 1750s he began
composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed
a triptych (Morning, Noon, and Evening) solidly in the
contemporary mode. As a vice-Kapellmeister and later
Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over
forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame
grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only
one among many.
While some scholars suggest that Haydn was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be dicult to
overstate Haydns centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the
time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven,
and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place
in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps the Baroque eras George Frideric Handel. Haydn took existing ideas, and radically altered how
they functionedearning him the titles father of the
symphony" and father of the string quartet".
One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the rst stirring of what would later be
called Romanticismthe Sturm und Drang, or storm
and stress phase in the arts, a short period where obvious and dramatic emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast
and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality in his pieces. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it inuenced what came afterward and would eventually be a
component of aesthetic taste in later decades.
The Farewell Symphony, No. 45 in F Minor, exemplies
Haydns integration of the diering demands of the new
style, with surprising sharp turns and a long slow adagio
to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus
20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the
polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous
Baroque era to provide structural coherence capable of
holding together his melodic ideas. For some, this marks
the beginning of the mature Classical style, in which
the period of reaction against late Baroque complexity
yielded to a period of integration Baroque and Classical
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, posthumous painting by Barbara

Krat in 1819
director for a prince, had far more resources and scope

for composing than most other composers. His position
also gave him the ability to shape the forces that would
play his music, as he could select skilled musicians. This
opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite
early on his career, sought to press forward the technique
of building and developing ideas in his music. His next
important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), in which the melodic and the harmonic roles
segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes
the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic
moments of transition and climactic sections: the music
ows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then
took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.
Haydns gift to music was a way of composing, a way of
structuring works, which was at the same time in accord
with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However,
a younger contemporary, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
brought his genius to Haydns ideas and applied them to
4.3. HISTORY
The opening bars of the Commedatores aria in Mozarts opera

Don Giovanni. The orchestra starts with a dissonant diminished
seventh chord (g# dim7 with a B in the bass) moving to a
dominant seventh chord (A7 with a C# in the bass) before resolving to the tonic chord (d minor) at the singers entrance.
two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working
life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success
in the concert life of cities, playing for the general public. This meant he needed to write operas and write and
perform virtuoso pieces. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the
international touring level; nor was he seeking to create
operatic works that could play for many nights in front of
a large audience. Mozart wanted to achieve both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords
(and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally),
a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a
whole. He found, in Haydns music and later in his study
of the polyphony of J.S. Bach, the means to discipline and
enrich his artistic gifts.
The Mozart family c. 1780. The portrait on the wall is of

Mozarts mother.
11
tilena melodies, and virtuoso ourishes was merged with
an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and economic
ination halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced
the disbanding or reduction of many theater orchestras.
This pressed the Classical style inwards: toward seeking greater ensemble and technical challengesfor example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using
a melody harmonized in thirds. This process placed a premium on small ensemble music, called chamber music. It
also led to a trend for more public performance, giving a
further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.
It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a
high standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived
at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were
recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s
of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s,
changes in performance practice, the relative standing of
instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the
composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this
decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six
late symphonies that helped to redene the genre, and a
string of piano concerti that still stand at the pinnacle of
these forms.
One composer who was inuential in spreading the more
serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is Muzio
Clementi, a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart
in a musical duel before the emperor in which they each
improvised on the piano and performed their compositions. Clementis sonatas for the piano circulated widely,
and he became the most successful composer in London
during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was Jan
Ladislav Dussek, who, like Clementi, encouraged piano
makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened up
possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical
period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to
the Broadwoods factory for piano manufacturing and as
the base for composers who, while less notable than the
Vienna School, had a decisive inuence on what came
later. They were composers of many ne works, notable
in their own right. Londons taste for virtuosity may well
have encouraged the complex passage work and extended
statements on tonic and dominant.
Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who

hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In
Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation,
dramatic eect and melodic resource. The learning relationship moved in both directions. Mozart also had a
great respect for the older, more experienced composer, 4.3.4
and sought to learn from him.
Mozarts arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There,
Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and
Germanic cohesiveness that had been brewing for the
previous 20 years. His own taste for ashy brilliances,
rhythmically complex melodies and gures, long can-
Circa 17901820
When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies

were played as single movementsbefore, between, or as
interludes within other worksand many of them lasted
only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central
part of music-making.
12
In the intervening years, the social world of music

had seen dramatic changes. International publication
and touring had grown explosively, and concert societies formed. Notation became more specic, more
descriptiveand schematics for works had been simplied (yet became more varied in their exact working out).
In 1790, just before Mozarts death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of
successes, notably his late oratorios and London symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome, and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.
Hummel in 1814
Portrait of Beethoven by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820
The time was again ripe for a dramatic shift. In the

1790s, a new generation of composers, born around
1770, emerged. While they had grown up with the
earlier styles, they heard in the recent works of Haydn
and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788
Luigi Cherubini settled in Paris and in 1791 composed
Lodoiska, an opera that raised him to fame. Its style is
clearly reective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its
instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt
in the grand opera. His contemporary tienne Mhul extended instrumental eects with his 1790 opera Euphrosine et Coradin, from which followed a series of successes.
The nal push towards change came from Gaspare Spontini, who was deeply admired by future romantic composers such as Weber, Berlioz and Wagner. The innovative harmonic language of his operas, their rened instrumentation and their enchained closed numbers (a structural pattern which was later adopted by Weber in Euryanthe and from him handed down, through Marschner,
to Wagner), formed the basis from which French and
German romantic opera had its beginnings.
Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794

with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally
accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart
and his native virtuosity, was Johann Nepomuk Hummel.
Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to
Beethoven and Franz Schubert. He concentrated more
on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in
London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and
publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which
idiomatically used Mozarts techniques of avoiding the
expected cadence, and Clementis sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso guration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in
style and the center of music. They studied one anothers
works, copied one anothers gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.
The crucial dierences with the previous wave can be

seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn
as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources,
the shift from vocal writing to pianistic writing, the
growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and
the increasing importance of varying accompanying gures to bring texture forward as an element in music.
In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was
internally more complex. The growth of concert societies
and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming
The most fateful of the new generation was Ludwig van market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as
4.5. CLASSICAL INFLUENCE ON LATER COMPOSERS
13
examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all Viennese School.

renowned for their improvising.
Whilst, Schubert apart, these composers certainly knew
Direct inuence of the Baroque continued to fade: the each other (with Haydn and Mozart even being occasional
gured bass grew less prominent as a means of holding chamber-music partners), there is no sense in which they
performance together, the performance practices of the were engaged in a collaborative eort in the sense that
mid-18th century continued to die out. However, at the one would associate with 20th-century schools such as the
same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began Second Viennese School, or Les Six. Nor is there any
to become available, and the inuence of Baroque style signicant sense in which one composer was schooled
continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive by another (in the way that Berg and Webern were taught
use of brass. Another feature of the period is the grow- by Schoenberg), though it is true that Beethoven for a time
ing number of performances where the composer was not received lessons from Haydn.
present. This led to increased detail and specicity in no- Attempts to extend the First Viennese School to include
tation; for example, there were fewer optional parts that such later gures as Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms,
stood separately from the main score.
and Gustav Mahler are merely journalistic, and never enThe force of these shifts became apparent with countered in academic musicology.
Beethovens 3rd Symphony, given the name Eroica,
which is Italian for heroic, by the composer. As with
Stravinskys The Rite of Spring, it may not have been the 4.5 Classical inuence
rst in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every
composers
part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources
as well.
See also: Tonality
4.4 First Viennese School
on later
See Tfd
View of Vienna in 1758, by Bernardo Bellotto
The First Viennese School is a name mostly used to refer

to three composers of the Classical period in late-18thcentury Vienna: W. A. Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven.
Franz Schubert is occasionally added to the list.
In German speaking countries, the term Wiener Klassik
(lit. Viennese classical era/art) is used. That term is often
more broadly applied to the Classical era in music as a
whole, as a means to distinguish it from other periods that
are colloquially referred to as classical, namely Baroque
and Romantic music.
The term Viennese School was rst used by Austrian
musicologist Raphael Georg Kiesewetter in 1834, although he only counted Haydn and Mozart as members
of the school. Other writers followed suit, and eventually Beethoven was added to the list.[5] The designation
rst is added today to avoid confusion with the Second
1875 oil painting of Franz Schubert by Wilhelm August Rieder,

after his own 1825 watercolor portrait
Musical eras and their prevalent styles, forms and instruments seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old approach is simply felt as
14
old-fashioned. The Classical style did not die suddenly; rather, it gradually got phased out under the weight
of changes. To give just one example, while it is generally
stated that the Classical era stopped using the harpsichord
in orchestras, this did not happen all of a sudden at the
start of the Classical era in 1750. Rather, orchestras
slowly stopped using the harpsichord to play basso continuo until the practice was discontinued by the end of the
1700s.

Franz Schubert, Carl Maria von Weber, and John
Field are among the most prominent in this generation
of Classical Romantics, along with the young Felix
Mendelssohn. Their sense of form was strongly inuenced by the Classical style. While they were not yet
learned composers (imitating rules which were codied by others), they directly responded to works by
Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal
in orchestras were also quite Classical in number and
variety, permitting similarity with Classical works.
However, the forces destined to end the hold of the
Classical style gathered strength in the works of each
of the above composers, particularly Beethoven. The
most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation. Also
important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying guration:
Beethovens Moonlight Sonata was the model for hundreds of later pieceswhere the shifting movement of
a rhythmic gure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. Greater
knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the increasingly more powerful piano (which was given a bolder,
louder tone by technological developments such as the
use of steel strings, heavy cast-iron frames and sympathetically vibrating strings) all created a huge audience
for sophisticated music. All of these trends contributed
to the shift to the Romantic style.
Portrait of Mendelssohn by the English miniaturist James Warren

Childe (17781862), 1839
One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering on atward keys: shifts in the subdominant direction . In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through
the use of sharpward modulation (e.g., a piece in C major modulating to G major, D major, or A major, all of
which are keys with more sharps). As well, sections in
the minor mode were often used for contrast. Beginning
with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region (the ii or IV chord,
which in the key of C major would be the keys of d minor
or F major). With Schubert, subdominant modulations
ourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have conned themselves to dominant shifts (modulations to the dominant chord, e.g., in
the key of C major, modulating to G major). This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor
mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven
contributed to this by his increasing use of the fourth as
a consonance, and modal ambiguityfor example, the
opening of the D Minor Symphony.
Drawing the line between these two styles is very dicult:

some sections of Mozarts later works, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music
written 80 years laterand some composers continue to
write in normative Classical styles into the early 20th century. Even before Beethovens death, composers such as
Louis Spohr were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant chromaticism in their
works (e.g., using chromatic harmonies in a pieces chord
progression).
However, Viennas fall as the most important musical
center for orchestral composition marked the Classical
styles nal eclipseand the end of its continuous organic
development of one composer learning in close proximity
to others. Franz Liszt and Frdric Chopin visited Vienna
when they were young, but they then moved on to other
cities. Composers such as Carl Czerny, while deeply inuenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and
new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.
Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of
18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called Neoclassical style,
which numbered Stravinsky and Prokoev among its proponents, at least at certain times in their careers.
4.6. CLASSICAL PERIOD INSTRUMENTS
4.6 Classical period instruments
15
the piece, typically doubled by the double basses
[Note: When cellos and double basses read the same
bassline, the basses play an octave below the cellos,
because the bass is a transposing instrument]; and
at other times it performs melodies and solos in the
lower register)
Double bass (the bass typically performs the lowest
pitches in the string section in order to provide the
bassline for the piece)
In the Baroque era, the double bass players were not usually given a separate part; instead, they typically played
the same basso continuo bassline that the cellos and other
low-pitched instruments (e.g., theorbo, serpent wind instrument, viols), albeit an octave below the cellos, because the double bass is a transposing instrument that
sounds one octave lower than it is written. In the Classical era, some composers continued to write only one bass
part for their symphony, labeled bassi"; this bass part
was played by cellists and double bassists. Even though
the cellos and basses played from the same music, the
basses were one octave below the cellos. During the Classical era, some composers began to give the double basses
their own part which was dierent from the cello part.
4.6.2 Woodwinds
Basset clarinet
Fortepiano by Paul McNulty after Walter & Sohn, ca. 1805
See also: List of period instruments
Basset horn
Clarinette d'amour
Classical clarinet
4.6.1
Strings
In the Baroque era, there was more variety in the bowed

stringed instruments used in ensembles, with instruments
such as the viola d'amore and a range of fretted viols being
used, ranging from small viols to large bass viols. In the
Classical period, the string section of the orchestra was
standardized as just four instruments:
Chalumeau
Flute
Oboe
Bassoon
Violin (in orchestras and chamber music, typically 4.6.3 Keyboards

there are rst violins and second violins, with the
Clavichord
former playing the melody and/or a higher line and
the latter playing either a countermelody, a harmony
Fortepiano (the forerunner to the modern piano)
part, a part below the rst violin line in pitch, or an
accompaniment line)
Piano
Viola (the alto voice of the orchestral string section
Harpsichord, the standard Baroque era basso conand string quartet; it often performs inner voices,
tinuo keyboard instrument, was used until the
which are accompaniment lines which ll in the
1750s, after which time it was gradually phased out,
harmony of the piece)
and replaced with the fortepiano and then the piano.
Cello (the cello plays two roles in Classical era
By the early 1800s, the harpsichord was no longer
music; at times it is used to play the bassline of
used.
16
4.6.4
Brasses
Buccin
Ophicleide replacement for the "serpent", a bass
wind instrument that was the precursor of the tuba
French horn
Trumpet
Trombone
4.7 Role of women

Main article: Women in music Composers
Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on the classical period and whose works
are widely performed as part of the standard concert repertoire from the classical period are male composers, even though there had been a large number of
women composers throughout the classical music period.
The best-known and most-played composersMozart,
Haydn, Beethoven, Schubertare male, and even the lessdiscussed and less played composers, such as Gossec,
Cherubini and Hummel, are male. Scholar Marcia Citron has asked "[w]hy is music composed by women so
marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?" [6] Citron examines the practices and attitudes that have led
to the exclusion of women composers from the received
'canon' of performed musical works. She argues that in
the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs
for performance in small recitals rather than symphonies
intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall,
with the latter works being seen as the most important
genre for composers; since women composers did not
write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.[6] In the "...Concise Oxford History of
Music, Clara Schumann is one of the only female composers mentioned. [7]
4.8 See also
[4] Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton . & Company, 1970. Print.
[5] Heartz, Daniel & Bruce Alan Brown. Classical. In L.
Root, Deane. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[6] Citron, Marcia J. Gender and the Musical Canon. CUP
Archive, 1993.
[7] http://rvanews.com/features/
spacebomb-truth-lies-somewhere-in-between/49992
4.10 References
Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of
Music, 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4
4.11 Further reading

Rosen, Charles (1972 expanded 1997) - The Classical Style. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393-04020-3 (expanded edition with CD, 1997)
Downs, Philip G. (1992) - Classical Music: The Era
of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, 4th vol of Norton Introduction to Music History. W.W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 0-393-95191-X (hardcover).
Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004) - Stephen Frys
Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music.
Boxtree. ISBN 978-0-7522-2534-0
Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version
2009) - Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford
University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9
(Hardback), ISBN 978-0-19-538630-1 (Paperback)
Hanning, Barbara Russano; Grout, Donald Jay
(1998 rev. 2006)- Concise History of Western Music.
W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-92803-9
(hardcover).
Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) - A
History of Western Music, Fifth Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-96904-5 (hardcover).
List of Classical era composers
4.12 External links

4.9 Notes
Classical Net Classical Music Reference Site
[1] Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4
Directories of composers and performers of classical.music
[2] Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton . & Company, 1970. Print
NMA (Neue Mozart-Ausgabe) Online Mozarts

scores
[3] Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. 6th. New

York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008. Print.
Free scores by various classical composers at the

International Music Score Library Project
Chapter 5
History of sonata form

This article is about the history of form in the Baroque,
Classical, Romantic, and Modern eras. For a denition
of sonata form, see sonata form. For discussion of works
entitled or called sonata, see sonata.
Sonata form is one of the most inuential ideas in the
history of Western classical music. Since the establishment of the practice by composers like C.P.E. Bach,
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert and the codication of this practice into teaching and theory, the practice of writing works in sonata form has changed considerably.
5.2 Classical era (ca 1750 ca

1825)
The older Italian sonata form diers considerably from
the later sonata in the works of the Viennese Classical
masters.[1] Between the two main types, the older Italian
and the more modern Viennese sonata, various transitional types are manifest in the middle of the 18th century, in the works of the Mannheim composers, Johann
Stamitz, Franz Xaver Richter, C.P.E. Bach, and many
others.
The piano sonata had its inception with Johann Kuhnau, the predecessor of J.S. Bach as cantor of Saint
Thomas Church in Leipzig. Kuhnau was the rst to imitate the Italian violin sonata in clavier music. The clavier
sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti form a separate and distinct species, written mostly in one movement, in song
form, and in homophonic style. Scarlattis sonatas represent a transitional type between the older and the Viennese sonata. In Italy, a distinction was made in older times
between the sonata da chiesa (church sonata), written in
fugal style, and the sonata da camera (chamber sonata)
which was really a suite mixed with sonata elements, not
derived from the dance.
5.1 Late Baroque era (ca 1710 ca

1750)
Properly speaking, sonata form did not exist in the
Baroque period; however, the forms which led to the standard denition did. In fact, there is a greater variety of
harmonic patterns in Baroque works called sonatas than
in the Classical period. The sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti provide examples of the range of relationships of
theme and harmony possible in the 1730s and 1740s.
The crucial elements that led to the sonata form were the
weakening of the dierence between binary and ternary
form; the shift of texture away from full polyphony (many
voices in imitation) to homophony (a single dominant
voice and supporting harmony); and the increasing reliance on juxtaposing dierent keys and textures. As different key relationships took on a more and more specic
Sonatas were at rst written mainly for the violin. Over meaning, the schematics of works altered. Devices such
time, a formal type evolved, predominating until the late as the false reprise fell out of favor, while other patterns
18th century. This type reached its peak in the sonatas grew in importance.
of Bach, Handel, and Tartini, who followed older Ital- Quite probably the most inuential composer on the early
ian models and employed a type attributable to masters development of sonata form was C.P.E. Bach, a son of
such as Corelli and Vivaldi (Musical Form, Leichtentritt, J.S. Bach. Taking the harmonic and voice-leading techHugo, p. 122). By the 1730s and 1740s, the direction of niques that his father had developed, he applied them
instrumental works, often considered less important than to the homophonic style allowing dramatic shifts in
vocal music, tended towards an overall two-part layout: key and mood, while maintaining an overall coherence.
the binary form. But a section of contrasting material C.P.E. Bach was a decisive inuence on Joseph Haydn.
which served as a bridge between them also came to be One of C.P.E. Bachs most lasting innovations was the
included.
shortening of the theme to a motif, which could be shaped
17
18
more dramatically in pursuit of development. By 1765,
C.P.E. Bachs themes, rather than being long melodies,
had taken on the style of themes used in sonata form:
short, characteristic, and exible. By linking the changes
in the theme to the harmonic function of the section,
C.P.E. Bach laid the groundwork that composers such as
Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart would exploit.
The practice of the great Classical masters, specically
Haydn and Mozart, forms the basis for the description of
the sonata form. Their works served both as the model for
the form, and as the source for new works conceived in the
sonata form itself. Debates about sonata form therefore
reference the practice of Haydn and Mozart extensively.
Joseph Haydn is thought of as the Father of the
Symphony" and the Father of the String Quartet". He
can also be thought of as the father of the sonata form
as a means of structuring works. His string quartets and
symphonies in particular display not merely the range of
applications of the form, but also the way to exploit its
dramatic potential. It is predominantly Haydn who created the transition to the development and the transition
to the recapitulation, as moments of supreme tension and
dramatic interest. It is also Haydn who enabled a more
expansive contour for works, by making every aspect of
the harmony of a work implicit in its main theme. This
is no small innovation, in that it creates a homophonic
analog to the polyphonic fugue a seed of potential from
which the composer could later germinate a range of different eects. Haydns variety of dramatic eects and
ability to create tension was remarked upon in his own
time: his music was increasingly taken as the standard by
which other practice might be judged.
Haydns set of string quartets, Op. 33 gives the rst examples of coordinated use of the resources of sonata form in
characteristic fashion. The composer himself listed them
as being written on completely new principles and marking the turning point in his technique.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart applied the large-scale ideas
of Haydn to opera and the piano concerto. Mozarts uidity with the creation of themes, and the dense network
of motives and their parts give his work a surface polish
which was remarked upon even by his professional rivals.
Mozart favored sonata form and the sonata cycle. Most
of his compositions were in sonata cycle. He explored
every genre of his day and perfected them all. By the end
of his short life, Mozart had absorbed Haydns technique
and applied it to his own more elongated sense of theme,
for example in the Prague Symphony.
CHAPTER 5. HISTORY OF SONATA FORM

a particular practice. While he was grounded in the uid
phrase structures and wider variety of possible schematic
layouts that came from Haydn and Mozart, his deepest innovation was to work from both ends of a sonata
form, conceiving of the entire structure, and then polishing themes which would support that overarching design. He continued to expand the length and weight of the
sonata forms used by Haydn and Mozart, as well as frequently using motives and harmonic models drawn from
the two older composers. He shares both the Classical
and Romantic eras. Because of his use of increasingly
characteristic rhythms and disruptive devices, he is seen
as a transitional gure between the Classical and Romantic periods.
In the Romantic era, sonata form was rst explicitly dened and became institutionalized. Academic scholars
like Adolph Bernhard Marx wrote descriptions of the
form, often with a normative goal; that is, a goal of stating
how works in sonata form should be composed. While
the rst-movement form had been the subject of theoretical works, it was seen as the pinnacle of musical technique. Part of the training of 19th-century composers
was to write in sonata form and to favor sonata form in
the rst movement of multi-movement compositions, like
symphonies, piano concertos, and string quartets.
The 19th centurys procedure for writing sonatas diverged
from earlier Classical practice, in that it focused more
on themes than on the placement of cadences. The
monothematic exposition (a common characteristic of
Haydns sonata-form movements) largely disappeared,
and the themes of the rst and second groups were expected to contrast in character. More generally, the formal outline of a sonata came to be viewed more in terms
of its themes or groups of themes, rather than the sharp
dierentiation of tonal areas based on cadences. In the
Classical period, establishing the expectation of a particular cadence and then delaying or avoiding it was a common way of creating tension. In the 19th century, with its
dramatically expanded harmonic vocabulary, avoidance
of a cadence did not have the same degree of unexpectedness. Instead, more distant key regions were established
by a variety of other means, including use of increasingly
dissonant chords, pedal points, texture, and alteration of
the main theme itself.
In the Classical period, the contrast between theme

groups, while useful, was not required. The rst theme
group tended to outline the tonic chord, and the second
theme tended to be more cantabile in character. But
this was far from universal as Haydns monothematic
expositions and Beethovens early rhythmic themes show.
Because the power of harmonic opposition, both between
5.3 Romantic era (ca 1825 ca tonic and dominant and between major and minor, had
less force in the Romantic vocabulary, stereotypes of
1910)
the character of themes became stronger. Nineteenthcentury theorists described the sonata principle as one
Ludwig van Beethoven was the composer who most di- of opposition between two groups of themes. Thus, it
rectly inspired the theorists who codied sonata form as was thought that the rst theme should be masculine
5.4. MODERN ERA

strident, rhythmic, and implying a dissonance and the
second theme group should be drawn more from vocal
melody making it feminine. It is this contrast between
rhythmic and singing that Wagner, in his very inuential work On Conducting, argued was at the very core
of tension in music . This led to the belief among many
interpreters and composers that texture was the most important contrast and that tempo should be used to emphasize this contrast. Thus, fast sections were conducted
faster and slower sections were conducted or played more
slowly.
By requiring that harmony move with the themes, 19thcentury sonata form imposed a kind of discipline on composers and also allowed audiences to comprehend the music by following the appearance of recognizable melodies.
However, the sonata form, as an inherited formal mold,
also created a tension for Romantic composers between
the desire to combine poetical expression and academic
rigor.
Later Romantic commentators and theorists detected a
sonata idea of increasing formalization. They drew a
progression of works from Haydn, through Mozart and
Beethoven, whereby more and more movements in a
multi-movement work were felt to be in sonata form.
These theorists present the theory that originally only rst
movements were in that form, then later last movements
as well (for example Mozarts Prague Symphony), and
eventually the sonata principle came to extend through
an entire work. For example Beethovens String Quartet Op. 59 No. 2 was said to have all four movements
in sonata form. By this, theorists such as Donald Tovey
meant the academically laid-out sonata form. Charles
Rosen has argued that, properly understood, this was always the case: that real sonata forms (plural) were always
present, though this is not universally agreed on.
As the 19th century progressed, the complexity of sonata
form grew, as new ways of moving through the harmony
of a work were introduced by Johannes Brahms and Franz
Liszt. Instead of focusing exclusively on keys closely related in the circle of fths, they used movement along
circles based on minor or major triads. Following the
trend established by Beethoven, the focus moved more
and more to the development section. This was in line
with the Romantic comparison of music to poetry. Poetic terms, such as "rhapsody" and "tone poem", entered
music, and increasingly musicians felt that they should not
take the repeats in symphonies because there was no dramatic or lyrical point to doing so. This changed their interpretation of previous sonata forms.
The Romantic sonata form was an especially congenial
mold for Brahms, who felt a strong anity with the composers of the Classical era. Brahms adopted and extended Beethovens practice of modulating to more remote keys in the exposition, combining this with the use
of counterpoint in the inner voices. For example, his
piano quintet has the rst subject in F minor, but the
19
second subject is in C sharp minor, an augmented fth
higher. In the same work, the key scheme of the recapitulation is also altered the second subject in the recapitulation is in F sharp minor, rather than the F minor of the
rst subject.
Another force acting on sonata form was the school of
composers centering on Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner. They sought to integrate more roving harmonies
and unprepared chords into the musical structure in order to attain both formal coherence and a full, expressive range of keys. Increasingly, themes began to have
notes which were far from the original key, a procedure
later labeled "extended tonality". This trend strongly inuenced the next generation of composers, for instance
Gustav Mahler. The rst movements of several of his
symphonies are described as being in sonata form, although they diverge from the standard scheme quite dramatically. Some have even argued that the entirety of his
rst symphony (in which material from the rst movement returns in the fourth movement) is meant to be one
massive sonata-allegro form.
As the result of these innovations, works became more
sectional. Composers such as Liszt and Anton Bruckner
even began to include explicit pauses in works between
sections. The length of sonata movements grew starting
in the 1830s. Franz Lachner 's Prize Symphony, a work
seldom played today, had a rst movement longer than
any symphonic rst movement by Beethoven. The length
of whole works also increased correspondingly. Tone poems, which were often in sonata form, greatly extended
their length in comparison to traditional overtures. For
instance, Berlioz's Waverley Overture is as long as some
middle-period Haydn symphonies.
One debate in the 19th century was over whether it was
acceptable to use the layout of a poem or other literary work to structure a work of instrumental music.
The compositional school focused around Liszt and Wagner (the so-called New German School) argued in favor of literary inspiration (see Program music), while another camp, centered on Schumann, Brahms, and Eduard
Hanslick argued that pure music should follow the forms
laid out by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. This conict
was eventually internalized, and by 1900, though the debate still raged, composers such as Richard Strauss would
freely combine programmatic and symphonic structure,
such as in the work Ein Heldenleben.
5.4 Modern era

In the Modern period, sonata form became detached from
its traditional harmonic basis. The works of Schoenberg,
Debussy, Sibelius and Richard Strauss emphasized dierent scales other than the traditional major-minor scale and
used chords that did not clearly establish tonality. It could
be argued that by the 1930s, sonata form was merely
20
a rhetorical term for any movement that stated themes,
took them apart, and put them back together again. However, even composers of atonal music, such as Roger Sessions and Karl Hartmann, continued to use outlines that
clearly pointed back to the practice of Beethoven and
Haydn, even if the method and style were quite dierent.
At the same time, composers such as Sergei Prokoev,
Benjamin Britten, and Dmitri Shostakovich revived the
idea of a sonata form by more complex and extended use
of tonality.
In more recent times, Minimalism has searched for new
ways to develop form, and new outlines which, again,
while not being based on the same harmonic plan as the
Classical sonata, are clearly related to it. An example
is Aaron Jay Kernis's Symphony in Waves from the early
1990s.
5.5 References
[1] Leichtentritt, Hugo (1951). Musical form. Harvard University Press. p. 122.
5.6 Notes
CHAPTER 5. HISTORY OF SONATA FORM
Chapter 6
Symphony
This article is about a type of extended musical compo- 6.1 Origins
sition. For the large ensemble that plays these compositions, see orchestra.
For other uses, see Symphony (disambiguation).
The word symphony is derived from the Greek word A symphony is an extended musical composition in (symphonia), meaning agreement or concord of
sound, concert of vocal or instrumental music, from
(symphnos), harmonious.[1] The word referred to an astonishing variety of dierent things, before
ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a
musical form.
In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for
consonance, as opposed to (diaphnia), which
was the word for dissonance.[2] In the Middle Ages and
later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing
more than one sound simultaneously.[2] Isidore of Seville
was the rst to use the word symphonia as the name
of a two-headed drum, and from c. 1155 to 1377 the
French form symphonie was the name of the organistrum
or hurdy-gurdy. In late medieval England, symphony was
used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century
it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie
was a generic term for spinets and virginals from the late
Symphonies are extended compositions written for orchestra. Pic[3]
tured here is a performance of the 8th Symphony of Gustav 16th century to the 18th century.
Mahler in the Klner Philharmonie. The orchestra is the Wup- In the sense of sounding together, the word begins
pertaler Sinfonieorchester, conducted by Heinz-Walter Florin.
to appear in the titles of some works by 16th- and
17th-century composers including Giovanni Gabrieli's
Sacrae symphoniae, and Symphoniae sacrae, liber secundus, published in 1597 and 1615, respectively; Adriano
Eclesiastiche sinfonie, dette canzoni in aria
Banchieri's
Western classical music, most often written by composers
francese,
per
sonare, et cantare, op. 16, published in
for orchestra. Although the term has had many meanings
Lodovico
Grossi da Viadana's Sinfonie musicali,
1607;
from its origins in the ancient Greek era, by the late 18th
op.
18,
published
in 1610; and Heinrich Schtz's Symcentury the word had taken on the meaning common tophoniae
sacrae,
op.
6, and Symphoniarum sacrarum seday: a work usually consisting of multiple distinct seccunda
pars,
op.
10,
published
in 1629 and 1647, respections or movements, often four, with the rst movement
tively.
Except
for
Viadanas
collection,
which contained
in sonata form. Symphonies are scored for string (violin,
purely
instrumental
and
secular
music,
these
were all colviola, cello and double bass), brass, woodwind, and
lections
of
sacred
vocal
works,
some
with
instrumental
percussion instruments which altogether number about
[4][5]
30100 musicians. Symphonies are notated in a musical accompaniment.
score, which contains all the instrument parts. Orchestral musicians play from parts which contain just the notated music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts (e.g., Beethoven's Ninth
Symphony).
In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the

terms symphony and sinfonia were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used
in operas, sonatas and concertosusually part of a larger
work. The opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the
21
22
18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting
movements: fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form
that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the
orchestral symphony. The terms overture, symphony
and sinfonia were widely regarded as interchangeable
for much of the 18th century.[5]
In the 17th century, pieces scored for large instrumental
ensemble did not precisely designate which instruments
were to play which parts, as is the practice from the 19th
century to the current period. When composers from the
17th century wrote pieces, they expected that these works
would be performed by whatever group of musicians were
available. To give one example, whereas the bassline in
a 19th-century work is scored for cellos, double basses
and other specic instruments, in a 17th-century work, a
basso continuo part for a sinfonia would not specify which
instruments would play the part. A performance of the
piece might be done with a basso continuo group as small
as a single cello and harpsichord. However, if a bigger
budget was available for a performance and a larger sound
was required, a basso continue group might include multiple chord-playing instruments (harpsichord, lute, etc.)
and a range of bass instruments, including cello, double
bass, bass viol or even a serpent, an early bass woodwind
instrument.
6.2 18th century

During the 18th century, the symphony was cultivated
with extraordinary intensity.[6] It played a role in many
areas of public life, including church services,[7] but a
particularly strong area of support for symphonic performances was the aristocracy. In Vienna, perhaps the most
important location in Europe for the composition of symphonies, literally hundreds of noble families supported
musical establishments, generally dividing their time between Vienna and their ancestral estate [elsewhere in the
Empire]". [8] Since the normal size of the orchestra at
the time was quite small, many of these courtly establishments were capable of performing symphonies. The
young Joseph Haydn, taking up his rst job as a music director in 1757 for the Morzin family, found that when the
Morzin household was in Vienna, his own orchestra was
only part of a lively and competitive musical scene, with
multiple aristocrats sponsoring concerts with their own
ensembles (Carpani 1823, 66, cited in Gotwals 1968).[9]
LaRue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson[10] trace the gradual
expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th
century. At rst, symphonies were string symphonies,
written in just four parts: rst violin, second violin, viola, and bass (the bass line was taken by cello(s), double bass(es) playing the part an octave below, and perhaps also a bassoon). Occasionally the early symphonists
even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating threepart symphonies. A basso continuo part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instru-
CHAPTER 6. SYMPHONY
ment was also possible.[10]
The rst additions to this simple ensemble were a pair
of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both
horns and oboes together. Over the century, other instruments were added to the classical orchestra: utes
(sometimes replacing the oboes), separate parts for bassoons, clarinets, and trumpets and timpani. Works varied
in their scoring concerning which of these additional instruments were to appear. The full-scale classical orchestra, deployed at the end of the century for the largest-scale
symphonies, has the standard string ensemble mentioned
above, pairs of winds (utes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons),
a pair of horns, and timpani. A keyboard continuo instrument (harpsichord or piano) remained an option.
The Italian style of symphony, often used as overture and entr'acte in opera houses, became a standard
three-movement form: a fast movement, a slow movement, and another fast movement. Over the course of
the 18th century it became the custom to write fourmovement symphonies,[11] along the lines described in
the next paragraph. The three-movement symphony died
out slowly; about half of Haydn's rst thirty symphonies
are in three movements;[12] and for the young Mozart, the
three-movement symphony was the norm, perhaps under
the inuence of his friend Johann Christian Bach.[13] An
outstanding late example of the three-movement Classical symphony is Mozarts Prague Symphony, from
1787.
The four-movement form that emerged from this evolution was as follows:[14][15]
1. an opening sonata or allegro
2. a slow movement, such as adagio
3. a minuet or scherzo with trio
4. an allegro, rondo, or sonata
Variations on this layout, like changing the order of the
middle movements or adding a slow introduction to the
rst movement, were common. Haydn, Mozart and their
contemporaries restricted their use of the four-movement
form to orchestral or multi-instrument chamber music
such as quartets, though since Beethoven solo sonatas are
as often written in four as in three movements.[16]
The composition of early symphonies was centred on Milan, Vienna, and Mannheim. The Milanese school centred around Giovanni Battista Sammartini and included
Antonio Brioschi, Ferdinando Galimberti and Giovanni
Battista Lampugnani. Early exponents of the form in
Vienna included Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Wenzel
Raimund Birck and Georg Matthias Monn, while later
signicant Viennese composers of symphonies included
Johann Baptist Wanhal, Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf and
Leopold Homann. The Mannheim school included
Johann Stamitz.[17]
6.4. 20TH CENTURY

The most important symphonists of the latter part of the
18th century are Haydn, who wrote at least 107 symphonies over the course of 36 years,[18] and Mozart, with
at least 47 symphonies in 24 years. [19]
6.3 19th century

At the beginning of the 19th century, Beethoven elevated the symphony from an everyday genre produced in
large quantities to a supreme form in which composers
strove to reach the highest potential of music in just a
few works.[20] Beethoven began with two works directly
emulating his models Mozart and Haydn, then seven more
symphonies, starting with the Third Symphony (Eroica)
that expanded the scope and ambition of the genre. His
Symphony No. 5 is perhaps the most famous symphony
ever written; its transition from the emotionally stormy
C minor opening movement to a triumphant major-key
nale provided a model adopted by later symphonists
such as Brahms[21] and Mahler. His Symphony No. 6 is
a programmatic work, featuring instrumental imitations
of bird calls and a storm; and, unconventionally, a fth
movement (symphonies usually had at most four movements). His Symphony No. 9 includes parts for vocal
soloists and choir in the last movement, making it a choral
symphony.[22]
23
and 1880s, with the symphonies of Anton Bruckner,
Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Camille
Saint-Sans, Alexander Borodin, Antonn Dvok, and
Csar Franckworks which continued to dominate the
concert repertory for at least a century.[20]
Over the course of the 19th century, composers continued to add to the size of the symphonic orchestra.
Around the beginning of the century, a full-scale orchestra would consist of the string section plus pairs of
utes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and
lastly a set of timpani.[25] This is, for instance, the scoring used in Beethovens symphonies numbered 1, 2, 4,
7, and 8. Trombones, which had previously been conned to church and theater music, came to be added to
the symphonic orchestra, notably in Beethovens 5th, 6th,
and 9th symphonies. The combination of bass drum,
triangle, and cymbals (sometimes also: piccolo), which
18th century composers employed as a coloristic eect in
so-called "Turkish music", came to be increasingly used
during the second half of the 19th century without any
such connotations of genre.[25] By the time of Mahler (see
below), it was possible for a composer to write a symphony scored for a veritable compendium of orchestral
instruments.[25] In addition to increasing in variety of instruments, 19th century symphonies were gradually augmented with more string players and more wind parts, so
that the orchestra grew substantially in sheer numbers, as
concert halls likewise grew.[25]
Of the symphonies of Franz Schubert, two are core repertory items and are frequently performed. Of the Eighth
Symphony (1822), Schubert completed only the rst two
movements; this highly Romantic work is usually called 6.4 20th century
by its nickname The Unnished. His last completed
symphony, the Ninth (1826) is a massive work in the At the beginning of the 20th century, Gustav Mahler
Classical idiom.[23]
wrote long, large-scale symphonies. His Eighth Symphony, for example, was composed in 1906 and is nickOf the early Romantics, Felix Mendelssohn (ve symphonies) and Robert Schumann (four) continued to write named the Symphony of a Thousand because of the
symphonies in the classical mold, though using their own large number of voices required to perform the choral
musical language. In contrast, Hector Berlioz favored sections. Additionally, his Third Symphony is one of
programmatic works, including his dramatic symphony the longest regularly performed symphonies at around
Romo et Juliette and the highly original Symphonie fan- 100 minutes in length for most performances. The
tastique. The latter is also a programme work and has 20th century also saw further diversication in the style
both a march and a waltz and ve movements instead and content of works that composers labeled symphonies
of the customary four. His fourth and last symphony, (Anon. 2008). Some composers, including Dmitri
the Grande symphonie funbre et triomphale (originally Shostakovich, Sergei Rachmanino, and Carl Nielsen,
titled Symphonie militaire) was composed in 1840 for continued to write in the traditional four-movement form,
a 200-piece marching military band, to be performed while other composers took dierent approaches: Jean
out of doors, and is an early example of a band sym- Sibelius' Symphony No. 7, his last, is in one movement,
phony. Berlioz later added optional string parts and a whereas Alan Hovhaness's Symphony No. 9, Saint Varto op. 180composed
choral nale.[24] In 1851, Richard Wagner declared that tanoriginally op. 80, changed
[26]
in
194950,
is
in
twenty-four.
all of these post-Beethoven symphonies were no more
than an epilogue, oering nothing substantially new.
Indeed, after Schumanns last symphony, the Rhenish composed in 1850, for two decades the Lisztian
symphonic poem appeared to have displaced the symphony as the leading form of large-scale instrumental
music. If the symphony had been eclipsed, it was not
long before it re-emerged in a second age in the 1870s
A concern with unication of the traditional fourmovement symphony into a single, subsuming formal
conception had emerged in the late 19th century. This
has been called a two-dimensional symphonic form,
and nds its key turning point in Arnold Schoenberg's
Chamber Symphony No. 1, Op. 9 (1909), which was
followed in the 1920s by other notable single-movement
24
CHAPTER 6. SYMPHONY
German symphonies, including Kurt Weills First Sym- version of the full name; for instance, the OED gives
phony (1921), Max Buttings Chamber Symphony, Op. Vancouver Symphony as a possible abbreviated form
25 (1923), and Paul Dessau's 1926 Symphony.[27]
of Vancouver Symphony Orchestra.[30] As well, in comThere remained, however, certain tendencies. Designat- mon usage, a person may say they are going out to hear a
ing a work a symphony still implied a degree of sophis- symphony perform, a reference to the orchestra and not
tication and seriousness of purpose. The word sinfonietta the works on the program.
came into use to designate a work that is shorter, of
more modest aims, or lighter than a symphony, such
as Sergei Prokoev's Sinfonietta for orchestra (Kennedy
2006a).[28]
In the rst half of the century, Edward Elgar, Gustav Mahler, Jean Sibelius, Carl Nielsen, Igor Stravinsky, Bohuslav Martin, Roger Sessions, and Dmitri
Shostakovich composed symphonies extraordinary in
scope, richness, originality, and urgency of expression
(Steinberg 1995, 404). One measure of the significance of a symphony is the degree to which it reects conceptions of temporal form particular to the age
in which it was created. Five composers from across
the span of the 20th century who fulll this measure
are Sibelius, Stravinsky, Luciano Berio (in his Sinfonia,
196869), Elliott Carter (in his Symphony of Three Orchestras, 1976), and Pelle Gudmundsen-Holmgreen (in
Symphony/Antiphony, 1980).[29]
Beginning in the 20th century, more symphonies have
been written for concert band than in past centuries. Although examples exist from as early as 1932, the rst
such symphony of importance since Hector Berlioz wrote
the Grande symphonie funbre et triomphale in 1840 is
Nikolai Miaskovskys Symphony No. 19, Op. 46, composed in 1939 (Battisti 2002, 42). Some further examples
are Paul Hindemith's Symphony in B-at for Band, composed in 1951; Morton Gould's Symphony No. 4 West
Point, composed in 1952; Vincent Persichetti's Symphony No. 6, Op. 69, composed in 1956; Vittorio Giannini's Symphony No.3, composed in 1959; Alan Hovhanesss Symphonies No. 4, op. 165, No. 7, Nanga
Parvat, op. 175, No. 14, Ararat, op. 194, and No.
23, Ani, op. 249, composed in 1958, 1959, 1961, and
1972 respectively; Alfred Reed's 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th
symphonies, composed in 1979, 1988, 1992, and 1994
respectively; and Johan de Meij's Symphony No. 1 The
Lord of the Rings, composed in 1988, and his Symphony
No. 2 The Big Apple, composed in 1993.
6.6 See also

Choral symphony
Organ symphony
Piano symphony
Pocket symphony
Symphonies for concert band
6.7 References
[1] Symphony, Oxford English Dictionary (online version
ed.), (subscription required (help))
[2] Brown, Howard Mayer (2001), Symphonia, in Stanley
Sadie and John Tyrrell, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Second ed.), London: Macmillan Publishers
[3] Marcuse, Sybil (1975). Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary (Revised ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 501. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.
[4] Bowman, Carl Byron (1971). The Ecclesiastiche Sinfonie
(Opus 16) of Adriano Banchieri (15681634) (Ph.D. diss.
ed.). New York: New York University. p. 7. OCLC
605998103.
[5] LaRue, Jan; Bonds, Mark Evan; Walsh, Stephen; Wilson,
Charles (2001), Symphony, in Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Second ed.), London: Macmillan Publishers
[6] LaRue (2001), I.2, citing two scholarly catalogs listing
over 13,000 distinct works: LaRue 1959 and 1988.
[7] LaRue (2001), I.2.
6.5 Other modern usages of symphony
[8] LaRue (2001), I.10.

[9] Carpani, Giuseppe (1823). Le Haydine, ovvero Lettere su
la vita e le opere del celebre maestro Giuseppe Haydn (Second ed.). p. 66.
The word symphony is also used to refer to the

orchestra, the large ensemble that often performs these
[10] LaRue (2001), I.4.
works. The word symphony appears in the name of
many orchestras, for example, the Boston Symphony Or- [11] Hepokoski, James; Darcy, Warren (2006). Elements of
chestra, the St. Louis Symphony, the Houston SymSonata Theory : Norms, Types, and Deformations in the
phony, or Miamis New World Symphony. For some
Late-Eighteenth-Century Sonata. Oxford University Press.
orchestras, "(city name) Symphony provides a shorter
p. 320. ISBN 0198033451.
6.8. SOURCES
[12] Count taken from Graham Parkes, The symphonic structure of Also sprach Zarathustra: a preliminary outline, in
Luchte, James (2011). Nietzsches Thus Spoke Zarathustra: Before Sunrise. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN
1441118454.. Excerpts on line at .
25
[24] Macdonald, Hugh (2001), Berlioz, Hector, in Stanley

Sadie and John Tyrrell, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Second ed.), London: Macmillan Publishers, pp. 3: 183142
[25] LaRue (2001), II.1.
[13] The conjecture about the child Mozarts three-movement

preference is made by Grtner, who notes that Mozarts father Leopold and other older composers already preferred
four. See Grtner, Heinz (1994). John Christian Bach:
Mozarts Friend and Mentor. Hal Leonard Corporation.
ISBN 0931340799. Excepts on line at .
[26] Tawa, Nicholas E. (2001). From Psalm to Symphony: A

History of Music in New England. Boston: Northeastern
University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-55553-491-2.
[14] Jackson, Timothy L. (1999). Tchaikovsky, Symphony

no. 6 (Pathtique)". Cambridge Music Handbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-52164111-X.
[27] Vande Moortele, Steven (2013), Two-dimensional' Symphonic Forms: Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony, Before
and After, in Julian Horton, The Cambridge Companion
to the Symphony, Cambridge Companions to Music, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.
269, 284n9, ISBN 9781107469709
[15] Stein, Leon (1979). Structure & Style: The Study and
Analysis of Musical Forms (expanded ed.). Princeton,
N.J.: Summy-Birchard Music. p. 106. ISBN 0-87487164-6.
[28] Temperley, Nicholas (2001), Sinfonietta, in Stanley

[16] Prout, Ebenezer (1895). Applied Forms: A Sequel to 'Musical Form' (third Augeners Edition, no. 9183. London:
Augener. Facsimile reprint, ed.). New York: AMS Press,
1971. p. 249. ISBN 0-404-05138-3.
[17] Anonymous, Mannheim School, Encyclopedia Britannica
[18] Webster, James; Feder, Georg (2001), Haydn, (Franz)
Joseph, in Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Second ed.), London:
Macmillan Publishers
[19] Eisen, Cli; Sadie, Stanley (2001), Mozart (3): (Johann
Chrysostum) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, in Stanley
[20] Dahlhaus, Carl (1989). Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by Robinson, J. Bradford. Berkeley: University of
California Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.
OCLC 17951591.
[21] Libbey, Theodore (1999). The NPR Guide to Building a
Classical CD Collection (Second ed.). New York: Workman Publishing. p. 40. ISBN 978-0761104872.
[22] Beethovens Ninth is not the rst choral symphony, though
it is surely the most celebrated one. Beethoven was anticipated by Peter von Winters Schlacht-Sinfonie (Battle Symphony), which includes a concluding chorus and
was written in 1814, ten years before Beethovens Ninth.
Source: Jan LaRue et al. (n.d.) Symphony, in the New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (online edition).
[23] Rosen, Charles (1997). The Classical Style: Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven (expanded ed.). London: Faber and
Faber. p. 521. ISBN 9780571192878. OCLC
38185106.
[29] Grimley, Daniel M (2013), Symphony/Antiphony: Formal Strategies in the Twentieth-Century Symphony, in
Julian Horton, The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony, Cambridge Companions to Music., Cambridge
and New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 287,
ISBN 0521884985, OCLC 795504217
[30] OED (), denition 5d:ellipt. for symphony orchestra.
(1926) P. Whiteman & M. M. McBride Jazz xiv. 287
The unknown composer has to pay to get his compositions
played by a good symphony.
6.8 Sources
Anon. n.d. "Mannheim School". Encyclopedia Britannica (accessed 27 January 2015).
Anon. 2008. "Symphony. The Oxford Dictionary
of Music, second edition, revised, edited by Michael
Kennedy, associate editor Joyce Bourne. Oxford
Music Online (Accessed 24 July 2008) (subscription
required).
Battisti, Frank L. 2002. The Winds of Change:
The Evolution of the Contemporary American Wind Band/Ensemble and Its Conductor.
Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications.
ISBN 9780634045226.
Berlioz, Hector. 1857. Romo et Juliette: Sinfonie
dramatique: avec choeurs, solos de chant et prologue
en rcitatif choral, op. 17. Partition de piano par Th.
Ritter. Winterthur: J. Rieter-Biedermann.
Berlioz, Hector. 2002. Berliozs Orchestration Treatise: A Translation and Commentary, translated by
Hugh Macdonald. Cambridge University Press,
2002. ISBN 0-521-23953-2.
26
Bowman, Carl Byron. 1971. The Ecclesiastiche
Sinfonie (Opus 16) of Adriano Banchieri (1568
1634)". Ph.D. diss. New York: New York University.
Brown, Howard Mayer. 2001. Symphonia. The
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. Nineteenth-Century Music, translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley,
Los Angeles, and London: University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.
Eisen, Cli, and Stanley Sadie. 2001. Mozart (3):
(Johann Chrysostum) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Grimley, Daniel M. 2013. Symphony/Antiphony:
Formal Strategies in the Twentieth-Century Symphony. In The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony, edited by Julian Horton, 285310. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and
New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
9781107469709.
Hansen, Richard K. 2005. The American Wind
Band: A Cultural History. Chicago, Ill: GIA Publications. ISBN 1-57999-467-9.
Hopkins, Antony. 1981. The Nine Symphonies of
Beethoven. London: Heinemann.
Horton, Julian (ed.). 2013. The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony. Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52188498-3.
Jackson, Timothy L. 1999. Tchaikovsky, Symphony
no. 6 (Pathtique). Cambridge Music Handbooks.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-64111-X (cloth); ISBN 0-52164676-6 (pbk).
Kennedy, Michael. 2006a. Sinfonietta. The Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, revised,
Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press.
CHAPTER 6. SYMPHONY
LaRue, Jan. 1988. A Catalogue of 18th-Century
Symphonies, i: Thematic Identier. Bloomington,
IN.
LaRue, Jan, Mark Evan Bonds, Stephen Walsh, and
Charles Wilson. 2001. Symphony. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.
London: Macmillan Publishers.
Libbey, Theodore. 1999. The NPR Guide to Building a Classical CD Collection, second edition. Workman Publishing. New York: Workman Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0761104872
Macdonald, Hugh. 2001b. Berlioz, Hector.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Marcuse, Sybil. 1975. Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. Revised edition. The Norton
Library. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-39300758-8.
Prout, Ebenezer. 1895. Applied Forms: A Sequel to
'Musical Form', third edition. Augeners Edition, no.
9183. London: Augener. Facsimile reprint, New
York: AMS Press, 1971. ISBN 0-404-05138-3.
Randel, Don Michael. 2003. The Harvard Dictionary of Music, fourth edition. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674011632.
Rosen, Charles. 1997. The Classical Style:
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, expanded edition. London: Faber and Faber; New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780571192878 (Faber and Faber,
cloth); ISBN 9780571228126 (Faber and Faber,
pbk); ISBN 9780393040203 (Norton, cloth); ISBN
9780393317121 (Norton, pbk).
Stainer, John, and Francis W Galpin. 1914. "Wind
Instruments - Sumponyah; Sampunia; Sumphonia;
Symphonia". In The Music of the Bible, with Some
Account of the Development of Modern Musical Instruments from Ancient Types, new edition. London:
Novello and Co.; New York: H.W. Gray Co.
Stein, Leon. 1979. Structure & Style: The Study
and Analysis of Musical Forms, expanded edition.
Princeton, N.J.: Summy-Birchard Music. ISBN 087487-164-6.
Kennedy, Michael. 2006b. Symphony. The Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, revised,
Joyce Bourne, associate editor. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press.
Steinberg, Michael. 1995. The Symphony: A Listeners Guide. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506177-2 (cloth);
ISBN 978-0-19-512665-5 (pbk) (accessed 27 January 2015).
LaRue, Jan. 1959. A Union Thematic Catalogue

of 18th Century Symphonies. Fontes Artis Musicae
6:1820.
Tawa, Nicholas E. From Psalm to Symphony: A History of Music in New England. Boston: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-491-2.
6.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

Temperley, Nicholas. 2001. Sinfonietta. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.
London: Macmillan Publishers.
Thomson, Andrew. 2001. Widor, Charles-Marie(Jean-Albert)", 2. Works. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition,
edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London:
Macmillan Publishers.
Vande Moortele, Steven. 2013. "'Two-dimensional'
Symphonic Forms: Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony, Before and After. In The Cambridge Companion to the Symphony, edited by Julian Horton,
26884. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 9781107469709.
Webster, James, and Georg Feder. 2001. Haydn,
(Franz) Joseph. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley
Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
6.9 Further reading

Ritzarev, Marina. 2014. Tchaikovskys Pathtique
and Russian Culture. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington,
VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4724-2411-2.
6.10 External links

"Symphony". Encyclopdia Britannica. 26 (11th
ed.). 1911. pp. 290291.
Gann, Kyle. A Chronology of the Symphony 17302005. Archived from the original on 2015-0804. A list of selected major symphonies composed
1800-2005, with composers of 18th, 19th, 20th and
21st century symphonies
The Symphony - Interactive Guide
List of symphonists, mostly active after 1800,
compiled by Thanh-Tm L: A to D. E to J.
K to O. P to Z.
27
Chapter 7
Musical development
combined in a new way. Similarly, two or more
themes can be developed in combination; in some
cases, themes are composed with this possibility in
mind.
Alteration of pitch intervals while retaining the original rhythm.
Rhythmic displacement, so that the metrical stress
occurs at a dierent point in the otherwise unchanged theme.
Development in Haydns sonata in G major, Hob. XVI: G1, I,
mm. 29-53 Play .[1]
Sequence, either diatonically within a key or through

a succession of keys.
In classical music, musical development is a process

by which a musical idea is communicated in the course
of a composition. It refers to the transformation and
restatement of initial material. Development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly dierent
means to the same end. Development is carried out upon
portions of material treated in many dierent presentations and combinations at a time, while variation depends
upon one type of presentation at a time.[2]
The Scherzo movement from Beethovens Piano Sonata

No. 15 in D major, Op 28 (the Pastoral Sonata) shows
a number of these processes at work on a small scale.
Charles Rosen (2002) marvels at the simplicity of the musical material: The opening theme consists of nothing
but four F sharps in descending octaves, followed by a
light and simple I/ii/V7/I cadence with a quirky motif repeated four times. [4] These opening eight bars provide
In this process, certain central ideas are repeated in dif- all the material Beethoven needs to furnish his developferent contexts or in altered form so that the mind of the ment, which takes place in bars 33-48:
listener consciously or unconsciously compares the various incarnations of these ideas. Listeners may apprehend
a tension between expected and real results (see irony),
which is one element of surprise in music. This prac- 7.1 The division of a theme into
tice has its roots in counterpoint, where a theme or subject
parts
might create an impression of a pleasing or aective sort,
but delight the mind further as its contrapuntal capabilities are gradually unveiled.
The falling octave in the rst two bars and the repeated
In sonata form, the middle section (between the staccato chord in the left hand in bars 5-8 are the two
exposition and the recapitulation) is called the develop- fragments that Beethoven later develops:
ment. Typically, in this section, material from the exposition section is developed. In some older texts, this
section may be referred to as free fantasia.
According to the Oxford Companion to Music[3] there are

several ways of developing a theme. These include:
7.2 Alteration of pitch intervals
The somewhat bald falling octave idea in the rst four bars
The division of a theme into parts, each of which is transformed in bars 33-36 into an elegant shape ending
can be developed in any of the above ways or re- with an upward-curving semitone:
28
7.5. SEE ALSO
29
Beethoven, Scherzo from Sonata No 15, development section.

Link to passage
The following outline demonstrates Beethovens strategic

planning, which he applied on a larger scale in the development sections of some of his major works. The
bass line traces a decisive progression through a rising
chromatic scale:
Harmonic outline of Bars 33-49

Beethoven Pastoral Sonata Op. 28 Scherzo. Listen.
Beethoven Scherzo from Piano Sonata 15, thematic fragments

used later in the development
To quote Rosen again, writing propos of this movement:

As Beethovens contemporary, the painter John Constable, said, making something out of nothing is the true
work of the artist.[5]
7.5 See also

Developing variation
Transformation of opening idea
7.3 Rhythmic displacement

In this movement, the repeated left hand chords in bar 5
are displaced so that in bar 33 onwards, they fall on the
2nd and 3rd beats:
Fugue#Development
Secondary development
Sequence (music)
7.6 References
[1] Benward & Saker (2009), Music in Theory and Practice:
Volume II, p.138-39. Eighth Edition. ISBN 978-0-07310188-0.
Rhythmic displacement
7.4 Sequence and the development

of two or more themes in combination
In bars 33-48, the two fragments combine and the development goes through a modulating sequence that touches
on a succession of keys;
[2] Wennerstrom, Mary (1975). Form in Twentieth-Century

Music (chap. 1), Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music.
Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Clis, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
[3] Temperley, N. (2002, p. 355) Development in Oxford
Companion to Music. Oxford University Press.
[4] Rosen, C. (2002, p.161), Beethovens Piano Sonatas, a
Short Companion. Yale University Press.
[5] Rosen, C. (2002, p.162), Beethovens Piano Sonatas, a
Short Companion. Yale University Press.
Chapter 8
Tonality
This article is about the musical system. For linguistic feature, see Tone (linguistics). For tone colour, see
timbre.
Tonality is a musical system that arranges pitches or
in tonal piece are all dened in terms of their relationship

to the tonic. In tonality, the tonic (tonal center) is the
tone of complete relaxation and stability, the target toward which other tones lead (Benward & Saker 2003, 36).
The cadence (coming to rest point) in which the dominant
chord or dominant seventh chord resolves to the tonic
chord plays an important role in establishing the tonality of a piece. Tonal music is music that is unied and
dimensional. Music is unied if it is exhaustively referable to a precompositional system generated by a single
constructive principle derived from a basic scale-type; it
is dimensional if it can nonetheless be distinguished from
that precompositional ordering (Pitt 1995, 299).
The term tonalit originated with Alexandre-tienne

Choron (1810) and was borrowed by Franois-Joseph
Ftis in 1840 (Reti 1958, ; Simms 1975, 119; Judd
1998a, 5; Heyer 2001; Brown 2005, xiii). According
Perfect authentic cadence (IVVI chord progression, in which
to Carl Dahlhaus, however, the term tonalit was only
we see the chords F Major, G Major, and then C Major, in fourcoined by Castil-Blaze in 1821 (Dahlhaus 1967, 960;
part harmony) in C major Play . Tonal music is built around
these tonic and dominant arrival points [cadences], and they Dahlhaus 1980, 51). Although Ftis used it as a general
form one of the fundamental building blocks of musical struc- term for a system of musical organization and spoke of
types de tonalits rather than a single system, today the
ture (Benjamin, Horvitz, and Nelson 2008, 63).
term is most often used to refer to majorminor tonality,
the system of musical organization of the common pracchords to induce a hierarchy of perceived relations, statice period. Major-minor tonality is also called harmonic
bilities, and attractions. In this hierarchy, the individual
tonality (in the title of Carl Dahlhaus 1990, translating the
pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called
German harmonische Tonalitt), diatonic tonality, comthe tonic. The root of the tonic chord is considered to
mon practice tonality, functional tonality, or just tonality.
be the key of a piece or song. Thus a piece in which
the tonic chord is C major is said to be in the key of
C. Simple folk music songs often start and end with the
tonic note. The most common use of the term ..."is to 8.1 Characteristics and features
designate the arrangement of musical phenomena around
a referential tonic in European music from about 1600 to At least eight distinct senses of the word tonality (and
about 1910 (Hyer 2001). Contemporary classical music corresponding adjective, tonal), some mutually exclufrom 1910 to the 2000s may practice or avoid any sort sive, have been identied (Hyer 2001):
of tonalitybut harmony in almost all Western popular
music remains tonal. Harmony in jazz music includes
many, if not all, tonal characteristics, while having dif- 8.1.1 Systematic organization
ferent properties from common practice classical music.
All harmonic idioms in popular music are tonal, and
none is without function" (Tagg 2003, 534). Tonality is
an organized system of tones (e.g., the tones of a major
or minor scale) in which one tone (the tonic) becomes the
central point for the remaining tones. The other tones in
The systematic organization of pitch phenomena in any

music at all, including pre-17th century western music
as well as much non-western music, such as music based
on the slendro and pelog pitch collections of Indonesian
gamelan, or employing the modal nuclei of the Arabic
30
8.1. CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES
31
maqam or the Indian raga system. This sense also applies

to the tonic/dominant/subdominant harmonic harmonic
constellations in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau as
well as the 144 basic transformations of twelve-tone technique. By the middle of the 20th century, it had become
evident that triadic structure does not necessarily generate a tone center, that non-triadic harmonic formations
may be made to function as referential elements, and that
the assumption of a twelve-tone complex does not preclude the existence of tone centers.(Perle 1991, 8)
8.1.4 Pre-modern concept
For the composer and theorist George Perle, tonality is

not a matter of 'tone-centeredness, whether based on a
'natural' hierarchy of pitches derived from the overtone
series or an 'articial' pre compositional ordering of the
pitch material; nor is it essentially connected to the kinds
of pitch structures one nds in traditional diatonic music (Pitt 1995, 291). This sense (like some of the others) is susceptible to ideological employment, as Schoenberg, did by relying on the idea of a progressive development in musical resources to compress divergent nde-sicle compositional practices into a single historical
lineage in which his own music brings one historical era
to a close and begins the next. From this point of view,
twelve-tone music could be regarded either as the natural
and inevitable culmination of an organic motivic process
(Webern) or as a historical Aufhebung (Adorno), the dialectical synthesis of late Romantic motivic practice on
the one hand with a musical sublimation of tonality as
pure system on the other (Hyer 2001).
8.1.5 Referential tonic
A generic term applied to pre-modern music, referring

to the eight modes of the Western church, implying that
important historical continuities underlie music before
and after the emergence of musical modernism around
1600, with the dierence between tonalit ancienne (before 1600) and tonalit moderne (after 1600) being one
of emphasis rather than of kind
Musical phenomena (harmonies, cadential formulae, harmonic progressions, melodic gestures, formal categories)
arranged or understood in relation to a referential tonic
8.1.6 Tonal theories

Musical phenomena perceived or preinterpreted in terms
of the categories of tonal theories. This is a psychophysical sense, where for example listeners tend to hear a
given pitch as, for instance, an A above middle C, an
augmented 4th above E, the minor 3rd in an F minor
triad, a dominant in relation to D, or (where the caret
designates a scale degree) in G major rather than a mere
acoustical frequency, in this case 440 Hz (Hyer 2001).
8.1.7 Synonym for key

8.1.2
Theoretical arrangement of pitches
Any rational and self-contained theoretical arrangement

of musical pitches, existing prior to any concrete embodiment in music. For example, Sainsbury, who had
Choron translated into English in 1825, rendered the
rst occurrence of tonalit as a system of modes before
matching it with the neologism tonality. While tonality
qua system constitutes a theoretical (and thus imaginative) abstraction from actual music, it is often hypostatized in musicological discourse, converted from a theoretical structure into a musical reality. In this sense, it
is understood as a Platonic form or prediscursive musical
essence that suuses music with intelligible sense, which
exists before its concrete embodiment in music, and can
thus be theorized and discussed apart from actual musical
contexts (Hyer 2001).
8.1.3
Contrast with modal and atonal systems
As a term to contrast with "modal" and "atonal", implying that tonal music is discontinuous as a form of cultural
expression from modal music (before 1600) on the one
hand and atonal music (after 1910) on the other
By amateur musicians and in popular music as a synonym

for "key"in this sense meaning keyness
1. The most common usage, referring to the arrangement of musical phenomena around a referential
tonic, as found in European music from about 1600
to about 1910, using two modal genera, major and
minor
8.1.8 Other perspectives

Tonal harmonies must always include the third of the
chord (Brown 2005, 46). In major and minor harmonies, the perfect fth is often implied and understood
by the listener even if it is not present To function as a
tonic, a chord must be either a major or a minor triad.
Dominant function requires a major-quality triad with a
root a perfect fth above the aliated tonic and containing the leading tone of the key. This dominant triad
must be preceded by a chord progression that establishes
the dominant as the penultimate goal of a motion that
is completed by moving on to the tonic. In this nal
dominant-to-tonic progression, the leading tone normally
ascends by semitone motion to the tonic scale degree
(Berry 1976, 54; Brown 2005, 4; Burnett and Nitzberg
32
CHAPTER 8. TONALITY
2007, 97; Rogers 2004, 47). A dominant seventh chord

always consist of a major triad with an added minor seventh above the root. To achieve this in minor keys, the
seventh scale degree must be raised to create a major triad
on the dominant (Duckworth 2015, 225; Mayeld 2013,
94).
David Cope (1997, ) considers key, consonance and dissonance (relaxation and tension, respectively), and hierarchical relationships the three most basic concepts in
tonality.
Carl Dahlhaus (Dahlhaus 1990, 102) lists the characteristic schemata of tonal harmony, typied in the compositional formulas of the 16th and early 17th centuries,
as the complete cadence IiiVI, IIVVI, IIVI
VI; the circle of fths progression IIVviiiiiviii
VI; and the majorminor parallelism: minor viVII
III equals major iiiviVI; or minor IIIVIIiv equals
major IVviiii. The last of these progressions is characterized by retrograde harmonic motion.
8.1.9
Form
Main article: Musical form
8.1.10
Consonance and dissonance
Main article: Consonance and dissonance

The consonance and dissonance of dierent intervals
plays an important role in establishing the tonality of a
piece or section in common practice music and popular
music. For example, for a simple folk music song in the
key of C Major, almost all of the triadic chords in the
song will be Major or minor chords which are stable and
consonant (e.g., in the key of C Major, commonly-used
chords will included d minor, F Major, G Major, etc.).
The most commonly used dissonant chord in a pop song
context is the dominant seventh chord built on the fth
scale degree; in the key of C Major, this would be a G
dominant seventh chord, or G7 chord, which contains
the pitches G, B, D and F. This dominant seventh chord
contains a dissonant tritone interval between the notes B
and F. In pop music, the listener will expect this tritone
to be resolved to a consonant, stable chord (in this case,
typically a C Major cadence (coming to rest point) or a
deceptive cadence to an a minor chord).
8.1.11
Tonal musics
The larger portion of the worlds folk and art music can
be categorized as tonal, as long as the denition is as
follows: Tonal music gives priority to a single tone or
tonic. In this kind of music all the constituent tones and
resulting tonal relationships are heard and identied relative to their tonic (Susanni 2012, 66). In this sense, All
harmonic idioms in popular music are tonal, and none is
without function (Tagg 2003, 534). However, within
the continuing hegemony of tonality there is evidence
for a relatively separate tradition of genuine folk musics,
which do not operate completely or even mainly according to the assumptions or rules of tonality. throughout the reign of tonality there seem to have existed subterranean folk musical traditions organized on principles
dierent from tonality, and often modal: Celtic songs
and blues are obvious examples (Shepherd, Virden, Vulliamy, and Wishart 1977, 156).
According to Allan Moore (1995, 191), part of the
heritage of rock lies within common-practice tonality
(Burns 2000, 213) but, because the leading-note/tonic
relationship is axiomatic to the denition of commonpractice tonality, and a fundamental feature of rock musics identity is the absence of a diatonic leading tone, the
harmonic practices of rock music, while sharing many
features with classical tonality, are nonetheless distinct
(Moore 1995, 187). Power chords are especially problematic when trying to apply classical functional tonality to certain varieties of popular music. Genres such
as heavy metal, new wave, punk rock, and grunge music
took power chords into new arenas, often with a reduced
emphasis on tonal function. These genres are often expressed in two partsa bass line doubled in fths, and a
singe vocal part. Power chord technique was often allied
with modal procedure (Everett 2000, 331).
Much jazz is tonal, but functional tonality in jazz has
dierent properties than that of common-practice classical music. These properties are represented by a unique
set of rules dictating the unfolding of harmonic function, voice-leading conventions, and the overall behavior
of chord tones and chordal extensions (Terefenko 2014,
26).
8.2 History and theory

8.2.1 18th century
Jean-Philippe Rameau's Treatise on Harmony (1722) is
the earliest eort to explain tonal harmony through a coherent system based on acoustical principles (Girdlestone
1969, 520), built upon the functional unit being the triad,
with inversions.
8.2.2 19th century

The term tonalit" (tonality) was rst used in 1810 by
Alexandre Choron in the preface Sommaire de l'histoire
de la musique (Brown 2005, xiii) to the Dictionnaire
historique des musiciens artistes et amateurs (which he
published in collaboration with Franois-Joseph-Marie
8.2. HISTORY AND THEORY
33
Fayolle) to describe the arrangement of the dominant

and subdominant above and below the tonica constellation that had been made familiar by Rameau. According to Choron, this pattern, which he called tonalit moderne, distinguished modern musics harmonic organization from that of earlier [pre 17th century] music, including tonalit des Grecs (ancient Greek modes)
and tonalit ecclsiastique (plainchant) (Choron 1810,
xxxviixl; Hyer 2001). According to Choron, the beginnings of this modern tonality are found in the music of Claudio Monteverdi around the year 1595, but it
was more than a century later that the full application
of tonal harmony nally supplanted the older reliance
on the melodic orientation of the church modes, in the
music of the Neapolitan Schoolmost especially that of
Francesco Durante (Choron 1810, xxxviii, xl).
tivity on the one hand, and will on the other, the mind
coordinates the tones into dierent series, each of which
corresponds to a particular class of emotions, sentiments,
and ideas. Hence these series become various types of
tonalities."(Ftis 1844, 1112) But one will say, 'What is
the principle behind these scales, and what, if not acoustic
phenomena and the laws of mathematics, has set the order of their tones?' I respond that this principle is purely
metaphysical [anthropological]. We conceive this order
and the melodic and harmonic phenomena that spring
from it out of our conformation and education."(Ftis
1844, 249)
Ftis believed that tonality, tonalit moderne, was entirely

cultural, saying, For the elements of music, nature provides nothing but a multitude of tones diering in pitch,
duration, and intensity by the greater or least degree ...
The conception of the relationships that exist among them
is awakened in the intellect, and, by the action of sensi-
8.2.3 20th century
Ftis Trait complet was very popular. In France alone

the book was printed between 1844 and 1903 twenty
times. The 1st edition was printed in Paris and Brussels
in 1844, the 9th edition was printed in Paris in 1864, and
Franois-Joseph Ftis developed the concept of tonalit the 20th edition was printed in Paris in 1903. For more
in the 1830s and 1840s (Brown 2005, xiii), nally codi- bibliographical information, see worldcat.org.
fying his theory of tonality in 1844, in his Trait complet In contrast, Hugo Riemann believed tonality, anities
de la thorie et de la pratique de l'harmonie (Hyer 2001; between tones or Tonverwandtschaften, was entirely natWangerme and Ellis 2001). Ftis saw tonalit moderne ural and, following Moritz Hauptmann (1853), that the
as the historically evolving phenomenon with three stages: major third and perfect fth were the only directly intonality of ordre transitonique (transitonic order), of telligible intervals, and that I, IV, and V, the tonic, subordre pluritonique (pluritonic order) and, nally, or- dominant, and dominant were related by the perfect fths
dre omnitonique (omnitonic order). The transitonic between their root notes (Dahlhaus 1990, 10102).
phase of tonality he connected with the late Monteverdi.
He described his earliest example of tonalit moderne It is in this era that the word tonality was popularized by
thus: In the passage quoted here from Monteverdis Ftis (Wangerme and Ellis 2001).
madrigal (Cruda amarilli, mm. 919 and 2430), one Theorists such as Hugo Riemann, and later Edward
sees a tonality determined by the accord parfait [root po- Lowinsky (1962) and others, pushed back the date when
sition major chord] on the tonic, by the sixth chord as- modern tonality began, and the cadence began to be seen
signed to the chords on the third and seventh degrees of as the denitive way that a tonality is established in a work
the scale, by the optional choice of the accord parfait or of music (Judd 1998).
the sixth chord on the sixth degree, and nally, by the
accord parfait and, above all, by the unprepared seventh In the music of some late-Romantic or post-Romantic
chord (with major third) on the dominant (Ftis 1844, composers such as Richard Wagner, Hugo Wolf, Pyotr
171). Among most subtle representatives of pluritonic Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Anton Bruckner, Gustav Mahler,
order there were Mozart and Rossini; this stage he saw as Richard Strauss, Alexander Scriabin, and others, we nd
the culmination and perfection of tonalit moderne. The a variety of harmonic and linear procedures that have
romantic tonality of Berlioz and especially Wagner he re- the eect of weakening functional tonality. These procelated to omnitonic order with its insatiable desire for dures may produce a suspension of tonality or may cremodulation (Hyer 2002, 748). His prophetic vision of ate a sense of tonal ambiguity, even to the point that at
the omnitonic order (though he didn't approve it person- times the sense of tonality is completely lost. Schoenberg
ally) as the way of further development of tonality was a described this kind of tonality (with references to the
remarkable innovation to historic and theoretic concepts music of Wagner, Mahler, and himself, amongst others)
as aufgehobene Tonalitt and schwebende Tonalitt
of the 19th century (Simms 1975, 132).
(Schoenberg 1922, 444, 45960), usually rendered in EnTonalit ancienne Fetis described as tonality of ordre uni- glish as suspended (not in eect, cancelled) tonality
tonique (establishing one key and remaining in that key and uctuating (suspended, not yet decided) tonalfor the duration of the piece). The principal example of ity, respectively (Schoenberg 1978, 383).
this unitonic order tonality he saw in the Western plainchant.
In the early 20th century, the tonality that had prevailed

since the 17th century was seen to have reached a crisis or break down point. Because of the "...increased
use of the ambiguous chords, the less probable harmonic
34
CHAPTER 8. TONALITY
progressions, and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic inections,"(Meyer 1967, 241) the syntax of functional harmony loosened to the point where, At best,
the felt probabilities of the style system had become
obscure; at worst, they were approaching a uniformity
which provided few guides for either composition or
listening."(Meyer 1967, 241)
ity. His examples are ancient Jewish and Gregorian chant

and other Eastern music, and he points out how these
melodies often may be interrupted at any point and returned to the tonic, yet harmonically tonal melodies, such
as that from Mozarts The Magic Flute below, are actually
strict harmonic-rhythmic pattern[s], and include many
points from which it is impossible, that is, illogical, unTonality may be considered generally, with no restrictions less we want to destroy the innermost sense of the whole
line to return to the tonic (Reti 1958, ).
on the date or place the music was produced, and little
restriction on the materials and methods used. This denition includes pre-17th century western music, as well as
much non-western music. By the middle of the 20th century, it had become evident that triadic structure does
not necessarily generate a tone center, that non-triadic
harmonic formations may be made to function as referential elements, and that the assumption of a twelve-tone
complex does not preclude the existence of tone centers
(Perle 1991, 8). For the composer and theorist George
Perle, tonality is not a matter of 'tone-centeredness,
whether based on a 'natural' hierarchy of pitches derived
Play normally and compare with
from the overtone series or an 'articial' pre composiimpossible return after B
tional ordering of the pitch material; nor is it essentially
connected to the kinds of pitch structures one nds in trax = return to tonic near inevitable
ditional diatonic music (Pitt 1995, 291).
x (circled x) = possible but not inevitable
circle = impossible
8.3 Theoretical underpinnings
One area of disagreement going back to the origin of

the term tonality is whether tonality is natural or inherent in acoustical phenomena, whether it is inherent in
the human nervous system or a psychological construct,
whether it is inborn or learned, and to what degree it is
all these things (Meyer 1967, 236). A viewpoint held by
many theorists since the third quarter of the 19th century,
following the publication in 1862 of the rst edition of
Helmholtzs On the Sensation of Tone (Helmholtz 1877),
holds that diatonic scales and tonality arise from natural overtones (Riemann 1872, Riemann 1875, Riemann
1882, Riemann 1893, Riemann 1905, Riemann 1914
15; Schenker 190635; Hindemith 193770).
Rudolph Rti dierentiates between harmonic tonality of
the traditional kind found in homophony, and melodic
tonality, as in monophony. In the harmonic kind, tonality
is produced through the V-I chord progression, <d> <t>.
He argues that in the progression I-x-V-I (and all progressions), V-I is the only step which as such produces the
eect of tonality, and that all other chord successions,
diatonic or not, being more or less similar to the tonicdominant, are the composers free invention. He describes melodic tonality (the term coined independently
and 10 years earlier by Estonian composer Jaan Soonvald (Rais 1992, 46)) as being entirely dierent from
the classical type, wherein, the whole line is to be understood as a musical unit mainly through its relationship
to this basic note [the tonic], this note not always being the tonic as interpreted according to harmonic tonal-
(Reti 1958, )
Consequently, he argues, melodically tonal melodies resist harmonization and only reemerge in western music
after, harmonic tonality was abandoned, as in the music of Claude Debussy: melodic tonality plus modulation
is [Debussys] modern tonality (Reti 1958, 23).
8.4 Outside common-practice period

The noun tonality and adjective tonal are widely applied also, in studies of early and modern Western music,
and in non-Western traditional music (Arabic maqam, Indian raga, Indonesian slendro etc.), to the systematic arrangements of pitch phenomena and relations between
them (Hyer 2001; Hyer 2002). Felix Wrner, Ullrich
Scheideler, and Philip Rupprecht in the introduction to a
collection of essays dedicated to the concept and practice
of tonality between 1900 and 1950 describe it generally
as the awareness of key in music (Wrner, Scheideler,
and Rupprecht 2012, 11).
Harold Powers, in a series of articles, used terms
sixteenth-century tonalities (Powers 1981, 439; Powers
1992, 12; Powers 1996, 221) and Renaissance tonality (Powers 1996, 226). He borrowed German Tonartentyp from Siegfried Hermelink (1960), who related
it to Palestrina, translated it into English as tonal type
8.5. COMPUTATIONAL METHODS TO DETERMINE THE KEY

(Powers 1981, 439), and systematically applied the concept of tonal types to Renaissance sacred and paraliturgical polyphony. Cristle Collins Judd (the author of
many articles and a thesis dedicated to the early pitch systems) found tonalities in this sense in motets of Josquin
Desprez (Judd 1992). Judd also wrote of chant-based
tonality (Judd 1998c), meaning tonal polyphonic compositions based on plainchant. Peter Leerts found tonal
types in the French polyphonic chanson of the 14th century (Leerts 1995), Italian musicologists Marco Mangani and Daniele Sabaino in the late Renaissance music
(Mangani and Sabaino 2008), and so on.
The wide usage of tonality and tonal has been supported by several other musicologists (of diverse provenance); it can be traced, e.g., in the articles collected in
Judd 1998a. A possible reason for this broader usage
of terms tonality and tonal is the attempt to translate German Tonart as tonality and Tonarten-" prex as tonal (for example, it is rendered so in the seminal New Grove article Mode, Powers et al. 2001, V,
1, et passim; Powers 1981, 441; Powers 1982, 59, 61
etc.). Therefore, two dierent German words Tonart
and Tonalitt have sometimes been translated as tonality although they are not the same words in German.
35
a composed-out triad, but rather a diverging-converging

pair of chromatic lines moving from a unison A to an octave E and back to a unison A again, providing a framing deep structure based on a tritone relationship that
nevertheless is not analogous to a tonic-dominant axis,
but rather remains within the single functional domain
of the tonic, A (Agawu 2009, 72). To distinguish this
species of tonality (found also, for example, in the music of Barber, Berg, Bernstein, Britten, Fine, Hindemith,
Poulenc, Prokoev, and, especially, Stravinsky) from the
stricter kind associated with the 18th century, some writers use the term "neotonality" (Burkholder, Grout, and
Palisca 2009, 838, 885; Silberman 2006, v, 2, 33, 37,
58, 65, 108), while others prefer to use the term centricity (Straus 2000, 11214), and still others retain the
term, tonality (White 1979, 558), in its broader sense, or
use word combinations like extended tonality (Kholopov,
Lyzhov).
8.5 Computational methods to determine the key
In music information retrieval, techniques have been developed to determine the key of a piece of classical Western music (recorded in audio data format) automatically.
These methods are often based on a compressed representation of the pitch content in a 12-dimensional pitchclass prole (chromagram) and a subsequent procedure
that nds the best match between this representation and
one of the prototype vectors of the 24 minor and major keys (Purwins, Blankertz, and Obermayer 2000, 270
72). For implementation, often the constant-Q transform
Riemanns illustration of a non-diatonic cadence possessing is used, displaying the musical signal on a log frequency
Tonalitt without Tonart (Kopp 2011, 401) Play
scale. Although a radical (over)simplication of the concept of tonality, such methods can predict the key of clasIn 1882, Hugo Riemann dened the term Tonalitt sical Western music well for most pieces. Other methods
specically to include chromatic as well as diatonic re- also take into consideration the sequentiality of music.
lationships to a tonic, in contrast to the usual diatonic
concept of Tonart. In the neo-Riemannian theory of the
late 20th century, however, the same chromatic chord re- 8.6 See also
lations cited by Riemann came to be regarded as a fundamental example of nontonal triadic relations, reinter Polytonality
preted as a product of the hexatonic cycle (the six-pitchclass set forming a scale of alternating minor thirds and
History of music
semitones, Fortes set-type 620, but manifested as a succession of from four to six alternating major and minor
Schenkerian analysis
triads), dened without reference to a tonic (Cohn 1996,
Peter Westergaards tonal theory
18, et passim; Kopp 2011, 401).
In the 20th century, music that no longer conformed to
the strict denition of common-practice tonality could
nevertheless still involve musical phenomena (harmonies,
cadential formulae, harmonic progressions, melodic gestures, formal categories) arranged or understood in relation to a referential tonic (Hyer 2001). For example,
the closing bars of the rst movement of Bla Bartk's
Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta do not involve
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CHAPTER 8. TONALITY
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8.8. FURTHER READING

Schellenberg, E. Glenn, and Sandra E. Trehub.
1996. Natural Musical Intervals: Evidence from
Infant Listeners Psychological Science Vol. 7, no.
5 (September): 27277.
Schenker, Heinrich. 190635. Neue musikalische
Theorien und Phantasien. 3 vols. in 4. Vienna and
Leipzig: Universal Edition.
Schenker, Heinrich. 1954. Harmony, edited
and annotated by Oswald Jonas; translated by
Elisabeth Mann-Borgese. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. OCLC 280916. Translation of
Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien 1: Harmonielehre. (Reprinted Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 1973, ISBN 0-262-69044-6.)
Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free Composition, translated and edited by Ernst Oster. New York: Longman. Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und
Phantasien 3: Der freie Satz. ISBN 0-582-28073-7.
Schenker, Heinrich. 1987. Counterpoint, translated
by John Rothgeb and Jrgen Thym; edited by John
Rothgeb. 2 vols. New York: Schirmer Books;
London: Collier Macmillan. Translation of Neue
musikalische Theorien und Phantasien 2: Kontrapunkt. ISBN 0-02-873220-0.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1922. Harmonielehre, third
edition. Vienna: Universal-Edition.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony,
translated by Roy E. Carter. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-52003464-3. Reprinted 1983, ISBN 0-520-04945-4.
Pbk ed. 1983, ISBN 0-520-04944-6.
Shepherd, John, Phil Virden, Graham Vulliamy,
and Trevor Wishart. 1977. Whose Music? A Sociology of Musical Languages. London: Latimer.
Reprinted, Picataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers,
2008. ISBN 978-0-87855-384-6 (cloth); ISBN
978-0-87855-815-5 (pbk).
Silberman, Peter Scott. 2006. Neighbor Spaces: A
Theory of Harmonic Embellishment for TwentiethCentury Neotonal Music. PhD diss. Rochester:
University of Rochester, Eastman School of Music.
Simms, Bryan. 1975. Choron, Ftis, and the Theory of Tonality. Journal of Music Theory 19, no. 1
(Spring): 11238.
Stegemann, Benedikt. 2013. Theory of Tonality,
translated by David LeClair. Theoretical Studies.
Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel. ISBN 978-3-7959-09635.
Straus, Joseph N. 2000. Introduction to PostTonal Theory, second edition. Upper Saddle River:
Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-014331-6.
39
Susanni, Paolo, and Elliott Antokoletz. 2012. Music and Twentieth-Century Tonality: Harmonic Progression Based on Modality and the Interval Cycles.
New York and London: Routledge. ISBN 9780-415-80888-0 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-136-31421-6
(ebook); ISBN 978-0-203-11929-7 (ebook).
Tagg, Philip. 2003. Harmony. Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Part 1 Performance and Production, edited by John Shepherd,
David Horn, Dave Laing, Paul Oliver, and Peter
Wicke. London & New York: A&C Black. ISBN
978-1-84714-472-0.
Terefenko, Dariusz. 2014. Jazz Theory: From
Basic to Advanced Study. New York: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-53759-9 (cloth); ISBN 9780-415-53761-2 (pbk); ISBN 978-0-203-38000-0
(ebook).
Thomson, William. 1999. Tonality in Music: A
General Theory. San Marino, Calif.: Everett Books.
ISBN 0-940459-19-1.
Wangerme, Robert, and Katharine Ellis. 2001.
Ftis: (1) Franois-Joseph Ftis. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers ISBN 9781-56159-239-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-333-60800-5;
9780195170672 (hc).
West, Martin Litcheld. 1994. The Babylonian
Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts.
Music and Letters 75, no. 2 (May): 16179.
White, Eric Walter. 1979. Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works, second edition. Berkeley and
Los Angeles: The University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-03985-8.
Wrner, Felix, Ulrich Scheideler, and Philip Ernst
Rupprecht. 2012. Introduction. In Tonality
19001950: Concept and Practice, edited by Felix Wrner, Ulrich Scheideler, and Philip Ernst
Rupprecht, 1124. Musikwissenschaft. Stuttgart:
Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-10160-8.
8.8 Further reading

Jim Samson (1977) suggests the following discussions of tonality as dened by Ftis, Helmholtz, Riemann, D'Indy, Adler, Yasser, and others:
Beswick, Delbert M. 1950. The Problem
of Tonality in Seventeenth Century Music.
Ph.D. thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina. p. 129. OCLC accession number
12778863.
40
CHAPTER 8. TONALITY
Shirlaw, Matthew. 1917. The Theory of
Harmony: An Inquiry into the Natural Principles of Harmony; with an Examination of
the Chief Systems of Harmony from Rameau
to the Present Day. London: Novello & Co.
(Reprinted New York: Da Capo Press, 1969.
ISBN 0-306-71658-5.)
"Tonality, Modality, and Atonality", SolomonsMusic.net

"Reference Guide to Tonal Music",
tyGUIDE.com
Tonali-
Tonalcentre.org: explains and demonstrates some

of the key concepts of tonality
Agawu, Ko. 2009. Music as Discourse: Semiotic

Adventures in Romantic Music. Oxford Studies in
Music Theory. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537024-9.
"Algebra of Tonal
try.blogspot.com
Blum, Stephen. 2006. Navi: A Musical Genre of

Northeastern Iran. In Analytical Studies in World
Music, edited by Michael Tenzer, 4157. Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780-19-517788-6 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-19-517789-3
(pbk)
"A model of analysis for the tonal harmonic discourse", BW.Musique.UMontreal.ca
Cohn, Richard. 2012. Audacious Euphony: Chromatic Harmony and the Triads Second Nature. Oxford Studies in Music Theory. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19977269-8.
DeVoto, Mark. 2004. Debussy and the Veil of
Tonality: Essays on His Music. Dimension and Diversity: Studies in 20th-century Music 4. N.p.: Pendragon Press. ISBN 1-57647-090-3.
Manuel, Peter. 2006. Flamenco in Focus: An
Analysis of a Performance of Soleares. In Analytical Studies in World Music, edited by Michael
Tenzer, 92119. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517788-6 (cloth);
ISBN 978-0-19-517789-3 (pbk)
Rings, Steven. 2011. Tonality and Transformation.
Oxford Studies in Music Theory. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19538427-7.
Roig-Francol, Miguel A. 2008. Understanding
Post-Tonal Music. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-293624-X.
Tymoczko, Dmitri. 2011. A Geometry of Music:
Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended Common
Practice. Oxford Studies in Music Theory. Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780-19-533667-2.
8.9 External links

"Music Fundamentals: Tonal Music" PDF, BigComposer.com
"Tonal Harmony: Reference Materials for the Undergraduate Theory Student", RobertKelleyPhd.com
Functions",
Sonantome-
"Mapping Tonal Harmony Pro", mDecks.com
Chapter 9
List of period instruments
The clavichord is an example of a period instrument.

Regal, c1600, from Frauenfeld Abbey, Switzerland
In the historically informed performance movement, musicians perform classical music using restored or replicated versions of the instruments for which it was origi- Harpsichord
nally written. Often performances by such musicians are
Virginal
said to be on authentic instruments.
This article consists of a list of such instruments, including both instruments that are now obsolete and early
versions of instruments that continued to be used in
later classical music. This list only includes woodwind,
keyboard, and brass instruments.
9.2 Baroque (16001750)
9.1 Renaissance (14001600)

9.1.1
Woodwinds
Cornamuse
Cromorne
Crumhorn
Rauschpfeife
Recorder
Shawm
Baroque violin and violoncello da spalla or viola da spalla (cello

like instrument often held to chest or shoulder by a strap while
playing)
9.2.1 Strings
Violino piccolo
9.1.2
Keyboards
Violin
Viol
Clavichord
41
42
CHAPTER 9. LIST OF PERIOD INSTRUMENTS
Viola
Dulcian
Viola d'amore
Baroque oboe
Viola pomposa
Rackett
Tenor violin
Recorder
Cello
Contrabass
Violone
Lute
Theorbo
9.2.3 Brasses
Baroque trumpet, Cornetto, Serpent, Sackbut
9.2.4 Keyboards
Archlute
Clavichord
Anglique
Harpsichord
Mandolin
Organ
Baroque guitar
Harp
Hurdy-gurdy
9.3 Classical (17501820)

9.3.1 Strings
Violin
Viola
Cello
Double bass
guitar
9.3.2 Woodwinds
Basset clarinet
Basset horn
Clarinette d'amour
Clarinet
Chalumeau
9.3.3 Keyboards
Clavichord
A double-manual harpsichord after Jean-Claude Goujon (1749).
Fortepiano
Organ
9.2.2
Woodwind
Baroque ute
9.3.4 Brasses
Chalumeau
Buccin
Cortol (also known as Cortholt, Curtall, Oboe family)
OphicleideSerpent replacement, precursor of

tuba
9.5. EXTERNAL LINKS
9.4 See also

Castrato
List of recorder players
9.5 External links

Early musical instruments
Historical Brass Instruments as described by Antique Sound Workshop, Ltd.
43
44
CHAPTER 9. LIST OF PERIOD INSTRUMENTS
Chapter 10
List of Classical-era composers

This is a list of composers of the Classical music era,
roughly from 1730 to 1820. Prominent composers of the
Classical era include Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Johann
Stamitz, Joseph Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Antonio
Salieri, Muzio Clementi, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and
Luigi Boccherini. Prominent composers of both the
Classical and early Romantic eras include Ludwig van
Beethoven and Franz Schubert.
Wol Jakob Lauensteiner (1676-1754)

Giuseppe Maria Orlandini (1676-1760)
Giovanni Carlo Maria Clari (1677-1754)
Ferdinando Antonio Lazzari (1678-1754)
Giovanni Antonio Piani or Jean-Antoine Desplanes
(1678-1760)
Manuel de Zumaya (1678-1755)
10.1 Early Galante era composers

Transition from Baroque to
Classical (born before 1710)
Jean-Baptiste Stuck (1680-1755)

Johann Mattheson (1681-1764)
Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767)
Composers in the Baroque/Classical transitional era,

sometimes seen as the beginning of the Galante era, include the following listed by their date of birth:
Giuseppe Valentini (1681-1753)

Paolo Benedetto Bellinzani (1682-1757)
Giacobbe Cervetto (1682-1783)
Giacomo Antonio Perti (1661-1756)
Pietro Baldassare (1683-after 1768)
Nicolas Siret (1663-1754)
Christoph Graupner (1683-1760)
Michele Mascitti (1664-1760)
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)
Johann Christoph Pepusch (1667-1752)
Franois d'Agincourt (1684-1758)
Johann Nicolaus Bach (1669-1753)
Franois Bouvard (1684-1760)
Giuseppe Avitrano (1670-1756)
Francesco Durante (1684-1755)
Louis de Caix d'Hervelois (1670-1760)
Francesco Manfredini (1684-1762)
Richard Leveridge (1670-1758)
Johann Theodor Roemhildt (1684-1756)
Tomaso Albinoni (1671-1751)

Azzolino della Ciaja or della Ciaia or della Araja
(1671-1755)
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Giuseppe Matteo Alberti (1685-1751)
Georg Caspar Schrmann (1672/1673-1751)
Louis-Antoine Dornel (1685-1765)
Pierre Dumage (1674-1751)
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
Jacques-Martin Hotteterre (1674-1763)
Wilhelm Hieronymus Pachelbel (1685-1764)
Giovanni Porta (1675-1755)
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)
Giacomo Facco (1676-1753)
Nicola Porpora (1686-1768)

45
46
CHAPTER 10. LIST OF CLASSICAL-ERA COMPOSERS
Giovanni Battista Somis (1686-1763)
Ernst Gottlieb Baron (1696-1760)
Willem de Fesch (1687-1761)
Pierre Fvrier (1696-1760)
Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762)
Maurice Greene (1696-1755)
Johann Georg Pisendel (1687-1755)
Johann Melchior Molter (1696-1765)
Johann Friedrich Fasch (1688-1758)
Johann Caspar Vogler (1696-1763)
Thomas Roseingrave (1688-1766)
Andrea Zani (1696-1757)
Jacques Aubert (1689-1753)
Josse Boutmy (1697-1779)
Joseph Bodin de Boismortier (1689-1755)
Cornelius Heinrich Dretzel (1697-1775)
Pietro Gnocchi (1689-1775)
Adam Falckenhagen (1697-1754)
Francesco Barsanti (1690-1772)
Johann Christian Hertel (1697/1699-1754)
Giuseppe Antonio Brescianello (1690-1758)
Jean-Marie Leclair l'an (1697-1764)
Pierre-Gabriel Buardin (1690-1768)
Giuseppe de Majo (1697-1771)
Fortunato Chelleri (1690-1757)
Giovanni Benedetto Platti (1697-1763)
Franois Colin de Blamont (1690-1760)
Johann Pfeier (1697-1761)
Giovanni Antonio Giai or Giay, Giaj (1690-1764)
Johann Joachim Quantz (1697-1773)
Johann Tobias Krebs (1690-1762)
Francesco Antonio Vallotti (1697-1780)
Gottlieb Muat (1690-1770)
Pietro Auletta (1698-1771)
Jacques-Christophe Naudot (1690-1762)
Riccardo Broschi (1698-1756)
Manuel Jos de Quirs (1690?1765)
Franois Francoeur (1698-1787)
Francesco Maria Veracini (1690-1768)
Frantiek Jirnek (1698-1778)
Francesco Feo (1691-1761)
Nicola Bonifacio Logroscino (1698-1764)
Jan Francisci (1691-1758)
Gaetano Maria Schiassi (1698-1754)
Conrad Friedrich Hurlebusch (1691-1765)
Jean-Baptiste Forqueray le ls (1699-1782)
Antonio Palella (1692-1761)
Joseph Gibbs (1699-1788)
Giovanni Alberto Ristori (1692-1753)
Johann Adolf Hasse (1699-1783)
Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770)
Juan Francs de Iribarren (1699-1767)
Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer (1692-1766)
Jan Zach (1699-1773)
Laurent Belissen (1693-1762)
Charles Doll (. 1735-1755; d. after 1755)
Gregor Joseph Werner (1693-1766)
Giovanni Giorgi (. from 1719; d. 1762)
Louis-Claude Daquin (1694-1772)
Mlle Gudon de Presles (c. 1700-1754)
Johann Samuel Endler (1694-1762)
Michel Blavet (1700-1768)
Pierre-Claude Foucquet (1694-1772)
Sebastian Bodinus (1700-1759)
Johan Helmich Roman (1694-1758)
Domenico Dall'Oglio (1700-1764)
Johann Lorenz Bach (1695-1773)
Joo Rodrigues Esteves (1700-1751)
Pietro Locatelli (1695-1764)
Nicola Fiorenza (after 1700-1764)
Marie-Anne-Catherine Quinault (1695-1791)
Jean-Baptiste Masse (c. 1700c. 1756)
10.2. EARLY CLASSICAL ERA/LATER GALANTE ERA COMPOSERS (BORN 17101730)
47
Giovanni Battista Sammartini (1700-1775)
Vclav Jan Kopiva known as Urtica (1708-1789)
Johan Agrell (1701-1765)
Georg Reutter (the younger) (1708-1772)
Franois Rebel (1701-1775)
Johann Adolph Scheibe (1708-1776)
Alessandro Besozzi (1702-1775)
Francesco Araja (1709-after 1762)
Johann Ernst Eberlin (1702-1762)
Franz Benda (1709-1786)
Jos de Nebra (1702-1768)
Jean-Nol Hamal (1709-1778)
Francisco Antnio de Almeida (1702-1755)
Franz Xaver Richter (1709-1789)
John Frederick Lampe (1703-1751)
Christoph Scharath (1709-1763)
Johann Gottlieb Graun (c. 1703-1771)
Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia (1709-1758)
Jean-Marie Leclair le cadet (the younger) (17031777)
Charles Avison (1709-1770)
Carlo Zuccari (1703-1792)

Carl Heinrich Graun (1704-1759)
Giovanni Battista Pescetti (c. 1704-c. 1766)
Frantiek Tma (1704-1774)
Nicolas Chdeville (1705-1782)
Henri-Jacques de Croes (1705-1786)
Michael Christian Festing (1705-1752)
Louis-Gabriel Guillemain (1705-1770)
Johann Peter Kellner (1705-1772)
Pancrace Royer (1705-1755)
Andrea Bernasconi (c. 1706-1784)
Carlo Cecere (1706-1761)
Baldassare Galuppi (17061785)
William Hayes (1706-1777)
Giovanni Battista Martini or Padre Martini (17061784)
10.2 Early Classical era/Later

Galante era composers (born
17101730)
Joseph Abaco, or dall'Abaco (17101805)
Thomas Arne (17101778)
Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (17101784)
Carlo Graziani (c. 17101787)
Giuseppe Bonno (17111788)
William Boyce (17111779)
Gaetano Latilla (17111788)
Ignaz Holzbauer (17111783)
Davide Perez (17111778)
Barbara of Portugal (17111758)
Jean-Joseph Cassana de Mondonville (17111772)
Domnec Terradellas (c. 17111751)
Thomas Chilcot (1707-1766)
James Oswald (1711-1769)
Michael Corrette (1707-1795)
Frederick the Great (17121786)
Ignacio de Jerusalem y Stella (1707-1769)
John Hebden (17121765)
Johann Baptist Georg Neruda (c. 1707-c. 1780)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (17121778)
Domenico Paradies or Pietro Domenico Paradisi

(1707-1791)
John Christopher Smith (1712-1795)
Antnio Teixeira (1707-1769)

Felix Benda (1708-1768)
Egidio Duni (1708-1775)
Johann Gottlieb Janitsch (1708-1763)
John Stanley (17121786)

Antoine Dauvergne (17131797)
Johan Henrik Freitho (17131767)
Jean-Baptiste Canavas l'an, or Giovanni Battista
Canavasso (17131784)
48
Luise Adelgunda Gottsched (17131762)
Johann Friedrich Agricola (17201774)
Johann Ludwig Krebs (17131780)
Johann Christoph Altnickol (17201759)
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (17141788)
Carlo Antonio Campioni (17201788)
Johan Daniel Berlin (17141787)
Gioacchino Cocchi (17201804)
Per Brant (17141767) (sv:Per Brant)
Pietro Denis (17201790)
Joseph Canavas, or Giuseppe Canavasso (1714

1776) ()
Bernhard Joachim Hagen (17201787)
Christoph Willibald Gluck (17141787)

Gottfried August Homilius (17141785)
Niccol Jommelli (17141774)
Girolamo Abos (17151760)
Pasquale Cafaro (1715/17161787)
Johann Friedrich Doles (17151797)
John Alcock (17151806)
Adolph Carl Kunzen (17201781)

Maria Teresa Agnesi Pinottini (17201795)
Joan Baptista Pla (c. 17201773)
Quirino Gasparini (17211778)
Pieter Hellendaal (17211799)
Johann Philipp Kirnberger (17211783)
John Garth (17211810)
Sebastin Ramn de Albero y Aaos (17221756)
Jacques Duphly (17151789)
Johann Ernst Bach II (17221777)
Charles-Joseph van Helmont (17151790)
Georg Benda, or Ji Antonn Benda (17221795)
James Nares (17151783)
Pietro Nardini (17221793)
Georg Christoph Wagenseil (17151777)
Carl Friedrich Abel (17231787)
Josef Seger (17161782)
Christian Ernst Graf (17231804)
Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia (1716

1801)
Anna Amalia Princess of Prussia (17231787)
Georg Matthias Monn (17171750)

Hinrich Philip Johnsen (17171779)
Antonio Maria Mazzoni (17171785)
Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz (17171757)
Francesco Zappa (17171803)
Giovanni Marco Rutini (17231797)

Francesco Uttini (17231795)
Claude Balbastre (17241799)
Giovanni Battista Cirri (17241808)
Jan Adam Gallina (17241773)
Richard Mudge (17181763)
Maria Antonia Walpurgis, Princess of Bavaria, Electress of Saxony (17241780)
Wenzel Raimund Birck (17181763)
Rafael Antonio Castellanos (17251791)
Placidus von Camerloher (17181782)
Domenico Fischietti (c. 1725c. 1810)
Nicola Conforto (17181793)
Antonio Lolli (17251802)
Mlle Duval (1718after 1775)
Santa della Piet (. 1725-1750, d. after 1774)
Giuseppe Scarlatti (1718/17231777)
Johann Becker (17261803)
lisabeth de Haulteterre (. 17371768)
Miss Davis (c. 1726after 1755)
Johan Nicolaas Lentz (c. 17191782)
Karl Kohaut (17261784)
Leopold Mozart (17191787)
Franois-Andr Danican Philidor (17261795)
William Walond Sr. (17191768) ()
Joseph Starzer (c. 17261787)
10.3. MIDDLE CLASSICAL ERA COMPOSERS (BORN 17301750)

Joseph Anton Stean, or Josef Antonn tpn
(17261797)
Pasquale Anfossi (17271797)
Pierre Montan Berton (17271780)
Johann Gottlieb Goldberg (17271756)
Friedrich Hartmann Graf (17271795)
Henry Harington (17271816) ()
Johann Wilhelm Hertel (17271789)
Franois Martin (17271757)
Tommaso Traetta (17271779)
Armand-Louis Couperin (17271789)
Franz Asplmayr (17281786)
Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi (17281804)
Johann Adam Hiller (17281804)
49
Christian Cannabich (17311798)

Frantiek Xaver Duek (17311799)
Elisabetta de Gambarini (17311765)
Gaetano Pugnani (17311798)
Carlo Giuseppe Toeschi (17311788)
Pierre Vachon (17311803)
Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (17321795)
Frantiek Xaver Brixi (17321771)
Giuseppe Demachi (1732c. 1791)
Thomas Erskine, Earl of Kellie (17321781)
Johann Christian Kittel (17321809)
Joseph Haydn (17321809)
Gian Francesco de Majo, or "Ciccio" (17321770)
Niccol Piccinni (17281800)
Josina van Aerssen, or Josina van Boetzelaer (1733

1787)
Johann Gottfried Mthel (17281788)
Thomas Sanders Dupuis (17331796)
Hermann Raupach (17281778)

Anton Cajetan Adlgasser (17291777)
Florian Leopold Gassmann (17291774)
Anton Fils, or Filtz (17331760)

Johann Christian Fischer (17331800)
Francesco Saverio Giai, or Giaj (17291801) (, )
Istvny Benedek (17331778) Hungarian form of

Benedek Istvny
Pierre van Maldere (17291768)
Thomas Linley the elder (17331795)
Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny (17291817)
Giacomo Tritto (17331824)
Frantiek Xaver Pokorn (17291794)
Franz Ignaz Beck (17341809)
Giuseppe Sarti (17291802)
Jean-Jacques Beauvarlet Charpentier (17341794)
Antonio Soler (17291783)
Benjamin Cooke (17341793)

Franois-Joseph Gossec (17341829)
10.3 Middle Classical era composers (born 17301750)
Karl von Ordez (17341786)

Jean-Baptiste Rey (17341810)
Capel Bond (17301790)
Luka Sorkoevi (17341789)
Pasquale Errichelli (17301785)
Ignazio Spergher (17341808)
William Jackson (17301803)
Johann Christian Bach (17351782)
Antonn Kammel (17301788)
John Bennett (c. 17351784)
Cristiano Giuseppe Lidarti (17301795)
Giovanni Battista Cervellini (17351801)
Giovanni Meneghetti (c. 17301794)
John Collett (c. 1735?1775) ()
Georg von Pasterwitz (17301803)
Johann Gottfried Eckard (17351809)
Antonio Sacchini (17301786)
Mme Papavoine (born c. 1735; . 175561)
50
Anton Schweitzer (17351787)
Alexandro Marie Antoin Fridzeri (17411819)
Johann Schobert (c. 17351767)
Andr Ernest Modeste Grtry (17411813)
Ernst Wilhelm Wolf (17351792)
Franz Xaver Hammer (17411817)
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (17361809)
Honor Langl (17411807)
Hlne-Louise Demars (born c. 1736)
Andrea Luchesi (17411801)
Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch (17361800)
Jean Paul Egide Martini (17411816)
Ignaz Frnzl (17361811)
Johann Gottlieb Naumann (17411801)
Johann Christoph Kellner (17361803)
Vclav Pichl (17411804)
Antonio Tozzi (17361812)
Henri-Joseph Rigel (17411799)
Michael Haydn (17371806)
Giacomo Rust (17411786)
Philippe-Jacques Meyer (17371819) ()
Luigi Tomasini (17411808)
Josef Mysliveek (17371781)
Anton Zimmermann (17411781)
Friedrich Schwindl (17371786)
Jean-Baptiste Davaux (17421822)
Tommaso Giordani (c. 17381806)
Romanus Hostetter (17421815)
Philip Hayes (17381797)
Jean-Baptiste Krumpholz (17421790)
William Herschel (17381822)
Simon Le Duc (Leduc) (17421777)
Leopold Hofmann (17381793)
Vasily Pashkevich (17421797)
Jean-Franois Tapray (17381819)
Anton Ferdinand Tietz (17421811)
Anna Bon di Venezia (c. 1739after 1767)
Maria Carolina Wolf (17421820)
Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (17391799)
Luigi Boccherini (17431805)
Johann Baptist Wanhal (17391813)
Carlo Franchi (c. 1743after 1779)
Anna Amalia, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

(17391807)
Giuseppe Gazzaniga (17431818)
Mlle Guerin (born c. 1739, . 1755)

Agata della Piet (. c. 1740c. 1800)
Michael Arne (17401786)
Samuel Arnold (17401802)
Joseph Corfe (17401820) ()
Ernst Eichner (17401777)
Luigi Gatti (17401817)
Guillaume Lasceux (17401831)
Elisabeth Olin (17401828)
Giovanni Paisiello (17401816)
Samuel Webbe the elder (17401816)
Franz Nikolaus Novotny (17431773)

Joo Pedro de Almeida Mota (17441817)
Josef Brta (c. 17441787)
Joseph Beer (17441811)
Anne Louise Brillon de Jouy (17441824)
Gaetano Brunetti (17441798)
Marianna von Martines (17441812)
Yekaterina Sinyavina (died 1784)
Johann Michael Bach III (17451820)
Joseph Bengraf, or Jzsef Bengrf (17451791) ()
Maksym Berezovsky (c. 17451777)
Johann Andr (17411799)
Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges (1745

1799)
Franois Hippolyte Barthlemon (17411808)
Joo de Sousa Carvalho (1745c. 1799)
10.4. LATE CLASSICAL ERA COMPOSERS (BORN 17501770)
51
Georg Druschetzky (17451819)
Jean-Frdric Edelmann (17491794)
Nicolas-Jean Lefroid de Mreaux (17451797)
Johann Nikolaus Forkel (17491818)
Johann Peter Salomon (17451815)
Antonn Kraft (c. 17491820)
Maddalena Laura Sirmen (17451818)
Georg Joseph Vogler (17491814)
Carl Stamitz (17451801)
Polly Young, also known as Maria Barthlemon

(17491799)
Ferdinando Gasparo Turrini (1745c. 1820)

Jan Nepomuk Vent, or Johann Wendt (17451801)
Marie Emmanuelle Bayon Louis (17461825)
William Billings (17461800)
Giuseppe Cambini (1746c. 1825)
James Hook (17461827)
Ludwig Wenzel Lachnith (17461820)
Johann Friedrich Peter (17461813)
Giovanni Punto, or Jan Vclav Stich (17461803)
Joseph Quesnel (17461809)
Ivan Mane Jarnovi, or Giovanni Mane Giornovichi
(17471804)
Ivan Khandoshkin (17471804)
Leopold Kozeluch (17471818)
Justin Morgan (17471798)
Carl Marianus Paradeiser (17471775)
Johann Abraham Peter Schulz (17471800)
Joachim Albertini, or Gioacchino Albertini (1748
1812)
Francesco Azopardi (17481809)
Josef Fiala (17481816)
tienne-Joseph Floquet (17481785)
Emanuel Aloys Frster (17481823)
John Mahon (c. 17481834)
Christian Gottlob Neefe (17481798)
Theodor von Schacht (17481823)
William Shield (17481829)
Joseph Schuster (17481812)
Henriette Adlade Villard Beaumesnil (1748
1813)
Marija Zubova (17491799)
10.4 Late Classical era composers

(born 17501770)
Vincenta Da Ponte (. second half 18th century)
Giovanni Cifolelli (c. 1750s, . 1764)
Elizabeth Anspach (17501828)
Elizabeth Joanetta Catherine von Hagen (1750
1809/1810)
Antonio Rosetti (c. 17501792)
Antonio Salieri (17501825)
John Staord Smith (17501836)
Johannes Matthias Sperger (17501812)
Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel (17501817)
Jean Balthasar Tricklir (17501813)
Dmitro Bortniansky (17511825)
Bartolomeo Campagnoli (17511827)
Giuseppe Giordani, also known as Giordanello
(17511798)
Dietrich Ewald von Grotthu (17541786)
Jan Ktitel Kucha (17511829)
Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne (17511796)
Maria Anna Mozart (17511829)
Mary Ann Pownall (17511796)
Corona Schrter (17511802)
William Smethergell (17511836) ()
Mary Ann Wrighten (17511796)
Francesco Bianchi (17521810)
Muzio Clementi (17521832)
Domenico Cimarosa (17491801)
Georg Friedrich Fuchs (17521821)
Jean-Louis Duport (17491819)
Justin Heinrich Knecht (17521817)
52
Leopold Kozeluch (17521818)
Thomas Linley the younger (17561778)
Ludwig August Lebrun (17521790)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (17561791)
John Marsh (17521828)
Joseph Martin Kraus (17561792)
Josef Reicha (17521795)
Alexander Reinagle (17561809)
Johann Friedrich Reichardt (17521814)
Vincenzo Righini (17561812)
Juliane Reichardt, or Juliane Benda Reichardt

(17521783)
Mikhail Sokolovsky (1756after 1795)
Jane Savage (1752/31824)
Jan Waski (17561830)
Niccol Antonio Zingarelli (17521837)
Paul Wranitzky, also Pavel Vranick (17561808)
Jean-Baptiste Brval (17531823)
Antonio Calegari (17571828)
Nicolas Dalayrac (17531809)
Ignaz Pleyel (17571831)
Franz Anton Dimmler (17531827)
Alessandro Rolla (17571841)
Christian Friedrich Ruppe (17531826)
Harriett Abrams (17581821)
Johann Baptist Schenk (17531836)
Josepha Barbara Auernhammer (17581820)
Johann Samuel Schroeter, or Schrter (17531788)
Frdric Blasius, or Matthus Blasius (17581829)
Pedro tienne Solre (17531817)
Benedikt Schack, or Benedikt k (17581826)
Johan Wikmanson (17531800)
Carl Siegemund Schnebeck (17581806 or after)
Franz Anton Homeister (17541812)
Carl Friedrich Zelter (17581832)
Vicente Martn y Soler (17541806)
Marianna von Auenbrugger (17591782)
Etienne Ozi (17541813)
Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach (17591845)
Anton Stamitz (17541798 or 1809)
Franois Devienne (17591803)
Peter Winter (17541825)
Johann Christian Friedrich Haener (17591833)
Michl Yost (17541786)
Franz Krommer (17591831)
Maria Theresia Ahlefeldt (17551810)
Maria Theresa von Paradis (17591824)
Mateo Prez de Albniz (17551831)
Maria Rosa Coccia (17591833)
Giuseppe Antonio Capuzzi (17551818)
Sophia Maria Westenholz (17591838)
Giuseppe Ferlendis (17551802)
Luigi Cherubini (17601842)
Federigo Fiorillo (1755c. 1823)
Wojciech Dankowski (c. 1760c. 1836)
Antoine-Frdric Gresnick (17551799)
Johann Ladislaus Dussek (17601812)
John Christopher Moller (17551803)

Jean-Pierre Soli (17551812)
Giovanni Battista Viotti (17551824)
Franz Grill (c. 17561793)
Karel Blaej Kopiva (17561785)
Francesca Lebrun also Franziska Danzi Lebrun
(17561791)
Daniel Gottlob Trk (17561813)
Francesco Gardi (c. 1760c. 1810)

Jean-Franois Le Sueur, or Lesueur (17601837)
Franz Christoph Neubauer (c. 17601795)
Angelo Tarchi (17601814)
Gaetano Valeri (17601822)
Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg (17601802)
Marie-Elizabeth Clry (1761after 1795)
10.4. LATE CLASSICAL ERA COMPOSERS (BORN 17501770)

Yevstigney Fomin (17611800)
Daniel Steibelt (17651823)
Pierre Gaveaux (17611825)
Vincent Houka (17661840)
Friedrich Ludwig Aemilius Kunzen (17611817)
Rodolphe Kreutzer (17661831)
Erik Tulindberg (17611814)
Anne-Marie Krumpholtz (17661813)
Antonn Vranick, or Anton Wranitzky (1761

1820)
Ignaz Anton Ladurner (17661839)
Adelheid Maria Eichner (17621787)

Jane Mary Guest (17621846)
Jakob Haibel (17621826)
Friedrich Franz Hurka (17621805)
Jrme-Joseph de Momigny (17621842)
Marcos Antnio da Fonseca Portugal (17621830)
Stephen Storace (17621796)
Franz Xaver Sssmayr (17661803)

Joseph Weigl (17661846)
Samuel Wesley (17661837)
Caroline Wuiet (17661835)
Henri Montan Berton (17671844)
Amlie-Julie Candeille (17671834)
Ferdinand Frnzl (17671833)
Jos Maurcio Nunes Garcia (17671830)
Franz Tausch (17621817)
August Eberhard Mller (17671817)
Ann Valentine (17621842)
Wenzel Mller (17671835)
Johann Andreas Amon (17631825)
Andreas Romberg (17671821)
Franz Danzi (17631826)
Bernhard Romberg (17671841)
Johann Sebastian Demar (17631832)
Johannes Spech (1767?1836)
Domenico Dragonetti (17631846)
Artemy Vedel (17671808)
Giacomo Gotifredo Ferrari (17631842)
Johann Georg Heinrich Backofen (17681830?)
Adalbert Gyrowetz (17631850)
Carlos Baguer (17681808)
Jean-Xavier Lefvre (17631829)
Elizabeth Billington (c.17681818)
Johann Simon Mayr (17631845)
Benjamin Carr (17681831)
tienne Mhul (17631817)
Margarethe Danzi (17681800)
Niccol Moretti (17631821)
Domenico Della-Maria (17681800)
Matthew Camidge (17641844)
Carel Anton Fodor (17681846)
Franz Lauska (17641825)
Carl Andreas Goepfert (Gpfert) (17681818)
Valentino Fioravanti (17641837)
Filippo Gragnani (17681820)
Helene de Montgeroult (17641836)
Louis-Emmanuel Jadin (17681853)
John Addison (c. 17651844)
Samuel Webbe the younger (17681843)
Thomas Attwood (17651838)
Bonifazio Asioli (17691832)
Anton Eberl (17651807)
Cecilia Maria Barthlemon (c. 17691840)
Joseph Leopold Eybler (17651846)
Maria Theresa Bland (c. 17691838)
Friedrich Heinrich Himmel (17651814)
Kateina Veronika Anna Duskova (17691833)
Micha Kleofas Ogiski (17651833)
Jzef Elsner (17691854)
Jakub Jan Ryba (17651815)
Giuseppe Farinelli (17691836)
53
54
Francesco Gnecco (1769c. 1810)
Pierre Rode (17741830)
Johann Georg Lickl (17691843)
Gaspare Spontini (17741851)
Alexey Nikolayevich Titov (17691827)
Vclav Tomek (17741850)
Madame Ravissa (. from 1778; died 1807)
Christoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse (17741842)

Johann Anton Andr (17751842)
10.5 Classical era/Romantic transition composers (born 1770

1800)
Franois-Adrien Boieldieu (17751834)

Joo Domingos Bomtempo (17751842)
Maria Brizzi Giorgi (17751822)
Joo Jos Baldi (17701816)
Bernhard Crusell (17751838)
Ludwig van Beethoven (17701827)
Sophia Corri Dussek (17751847)
Ferdinando Carulli (17701841)
Margaret Essex (17751807)
douard Du Puy (17701822)
Franois de Fossa (17751849)
Peter Hnsel (17701831)
Sophie Gail (17751819)
James Hewitt (17701827)
Nicolas Isouard (17751818)
Anton Reicha (17701836)
Jos ngel Lamas (17751814)
Christian Heinrich Rinck (17701846)
Maria Hester Park (17751822)
Jan August Vitsek (17701839)
Ernst Theodor Amadeus Homann (17761822)
Adam Valentin Volckmar (17701851) ()
Hyacinthe Jadin (17761800)
Friedrich Witt (17701836)
Joseph Kner (17761856)
Johann Baptist Cramer (17711858)
Philipp Jakob Riotte (17761856)
Mme Delaval (. 17911802)

Ferdinando Paer (17711839)
Jn Josef Rsler or Johann Joseph Rsler (1771
1813)
Ignaz von Seyfried (17761841)

Ludwig Berger (17771839)
Pauline Duchambge (17781858)
Johann Nepomuk Hummel (17781837)
Antonio Casimir Cartellieri (17721807)
Sigismund Neukomm (17781858)
Lucile Grtry (17721790)
Fernando Sor (17781839)
Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (17721806)
Joachim Nicolas Eggert (17791813)
Maria Frances Parke (17721822)
William Knyvett (17791856)
Franois-Louis Perne (17721832)
Louise Reichardt (17791826)
Josef Triebensee (17721846)
Luigi Antonio Calegari (17801849)
Johann Wilhelm Wilms (17721847)
Conradin Kreutzer (17801849)
Sophie Bawr (17731860)
Louis Franois Dauprat (17811868)
Pietro Generali (17731832)
Anton Diabelli (17811858)
Wenzeslaus Matiegka (17731830)
Mauro Giuliani (17811829)
Joseph Wl (17731812)
Anthony Philip Heinrich (17811861)
Bartolomeo Bortolazzi (17731820)
Sophie Lebrun (17811863)
10.6. TIMELINE OF CLASSICAL COMPOSERS (PARTIAL)
55
Franois Joseph Naderman (17811835)
Carl Czerny (17911857)
Karl Stefan Aichelburg (17821817)
Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold (17911833)
Daniel Auber (17821871)
Giacomo Meyerbeer (17911864)
Carlo Coccia (17821873)
Franz Xaver Mozart (17911844)
John Field (17821837)

Niccol Paganini (17821840)
Charlotta Seuerling (17821828)
Friedrich Dotzauer (17831860)
Teresa Belloc-Giorgi (17841855)
Martin-Joseph Mengal (17841851)
Carlo Evasio Soliva (17911853)

Jan Vclav Voek (17911825)
Gioachino Rossini (17921868)
Hedda Wrangel (17921833)
Gertrude van den Bergh (17931840)
Bernhard Klein (17931832)
Caroline Ridderstolpe (17931878)
Francesco Morlacchi (17841841)
Amalie, Princess of Saxony (17941870)
George Onslow (17841853)
Ignaz Moscheles (17941870)
Ferdinand Ries (17841838)
Saverio Mercadante (17951870)
Louis Spohr (17841859)
Franz Berwald (17961868)
Alexandre Pierre Franois Boly (17851858)
Helene Liebmann (17961835)
Bettina Brentano (17851859)
Carl Loewe (17961869)
Catherina Cibbini-Kozeluch (17851858)
Mathilda d'Orozco (17961863)
Isabella Colbran (17851845)

Karol Kurpiski (17851857)
George Pinto (17851806)
Fanny Krumpholtz Pittar (17851815)
Marie Bigot (17861820)
Henry Rowley Bishop (17861855)
Giovanni Pacini (17961867)

Emilie Zumsteeg (17961857)
Luigi Castellacci (17971845)
Gaetano Donizetti (17971848)
Franz Schubert (17971828)
Annette von Droste-Hlsho (17971848)
Antonio Rolla (17981837)
Friedrich Kuhlau (17861832)
Olivia Buckley (17991847)
Pietro Raimondi (17861853)
Maria Fredrica von Stedingk (17991868)
Le Snchal de Kerkado (17861805)
Fromental Halvy (17991862)
Carl Maria von Weber (17861826)
Oscar I of Sweden (17991859)
Alexander Alyabyev (17871851)

Michele Carafa (17871872)
Johann Peter Pixis (17881874)
Simon Sechter (17881867)
Elena Asachi (17891877)
Nicolas Bochsa (17891856)
Frederic Ernest Fesca (17891826)
Maria Agata Szymanowska (17891831)
Harriet Browne (17901858)
10.6 Timeline of Classical composers (partial)

10.7 See also
List of Renaissance composers
List of Baroque composers
List of Romantic-era composers
List of classical music composers by era
56
10.8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.8.1
Text
First Family of the United States Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Family_of_the_United_States?oldid=760263316 Contributors: Nv8200pa, Dale Arnett, Caknuck, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, Neutrality, Dbachmann, TMC1982, Zetawoof, Pearle, Interiot, Hipocrite, DrBat, TommyBoy, Hohum, Staeiou, Angr, Thivierr, Trdel, Scm83x, Jcuk, BD2412, History21, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe,
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zero, Nick Number, Gdo01, PhilKnight, Hjal, Tvoz, CommonsDelinker, Jeepday, Arms & Hearts, Tstarnes, Guyzero, S (usurped also),
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Sourcechecker419, ArthurBot, Djh42883, Yoganate79, MerlLinkBot, Kacir, FrostySnows, Tktru, FrescoBot, Calibrador, Wikipe-tan,
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Iamthecheese44, Astros4477, Mom1967, Plumone13, Dexbot, SNUGGUMS, ZgortBX, Thatwweguy 619, ChristianObviously, StjJackson,
Qzd, User1937 and Anonymous: 83
Family of Donald Trump Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_of_Donald_Trump?oldid=760368454 Contributors: Marteau,
JFG, Edison, DVdm, Hondurazian, CambridgeBayWeather, Sandstein, Gilliam, Robinrobin, Mr. Vernon, Iridescent, Twas Now, Valoem,
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PerezHilton, Broken beauty, HookerCards, Trump221, Emannahyass, Hiyaaaaaaa, TheLeftIsCancer and Anonymous: 41
Music of Vienna Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Vienna?oldid=749624393 Contributors: TUF-KAT, Barbara Shack,
Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Rhollenton, Bob the Wikipedian, CommonsDelinker, Ninjasinadojo,
DerBorg, Lightbot, Pdebee, Dewritech, MisterGugaruz and Anonymous: 4
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Arek Sinanian, Joan1066, CLCStudent, TheLocalGeek, MaxDonovan, Gluons12, Banter101 and Anonymous: 736
History of sonata form Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sonata_form?oldid=750485022 Contributors: Hyacinth,
Opus33, Stirling Newberry, Antandrus, Karol Langner, Marcus2, Jayjg, Francis Schonken, Cavebear42, Noetica, Neilbeach, Ricree101,
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Pjoef, CharlesGillingham, Sfcallahan, Christiaanjmeyer, Addbot, Squandermania, Ciphers, ShellyT123, Materialscientist, Kkj11210,
Brambleclawx, Classicalfan2, Josve05a, Ngxingyu, ClueBot NG, Mtking, Basemetal, Mogism, Datdyat, Amortias, Woodstop45 and Anonymous: 29
10.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
57
Symphony Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony?oldid=759567291 Contributors: Sodium, AstroNomer, Dachshund, William

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MauritsBot, Xqbot, Jamesjohnmayhew, Lwx6068, T, Lgsspongebob, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Trumpetrep, Canned Soul, PM800,
Romnempire, D'ohBot, Rigaudon, Blueswan59, KosmischeSynth, HRoestBot, Edderso, Gingermint, Yutsi, Reconsider the static, Jauhienij,
Gerda Arendt, Double sharp, Deskford, Demusic, TjBot,
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BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Mahlerlover1, Davidiad, Sulagna.rao, Solomon7968, Toccata quarta, RudolfRed, Awroma, Pnmaestro88pn,
Saxophilist, TwoTwoHello, Frosty, Krishnar123, DavidHamlin, Theos Little Bot, Bananasoldier, Melonkelon, Ilovetopaint, Finnusertop,
NarnianViolinist, DavidBrooks-AWB, Qwertyxp2000, TechnoTalk, ChamithN, Mxchaezra, Zatsumin, Seattle lover 12, Polarkat, Briest
Melta Gth, KasparBot, Rocky Role, DatGuy, Arthur Milios and Anonymous: 287
Musical development Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_development?oldid=745634524 Contributors: Hyacinth, Khalad,
EldKatt, Fredrik, Bacchiad, Jfucinos, Herschelkrustofsky, Balster neb, Pekinensis, Josh Parris, FlaBot, YurikBot, Mushin, Volunteer
Sibelius Salesman, Todeswalzer, Reyk, SmackBot, Timneu22, Rrburke, Yms, CmdrObot, Taw22, Skullketon, The Duke of Waltham,
Wiae, ClueBot, Addbot, Squandermania, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Hamtechperson, Spencerpiers, ClueBot NG, Mahlerlover1, Devin.chaloux,
Toccata quarta, JakeDowell, Dexbot and Anonymous: 20
Tonality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality?oldid=758568708 Contributors: The Cunctator, Karl Palmen, Camembert, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Ellywa, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Timwi, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Robbot, Chris Roy, SpellBott, Stirling
Newberry, Ssd, BillyH, Wmahan, Chowbok, DavidBrooks, Dvavasour, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Lesgles, Karol Langner, Icairns,
Mindspillage, NathanHurst, Rich Farmbrough, Cfailde, Masudr, Mani1, Mage, Zenohockey, Jpgordon, Dave Fried, Ultra megatron, Tony
Sidaway, HGB, Deltabeignet, Rjwilmsi, Wahoove, Missmarple, RCSB, Joonasl, YurikBot, SkyCaptain~enwiki, Phantomsteve, Grafen,
Tony1, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, Py, Nereus124, Hmains, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Makemi, Topologyrob, Redpony, Rigadoun,
Rainwarrior, Violncello, OnBeyondZebrax, Paul Foxworthy, Gheuf, Blehfu, Jamoche, Derek Ball, MaglorThom, R.christie, Wikiwow,
Bmwilcox, Mr pand, Celerant, Jaxelrod, JAnDbot, Subitosera, Bahar, Magioladitis, Connormah, Jerome Kohl, Soulbot, MaestroX, Torchiest, Alro, J.delanoy, Pmbcomm, Kloisiie, Greenwyk, Commator~enwiki, Razool, Minestrone Soup, SieBot, Gerakibot, LeadSongDog,
Kate bassett, Smaug123, ClueBot, Recent Runes, Feline Hymnic, Acabashi, Versus22, Fede.Campana, Jovianeye, WikHead, Felix Folio
Secundus, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Kaustin6969, LaaknorBot, AndersBot, ChenzwBot, Herodotus5226, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, 5000ngers, Materialscientist, McSush, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Jubileeclipman, Blap
Splapf, Adavis444, FrescoBot, Ysyoon, Louperibot, Orenburg1, Double sharp, Ericvarillas, Annapoznanska, Hache Ele, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Tommy2010, Misty MH, Ajrdileva, AManWithNoPlan, IndustrialGothGeek, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Olorulus, Frze, Rossetti29, Toccata quarta, CounterXYZ, Basemetal, Symphonic Spenguin, BobbyBoykin, Frosty, Hucbald.SaintAmand,
Synthwave.94, Bensalabim, Adni, SpheresHarmony, KasparBot, JJMC89, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 128
List of period instruments Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_period_instruments?oldid=758589993 Contributors: Hyacinth, Opus33, Henry Flower, Sonjaaa, Stepp-Wulf, Rsholmes, Pcpcpc, Woohookitty, BD2412, Trisdee, Bgwhite, RussBot, Musicpvm,
Stephenb, Insouciance, Pegship, Nick Michael, Bluewave, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Makemi, Mike1901, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, MarkBuckles, MikeLynch, Grgory Leclair, VoABot II, Rahelisdolentis, CommonsDelinker, Trombamarina, M-le-motdit, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, GcSwRhIc, Ebrownless, Denisarona, ClueBot, Addbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Materialscientist, CarstenBN,
FrescoBot, LittleWink, Serols, Footwarrior, Webbie1234, Pdebee, Vrenator, Dcirovic, TyA, ClueBot NG, Robthepiper, O.Koslowski,
Widr, Harpsichord246, Sah chicken, Faizan, DavidLeighEllis, Ugog Nizdast, JustBerry, NottNott, JaconaFrere, Felix Modernssohn,
Drew2themax, OMICRONBSK17 and Anonymous: 107
List of Classical-era composers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Classical-era_composers?oldid=758797348 Contributors: Hyacinth, Adam78, Sj, Matthead, Antandrus, Marcus2, Mike Rosoft, Dmr2, Acjelen, Methegreat, Espoo, Schissel, Keriluamox,
FeanorStar7, Astrophil, Graham87, Koavf, Missmarple, Chekaz, TBHecht, Squeemu, DrG, Acyso, Lignomontanus, No Swan So Fine,
DVdm, Bgwhite, Digitalme, YurikBot, Gerhard51, MollyTheCat, Pegship, J. Van Meter, GrinBot~enwiki, PiCo, Melchoir, Jprg1966,
FordPrefect42, Gjwilson24, Makemi, Rigadoun, Voceditenore, Violncello, Dprior, Tawkerbot2, Oos, SheepdogSteve, Cydebot, Dafoeberezin3494, Robert.Allen, Mojo Hand, Folantin, Jacqke, Kitia, Snowolfd4, Catgut, J.delanoy, Clerks, Whjayg, DorganBot, Funandtrvl,
Aciram, Oshwah, Nuno Raimundo, Nrswanson, Cosprings, StAnselm, Sean.hoyland, Denisarona, ClueBot, (RT), Egmontaz, Goodvac, Fotiu, Gnowor, Mark Pfannschmidt, Addbot, Opus88888, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Yobot, Ectuohy, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz,
Sirion123, FrescoBot,
, Cnwilliams, Br289165, FuhrmannMarlene, Immunize, Tommy2010, K6ka, ClueBot NG, CactusBot, Escapepea, Dgljr5121973, Toccata quarta, Wikilew45, Basemetal, YiFeiBot, Manul, ClassicalComposer09, Ajveditor, Cewbot, Drew2themax
and Anonymous: 116
58
10.8.2
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Public
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First Family

First Family of the United States

Family of Donald Trump

Trump University logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trump International Golf Links logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Classical period (music)

Baroque/Classical transition c. 17301760

First Viennese School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Classical inuence on later composers

Classical period instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of sonata form

Late Baroque era (ca 1710 ca 1750)

Classical era (ca 1750 ca 1825) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Romantic era (ca 1825 ca 1910)

Other modern usages of symphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The division of a theme into parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Alteration of pitch intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sequence and the development of two or more themes in combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Characteristics and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Theoretical arrangement of pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contrast with modal and atonal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Synonym for key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.1.10 Consonance and dissonance

8.1.11 Tonal musics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History and theory

Outside common-practice period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computational methods to determine the key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of period instruments

10 List of Classical-era composers

10.3 Middle Classical era composers (born 17301750) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4 Late Classical era composers (born 17501770) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.5 Classical era/Romantic transition composers (born 17701800) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6 Timeline of Classical composers (partial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.8.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First Family of the United States

1.1 See also

The First Family of the United States (FFOTUS) is

Family of Donald Trump

2.1 Immediate family

Main article: Tiany Trump

Tiany Trump is the only child of Donald Trump and

Melania Trump (ne Knavs), the third wife of Donald

2.3. COATS OF ARMS

Further information: Trump family

Further information: MacLeod

In 1885, Donald Trumps grandfather, Friedrich Trump, 2.2.3 Genealogical table

Logo of the Trump International Golf Links Scotland golf resort

The German Trump family as such does not have a coat

CHAPTER 2. FAMILY OF DONALD TRUMP

Trump University logo

[11] Lopez, Marina (July 17, 2016). What Does Barron

Trump University used as its logo a newly designed logo

Trump International Golf Links logo

trail of 'the Donald' in the Trump ancestral home, The

In 2012 Donald Trump adopted a British-style coat of

[18] Mary MacLeod Trump Philanthropist, 88. The New

3.1 Viennese classicism

Main article: Wienerlied

Main article: Viennese classicism