Parts of speech

Words are divided into different classes, called parts of speech. According to their use; that is, according to the work
they do in a sentence, the parts of speech are of eight types: -

1. Noun. 2. Adjective. 3. Pronoun. 4. Verb

5. Adverb. 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection.

1. Noun
Definition: A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, thing or place.
Examples: Akber was a great king. (Person)
The rose smells sweet. (Thing)
The sun shines bright. (Thing)
His courage won him honor. (Thing)
Quetta is a small city. (Place)

Note: The word thing includes (1) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell; and (2) something that
we can think of, but we cannot perceive by senses e.g. happiness.
Kinds of Noun: - There are five kinds of nouns.

1. Proper nouns.
2. Common nouns.
3. Material nouns/ concrete nouns.
4. Abstract nouns.
5. Collective nouns.
1. Proper Noun: - Name of a particular person, place or a thing is called “proper noun”.
Example: - Akber, Pakistan, pen, etc.

2. Common Noun: - Name of a common person, thing or place is called common noun.
Example: - boy, teacher, apple, computer, city, country, etc.

3. (a) Material Noun: - Name of a material of which something is made, is called “ Material noun”.
Example: - iron, wood, steel, gold, plastic, etc.
(b) Concrete Noun: - Concrete noun is name of a solid that can be seen and touched.
Example: - T.V, table, box, desk, etc.
4. Abstract Noun: - Abstract noun is the name of an emotion or quality that can’t be seen and touched.
Example: - independence, anger, love, hatred, etc.

5. Collective Noun: Name of a group of persons or collection of things, is called “collective noun”.
Example: - team, the police, people, jury, party, army, etc.

Prepared by: Hameed Akber

 2. Adjective
Definition: - A word that defines or modifies a noun is called adjective.
Example: He is a tall boy. There is some water in the glass.

Degrees of adjective

There are three degrees of adjective: -

(1) Positive degree (2) Comparative degree (3) Superlative degree

1. Positive Degree: - The simple form of adjective is called “Positive degree” of adjective.
It is used to show the quality of a noun.
Example: - They are polite students. I am very happy.

2. Comparative Degree: - It is a higher degree than the positive, and when we compare two things,
persons or (sets of things) we use “Comparative degree” of adjective.
Example: - Karachi is bigger than Quetta. They are more intelligent than us.

3. Superlative Degree: - It is the highest degree of adjective, and it is use to compare more
than two things, persons or (sets of things).
Example: - Taj Mahal is the most building in Agra. Sana is the tallest girl in the class.

Formation of Comparative and Superlative

Kinds of Adjective: - We have the following kinds of Adjective.

1. Descriptive adjectives/ adjectives of quality.
2. Quantitative adjectives/ adjectives of quantity.
3. Demonstrative adjectives.
4. Distributive adjectives.
5. Numeral adjectives.
6. Proper adjectives.
7. Interrogative adjectives.
8. Possessive adjectives/ pronominal adjectives.
9. Emphatic adjective.
10. Exclamatory adjectives.
11. Phrasal adjectives.
12. Denominal adjectives.

1. Descriptive adjectives: - They describe the condition, age, or any other quality of a person, a
place or a thing.
Example: - Ali is a good teacher. This is a beautiful picture etc.

2. Quantitative adjectives: - when we want to talk about the quantity of a liquid or an uncountable
noun we use Quantitative adjectives.
Example: - There is some ink in the pot. I have much time to get ready.
There is a little sugar in the jar
 Note: - when we use (some, any, no, many, much etc) with countable nouns, we call them
“indefinite numeral adjectives.”
Example: I have many friends. There are some boys in our class.

3. Demonstrative adjectives: - “Demonstrative adjectives” are used to point out the person, thing
or place.
Example: - This is your car. That is my coat.
4. Distributive adjectives: - Distributive adjectives refer to the each one of a number separately.
Example: - Every boy was working hard.
Each student must pay full attention.

5. Numeral adjectives: - this is a kind of adjective that shows the definite or indefinite number of
persons or things.
Example: - There were few people in the park. (Indefinite numeral adjective)
We got ten days to get ready for exams. (Definite numeral adjective)
Note: Definite numeral adjectives are of three kinds. 1. Cardinal adjective
2. Ordinal adjective
3. Multiplicative numeral

4. Cardinal adjectives: - They show the exact number. (one, two, three…)
5. Ordinal adjectives: - They show the exact position. (first, second, third…)
6. Multiplicative adjectives: - They are used to show that something is repeated or multiplied. (single,
double, triple…)

6. Proper adjectives: - Proper adjectives are taken from or made from proper nouns.
Example: Pakistani, American, Indian, etc.
7. Interrogative adjectives: - “W-H question words” that are used to ask questions are called
“Interrogative adjectives”
Example: What are they doing? Who is that boy? Where do you live?
8. Possessive adjectives: - Possessive adjectives show possession and they are used before a noun.
Example: - He is our teacher. She is his sister. My house is old.

9. Emphatic adjectives: - Words like “very” and “own” that are used before the nouns which they
modify are called emphatic adjectives.

Example: - My very enemies are my own relatives. Their own children wanted to kill them.
His own brother defeated him.

10. Exclamatory adjectives: - When “what” alone or with a phrase modifies a noun, is called
“Exclamatory adjective”
Example: - What a shame! What a beauty she has! What a house this is!
 11. Phrasal adjectives: - When two or three adjectives (words) together modify a noun they are
called
“Phrasal adjectives”

Example: - They played a ten-day match. This is a three-month course.

Note: - When we use “Phrasal adjectives” before the noun it comes in a singular form but if we use
it after the noun then it comes in plural form.
Example: - I paid a hundred-rupee note. (Not a hundred-rupees note)
It was a note of hundred rupees.

12. Denominal adjectives: - When a noun is used to modify another noun, it is called
“Denominal adjective”
Example: - Medical store. Flour Mill. English Language. Leather coat

3. Pronoun
Definition: - A word that is used instead of a noun is called a “Pronoun”
Example: - Sana is a girl. She is very intelligent.

Kinds of pronoun
We have the following kinds of pronoun.
1. Personal Pronouns
2. Reflexive Pronouns
3. Relative Pronouns
4. Indefinite Pronouns
5. Demonstrative Pronouns
6. Distributive Pronouns
7. Interrogative Pronouns

1. Personal pronouns: - Personal pronouns are used in the place of noun to avoid repetition of nouns.
(I, he, she, they, we, it, his, her, our, my, me, him, them etc) are examples of personal
pronouns.
Note: - Personal pronouns are divided into several cases.

Cases of Pronouns
1. Subjective case: - he, she, it, I, we, you, they (they are used as a “Subject” in the sentence)
2. Objective case: - him, her, it, me, us, you, them (they are used as an “Object” in the sentence)
3. Possessive case: - in possessive case we have two types
(1) Possessive adjectives: - his, her, its, my, our, your, their
(2) Possessive pronouns: - his, hers, its, mine, ours, yours, theirs
Note: - “Possessive adjectives” and “ Possessive pronouns” have the same meaning but there is
difference in their usage. We use nouns after “Possessive adjectives” and we use nouns before
“Possessive pronouns” or sometime we don’t use any nouns we only indicate them.

4. Reflexive case: himself, herself, itself, myself, ourselves, yourself/yourselves, themselves.

2. Reflexive pronouns: - when subject and object are the same we use reflexive pronouns.
 Example: - He is crazy he beats himself.

Note: - When we use “Reflexive pronouns” to express “emphasis” then they are called “emphatic
pronouns”.
Example: - I myself went there and talked to him.

3. Relative pronouns: - When we use “who, which, that, whom, etc.” between two clauses to give
information about a person, thing or place, we call them “Relative pronouns”.
Example: - He is the boy who beat me. (“Who” gives information about the boy)
It is the dog that bit my brother.

4. Indefinite pronouns: - someone, somebody, something, somewhere, anyone, anybody, etc are called
“Indefinite pronouns” We use them when the person, thing, or place is unknown.
Example: - There is someone in this room.

5. Demonstrative pronouns: - A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun.

(this, that, these, those) are “demonstrative pronouns” when they are used
in place of any noun.
Example: - This must not continue. These are now old

6. Distributive pronouns: - Each, Either, Neither etc are called “Distributive Pronouns”

Example: -

7. Interrogative Pronouns: - When “Who, Whom, Whose, What, Which” are used at the beginning
of a sentence as question words are called “Interrogative Pronouns”.

4. Verb

Definition: - A word, which shows an action/state/condition, possession/presence or absence of a thing

Or a person is called “Verb”.
Example: - He goes to school. (Action) She is a good student (state/condition)
Sana has a lot of books. (Possession) There is a marker on the desk. (Presence)

Kinds of Verb

We have the following kinds of Verb

1. Causative Verbs.
2. Transitive Verbs.
3. Intransitive Verbs.
4. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.
5. Ditransitive Verbs.
6. Mono Transitive Verbs.
7. Complex Transitive or Factitive Verbs.
8. Dynamic Verbs.
9. Stative Verbs.
10. Stative and Dynamic Verbs
11. Verbs of Perception/ Verbs of sensation.
12. Copular Verbs/ linking Verbs/ Predicating Verbs.
13. Phrasal Verbs/ Prepositional Verbs.
14. Auxiliary Verbs.
15. Hypothesis Verbs.
16. Emotive Verbs.
17. Factual Verbs.

1. Definition: - when we do not perform an action directly by ourselves, we get it done indirectly by some one
else we use “Causative Verbs”.
The following are the Causative verbs.
1. get
2. have / has
3. make
4. help
5. cause
6. let

2.