Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2013-2014
SHRI.K.J.POLYTECHNIC,BHARUCH
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Project Report
2013-2014
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
PREPARED BY :-
Sr. No.
Enroll No.
Name
1.
116450305053
DIVYESH DHRUV
2.
116450305054
JAYVEERSINH
3.
116450305057
KETAN PATEL
4.
116450305058
MEHUAL CHAUHAN
5.
116450305060
MANORANJAN SINGH
GUIDED BY:Mr.R.I.RATWANI
( H.O.D)
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Gujarat technological university is one of the biggest university which offers the
various types of courses likes masters,bachelors,diploma,post
graduate,medical,pharmacy,etc..
This project is given by GTU to the partial fullfillment of the diploma in chemical engg.
To undeerstand and analysed the various project done in the industry through project
surveys and visiting of the industry . GTU also describe the meaning of giving the project
to the enigneer in the 6th semister for well learning of the manufacturing of the chemicals
and their detail study including the project management, production, properties of the
chemical,economic evalution as per company capacity and dail production rate, it also
include the site selection parameters which gives engineers the study of the plant site setup
and the layout of the plant .
The reason of giving project to the engineers is to develop the leadership ,project
management ,surveys and detail study.
Thanks to GTU,
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Date: / /2014
-----------------------------
------------------------------
(GUIDED BY)
( H.O.D)
Mr.R.I.Ratwani
Mr.R.I.Ratwani
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Preface
Teaching is the important knowledge, but training develops habits. It assures that
Technical skills cannot be perfect without practical training Hence, the practical
training is grate valuable for Engineering Student the Actual aim of in Plant
training is to get all Operation and Process which are Carried Out in the Industries
and More about the Chemical Equipment..
Practice makes a man perfect in practical training a person Deals with Many technical
Problems. In real Operation and Process another Aim of in Plant training is to learn
Industrial Management and Discipline.
The report provides preliminary information and gives an idea and in sigh into the
process design aspects.
The report also includes safety consideration, instrumentation and process control,
cost analysis. The reference section at the end lists the source of information. A
detailed market surveys and plant set up design factor has to be studied before
setting up a plant end. A number of pilot plant trials should be conducted before
starting. No such trials were conducted.
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I extend my sincere gratitude to my guide, Mr.R.I.RATWNI lecture and our head
of department in chemical engineering dept. Shri .K.J.Polytechnic,Bharuch for sharing his
vast knowledge and resources and also for his availability
Round a clock,
I am also thankful to prof Mr.R.I.Ratwani in lecture and our project group adviser in
chemical engineering department Shri.K.J.polytechnic,Bharuch. For extending their help in
the course, I am also in dept. to all the authors and editors of various reference books,
research paper that helped me through this report
Thanking you sir..
D.Chemical Engineering
(3rd year)
INDEX
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2013-2014
SR.NO
SUBJECT
PAGE
NO.
12
14
22
24
27
32
36
UTILITIES REQUIRED
43
10
46
11
52
12
ECONOMIC EVALUTION
57
13
64
14
81
15
CONCLUSION
85
16
REFERENCE
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CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION AND
HISTORY OF PRODUCT
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
This project report also consists of the designing of the selected process. The designing
consists of sizing of the all the major equipments present in the process. A detailed
mechanical design of the main Reactor was also done.
Rough plant layout is also prepared to get an idea of required plot area. A detailed financial
study comprising Project cost estimate, Cost of production and financial analysis was also
carried out. The project was found to be financially sound with an attractive pay out
period.
Altogether this report consists of all the engineering and financial aspects required for
setting up a Hexamine manufacturing facility.
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
HISTORY OF HEXAMINE
The synonyms or other names of Hexamine are 1,3,5,7- Tetraazaadamantane;
Ammonioformaldehyde,Aceto HMT; Aminoform; Ammoform; Cystamin; Cystogen;
Formamine; Formin; Hexaform; Hexamethylenamine; Urotropin; Hexamethylentetramine;
Hexilmethylenamine; HMT; Methamin; Methenamine; Resotropin; Uritone; Urotropine;
Esametilentetramina; 1,3,5,7-Tetraazatricyclodecane.
The chemical structure of Hexamine is known in great detail. The carbon and nitrogen
atoms are all equivalent. In the three dimensional structure, the nitrogen atoms occupy the
summits of an octahedron. It crystallizes as rhombic dodecahedron. On heating it sublimes
with decomposition at temperature above 200 oC but does not melt. Products of thermal
decomposition include ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen and
resinous oil. Charring becomes apparent at about 280 oC when it is heated in sealed tube.
Its heat of combustion (adjusted to 25 oC) is approx 1003.0 k cal per g mole (10). thermo
dynamic properties as reported by change western per g mole at 25 oC are heat of
formation 28.8 k cal , free energy 102.7 k cal heat capacity 36.4 cal/ oC and entropy
36.048cal/ oC . It is soluble in water and can be crystallized as a hydrate (CH2)6N4.6H2O
which is stable at temperature below 14 C. Hexamethylene tetra amine forms a saturated
aqueous solution containing 46.5% by weight at 25 oC. Its solubility decreases with
increase in temperature; the solubility also reduced by dissolving ammonia.
Hexamethylene tetra amine is soluble in chloroform (13.4g /100 ml at RT) and ethyl
alcohol (2.9 g /100 ml at RT) and methanol (7.3 g /100 ml at RT). It is slightly soluble
(less than approx 1%) in carbon tetra chloride, acetone, benzene and ether and it is
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
completely insoluble in petroleum ether. It behaves like a weak monobase and aqueous
solution shows pH values in range of 8-9.
Solutions are comparatively stable, showing little hydrolysis in absence of acid. Hexamine
is easily hydrolyzed in presence of acids to formaldehyde & ammonia. Its primary reaction
with acids leads to the formation of salts such as (CH2)6N4HCl but these are relatively
unstable and cannot be easily isolated.
With hydrogen peroxide in acid solution, Hexamethylene tetra amine forms explosive
peroxide Hexamethylene tri peroxide Diamine.
Hexamine is reduced with zinc and acetic acid or by electrolytic means to give methyl
amines. It forms addition compounds with chlorine, bromine and iodine. Its tendency to
form addition complexes is highly marked in case of in case of metallic salts which may be
illustrated by silver nitrate and mercuric chloride derivatives.
Hexamine is analyzed by boiling a weighed sample (approx.) with 40ml 1N sulfuric acid
until all formaldehyde is vaporized, and titrating the excess acid. Each ml of 1N acid
consumed is equal to 0.03504g of hexamine.
Hexamine is not poisonous but some human beings are sensitive to it and are subjected t
skin rash when they come in contact with it t its vapours. If toxic symptoms are observed
then a physician may be consulted.
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HEXAMINE
CHAPTER-2
PRESENT STATUS
INCLUDING LIST OF
INDUSTRIES
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HEXAMINE
6. Aldehydes India,Faridabad
7. Kakar Trading Co., New Delhi
8. Solar Surgical and Pharmaceuticals,mumbai
World Wide Producers Of Hexamine
1. BEIJING SUNNY-RICH COMPAY [China]
2. Jinan xinxing blowing agent co.ltd. [China
3. Wuyi beiqi commodity factory
4. Yantai huawei industry and trading co,ltd [China]
5. Jinan Shenyu International Trade Co., Ltd. [China]
6. Henan Harvest Chemicals Import & Export Co. Limited, china
7. Chemanol,dammam,Saudi , Arabia
8. Jinan Licheng District Xinxing Auxiliary Agent Factory, china
9. Quzhou Chemical City Trade Co. Limited, Quzhou, China
10. Lee Chang Yung Chemical Industry Corporation, Taipei, Taiwan
11. Cioma SA, Medelln - Na, Colombia
12. Blagden Chemicals Limited, Croydon - CR9 3QU, United Kingdom
13. Shandong Jiasheng Industry Co. Limited, Taian - 271 000, China
14. Yantai Huawei Industry And Trading Co. Limited, Yantai - 264 100, China
15. Heliopolis Chemical Industries, Cairo - Na, Egypt
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
CHAPETER : 3
PROPERTIES AND
APPLICATION OF PRODUCT
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HEXAMINE
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140.19
Melting Point
Sublimes at 280 C
7.5-9.0
Density (20C)
1.33g/cm3
At 20C 89.5g/100g
At 40C 87.4g/100g
At 60C 84.4 g/100g
Ignition temperature
390 C
Bulk density
Ground form
300-400 kg/m3
Hexamine does not melt and sublimates almost under composed in a vacuum at 230270C.Decomposition begins at temperatures above 270C. Hexamine is highly soluble
In water. Solubility decreases slightly as temperature rises.
The solutions are slightly alkaline, with pH values usually between 8 and 9. In organic
Solvents, Hexamine is barely soluble.
The following table shows the solubility of the pure product in a number of important
Solvents
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Chloroform
13.4
Methanol
7.2
Ethanol
2.9
Amyl alcohol
1.8
Acetone
0.6
Petroleum
0.2
Xylene
0.1
Trichloroethylene
0.1
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Apart from its tendency to stick, Hexamine is not subject to changes during storage and can
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HEXAMINE
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be used even after several months. To improve the flow properties, particularly for the
grades marked free flowing, special highly dispersed silica are added.
These additives are chemically neutral for those areas in which these grades are used. They
are essential to enable the product to be used effectively. When conducting a test analysis of
these grades, it should be remembered that the ash content is higher and the Hexamine
content lower.
When working with finely ground grades, precautionary measures must be taken against
explosive dust/ air mixtures. Explosion pressure can reach 12.7 bars, with a maximum
pressure build-up speed of 370 bar/sec.
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2013-2014
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HEXAMINE
CHAPTER-4
PROPERTIES OF
RAW MATERIALS
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HEXAMINE
FORMALDEHYDE
Physical and Chemical Properties:
Chemical Formula: HCHO
Molecular Weight: 30.03
Appearance: Clear, colorless liquid.
Odor: Pungent odor.
Solubility: Infinitely soluble.
Specific Gravity: 1.27
pH: 2.8 (31% solution)
% Volatiles by volume @ 21C (70F): 100
Boiling Point: 96C (205F)
Melting Point: -15C (5F)
Vapor Density (Air=1): 1.04
Vapor Pressure (mm Hg): 1.3 @ 20C (68F)
AMMONIA
Physical and Chemical Properties:
Chemical Formula: NH3
Molecular Weight: 17.03
Appearance: colorless gas
Odor: Pungent odor.
Solubility in water: 89.9 g/100cc at 0C
Specific Gravity: 0.9 at 25 C
pH: 8.4
% Volatile: 100
Boiling Point: -33 C
Freezing Point: -77C
Vapor Density (Air=1): 0.596 at 0 C
Vapor Pressure (mm Hg): 10 atm at 25.7 C
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HEXAMINE
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CHAPTER-5
VARIOUS PROCESSES OF
MANUFACTUING
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6CH 2 O 4 NH 3 C6 H 12 N 4 6H 2 O
The reaction is strongly exothermic. The normally expected temperature rise should not,
take place, since at, too high a temperature there is the danger of producing by-products.
The first plants for production of hexamine operated at, a reaction temperature of about
20 oC, and used aqueous solutions of formaldehyde and ammonia as raw materials in
the batch process. In some cases a part of the ammonia was gaseous. The reaction
temperature and the relatively great, heat of reaction has always been difficult to control.
To provide the cooling surfaces, large units of correspondingly large volumes were
necessary. The procedure was batch wise and required as much as 36 hours per charge.
The hexamine obtained in solution (10 to 20% depending on the consent, ratio of the raw
materials) was concentrated in vacuum (about 40 mm. Hg.) until hexamine was
crystallized during a continuous addition of ammonia. After this operation, requiring 24
hours, the product obtained was re crystallized to hexamine.
A continuous process for Hexamethylene tetramine production allows the direct addition
of the formaldehyde and the ammonia in the gaseous phase to the reactor. The
formaldehyde may come directly in unpurified form from an efficient and specially
devised oxidation unit fed with methanol and integrally a part of the production unit. The
heats of hydration of the two gases and the heat of the reaction accomplished in an aqueous
phase are removed by vaporization of water from the reactor, which is actually a specially
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HEXAMINE
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fitted still pot. In order to prevent losses of ammonia or formaldehyde gas, their effective
concentrations in the reactor must be very low, or they would pass off with the vapors and
be lost to the reaction. The optimum temperature of the reaction may be controlled by
varying the total pressure at which the reaction mixture is allowed to boil or by controlling
the partial pressure by the presence of noncondensable gases. The reaction under these
desirable conditions is extremely fast. The solid hexamine is removed continuously from
the reactor either as fine white crystals or as a solution of any desired concentration. The
heat of the reaction and of the hydration of the starting gases performs the entire water
removal and eliminates the need of additional evaporative equipment and heat.
3. Hexamine manufacture:
As we know the lower aldehydes react very rapidly with ammonia without any need of
catalysts and also at low temperature. This phenomenon is used for the production of
Hexamine. Aqueous phase reaction of ammonia and formaldehyde is carried out in a
semibatch manner. In such plant reactors it is from 1 to 2 metric tons per day for a reactor
of relatively small size with a yield on a one-pass basis of above 99% for both ammonia
and formaldehyde.
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2013-2014
CHAPTER-6
MOST SUITABLE PROCESS
IN DETAIL(DESCRIPTION)
WITH FLOW SHEET
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2013-2014
In the second given process both the reactants react in gaseous form and hence it is very
difficult reaction. This is because ammonia in the gaseous form may prove very dangerous.
Moreover the concentrations of ammonia and formaldehyde must be kept low. Otherwise
there will be loss of the gases (due to passing off with vapours) and ultimately cause loss to
the reaction.
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HEXAMINE
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HEXAMINE
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PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The feed of aqueous formaldehyde from the storage tank is charged in an agitated and
refrigerated steel reactor. Ammonia and formaldehyde both are stored in storage tanks.
Ammonia is then introduced in the formaldehyde solution. Ammonia added is kept slightly
in excess to prevent side reactions to occur. The reaction is continued and the pH is
maintained to about 8. The formaldehyde for the reaction may be produced from methanol.
The reaction mixture is kept for 9 hours. At this time the product should be alkaline to
phenolphthalein. As the stoichiometry shows water formation takes place due to the
reaction. The mixture of Hexamine and water is then removed from the agitated steel
reactor.
The liquid product in the outlet is then sent for several unit operations for achieving pure
Hexamine. Activated charcoal is added for filtration of the liquid product (Hexamine) and
then the liquid is filtered through canvas in the filter press. The liquid is evaporated at a
maximum temperature of 30 oC and the pressure is kept about 20-30 mmHg. Aqueous
ammonia is again added at a rate of 7 ml/min for stability. The remaining mass comprising
of solids is washed and centrifuged with 1 Kg 25% of ammonia. The product is dried in the
drier at 30 oC. By processing the mother liquor the yield may be increased to 96-100%.
The hexamine waste water is sent for purification to waste water treatment or the effluent
treatment plant and cation exchange processes.
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The effective treatment of hexamine waste water is one of the major problems or the
producers of Hexamine. The waste water generally contains residual amounts of reactants
i.e. formaldehyde and ammonia. As well as residual amounts of Hexamine. It is very
essential for removal of these impurities from water. There is no general process or
hexamine water treatment.
Firstly the waste water is sent for distillation to remove all the volatile impurities. The
waste water is sent through cation resins to remove cations. The cation resin is used such
that it can be regenerated. Then they are passed through exposure to ultra violet rays or
bacteria culture (bacteriological treatment) or removal of formaldehyde.
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HEXAMINE
Chapter-7
MAJOR EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
= 250o C
Pressure
= 1 atm
Capacity
22750
1071kg / m3
= 21.24 m3
Gross volume
= 1.5 x 21.24
= 451139 m3
Taking
L
=2
D
=3m
=6m
Material of construction
= mild steel
Thickness
= 6mm
Agitator reactor.
Capacity
= 19500 kg
Volume of NaOH
= 18.829 m3
Gross volume
= 19.24 m3
Diameter
= 2.3 m
Height
= 4.6 m
= 25o C
= 1 atm
Thickness
= 6 mm
Material
= mild steel
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HEXAMINE
= 13200 kg
= 1221.8 m3
Volume
= 6.8 m
Length
= 13.6 m
= 6 atm
Thickness
= 6 mm
Material
= s.s 316
Filter press :
Substance
volume
2.1292
1.283
3.41 m3
Gross Volume
= 1.5 x 3.41
= 5.1106 m3
Diameter
= 1.5 m
Length
=3m
Agitator
(no. 1)
= turbine type
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Centrifuge washer:
Substance
volume
2.55 m 3
3.7 m 3
Gross volume
Diameter
= 1.82 m
Length
= 3.64 m
Thickness
= 6 mm
Material
= s.s
Evaporator :
Duty: 1. evaporator 1410.6 kg of water from 28072.2 kg Na Phenate solution and convert
it to dry powder(130o C, 1 atm )
2. 2807.2 kg solid Na Phenate is reacted with 1320 kg CO2 gas at 6 atm and 140oC .
35
HEXAMINE
Chapter-8
MAJOR
INSTRUMENTATION
REQUIRED
36
2013-2014
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Pressure Gauge:
The bourdon tube is most frequently used in the pressure gauge. A bourdon tube consist of
a long think walled cylinder of non circular cross section sealed at the end, made from
materials such as phosphor bronze, steel & beryllium copper, and attached by a light line
work to the mechanism which operates the pointer. The other and of tube is fixed and is
open for the application of the pressure which is to be measured.
The tube is soldered or wended to a socket at the based, through which pressure connection
is made. Bourdon tube is available in many shapes like, c type, spiral, & helical.
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Temperature Measurement:
Temperature has been defined in a variety of ways. One example defines temperature as
the measure of heat associated with the movement of the molecules of a substance. This
definition is based on the fact that the molecules of all matter are in continuous motion that
is sensed as heat.
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While there are many types of temperature sensing devices, they can be classified into two
major groups temperature sensors and absolute thermometer. Three of the most common
types of the temperature sensors are thermocouples, resistance temperature devices, and
filled systems.
Temperature depends on the properties of some of the particular material, such as a gas,
liquid, metal and alloy for their temperature indications. Typically, temperature indications
are based on the material properties such as the coefficient of expansion, temperature
dependence of electrical resistance, thermoelectric power and velocity of sound.
Flow Measurement:
Flow is one of the most difficult process variables to measure accurately. One of the
simplest methods for determining the flow rate is the fluid per unit time method, which
assumes a basic premise of the fluid mechanics that mass is a conserved quantity. The
mass entering a system is equal to the mass leaving the system and both are measured over
the same time interval.
This method for accurate flow measurement takes into consideration two basic properties
of fluid, which are density and viscosity and their effect on the accuracy of flow
measurement. The instruments used are Differential pressure meter and orifice plates
Level Measurement:
Level is measured at the position of the interface between phases, where the phases are
liquid/gas, solid/gas, or immiscible liquid/liquid. Level is simply a measure of height
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HEXAMINE
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defining the position of the interface that is the surface where the two phases meet with
respect to a reference point. This measurement is often converted to a volumetric or
gravimetric quantity. So level may be measured directly by defining the position of the
interface or indirectly by measuring another quantity, such as volume and interfacing the
level measurement by converting the quantity to a level measurement.
Level is a vertical measurement taken from the surface or interface to a fixed point.
Normally the reference point is the bottom of the vessel holding the substance. As with
most process variables, level can be measured by both direct and indirect methods.
The level measurement is done by Level Gauge, Differential pressure level detector,
Displacer Level detector, Ultrasonic Level detector.
Ph Meter:
In our required process we need to maintain pH of 8.0. Because of this we use the
following specifications.
Make: BELTA INSTRUMENTS
Model series: 671 P
While measuring pH:
Match the filling solution of the reference electrode to the sample, to minimize
junction potential problems.
Select a pH electrode with lower resistance glass rinsing the electrode with
appropriate solvents, and then soaking in pH buffer.
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Method have been developed which minimizes the problems encountered when measuring
Ph in pure waters. The method uses a quality glass pH electrode and special set of a pure
water pH additive & a special se of diluted buffers containing the same background of
pure water pH additive.
Adding the pure water pH additive to the samples increases the ionic strength thus
reducing the noise and improving time. The shift in pH caused by the addition of the pure
water pH additive is minimal, between 0.005 & 0.01 pH units, since the same amount of
pure water pH additive is added to the buffers and samples the net effect on the pH is
negligible.
Control Valves:
Valve Sizing:-
Correct valve sizing is absolutely necessary for efficient and economical process control
installation. Selection of suitable flow data for sizing calculation should proceed with great
care. Realistic valves for minimum flow conditions are the most frequent reasons for
incorrect sizing.
Since the control valve is an adjustable orifice its area is automatically changed by the
controlling instrument to produce rate of flow under varying pressure drop condition.
Therefore available operating range is sacrifice when pressure drops are specified too low,
and when safety factors are unnecessarily high.
The amount of the operational pressure drop require for good control is a function of the
pressure differential across the valve with respect to the drop through the entire system.
The operational pressure drop should be at least 1/3 or of the total system pressure drop.
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Types of Control Valves :In the process industries there are various types of the control elements in which control
valve is one and is the final control element in any of the process loop. Control valve has a
vast classification according to its various parameters, mechanisms and many other factors.
Depending upon that all here following valves are described in brief with their features and
applications:
1) Globe valves
2) Bellow sealed valves
3) Butterfly valves
4) Ball valves
5) Diaphragm valves
6) Pressure Reducing valves
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HEXAMINE
Chapter-9
Utilities required
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HEXAMINE
Utilities required
Utilities of
Steam
Cooling water
Raw water
DM water
Instrument air
Air
STEAM:
COOLING WATER:
PH of water is 7-7.5.
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2013-2014
RAW WATER:
DM WATER:
INSTRUMENT AIR:
Instrument air is normally supplied from the dry air stream for regulating
controllers, valves and auto controlling instruments.
AIR:
Plant air can also be used for flushing the vessel purpose.
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Chapter-10
Layout and location of plant
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The choice of the rural site should first of all based on a complete survey of the advantages
and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, oil the advantages and
disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal factors that must be
considered while selecting a suitable plant site are briefly discussed in this section. Tile
factors to be considered are:
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Location:
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects tile cost of product
distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important
consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually finds
advantageous to purchase from near by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the major
consumers are fertilizer industries and hence the plant should be erected in close proximity
to those units.
Transport:
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to
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at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is
being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse.
Rail transport will be cheaper for the long distance transport. If possible the plant site
should have access to all three types of transportations. There is usually need for
convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and the main company
head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the plant personnel are
necessary.
Availability of labors:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought him from outside the site, but there should be ail adequate
pool of unskilled labors available locality, and labors suitable for training to operate the
plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs
and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing tile availability and
suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.
Availability of utilities:
The utilities is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of any
production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central facility and
includes water, fuel and electricity which are briefly described as follows:
Water:Tile water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water
for cooling washing, steam generation and as a raw material ]it the production of sulfuric
acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available
namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. It the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, its
desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. Tile temperature, mineral
content, slit and sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purifications
treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply. Demineralized water,
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from which all the minerals have been removed is used where pure water is needed for the
process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to
provide the cooling water required on site.
Electricity:
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and stem are required for running, the various
equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lighting and general use and thus be
considered as one major factor is choice of plant site.
Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping.
Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems must be
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considered for selection a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at locations
subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
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HEXAMINE
Chapter-11
Site selection parameter
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Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on
how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. Tile
principal factors that are considered are listed below:
1. Economic consideration: construction and operating costs.
2. Process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.
5. Health and safety considerations.
6. Future plant expansion.
7. Modular construction.
8. Waste disposal requirements.
Costs:
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run
of connecting pipe between equipment, and least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
Process requirements:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate
the base columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to pump.
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Convenience of operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and 4isti-umeiits should be located at convenient
positions and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
Convenience of maintenance:
Heat exchanges need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawal for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the outside of building. Equipment that requires dismantling
for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places under cover.
Modular construction:
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at tile plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
its instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control.
2. Reduces construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labors on site.
55
HEXAMINE
PLANT LAYOUT
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2013-2014
HEXAMINE
Chapter-12
Economic evalution
57
2013-2014
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Economic evaluation
Basis
Ton/day
Working day
Ton/year
30
350
10500
Plant Capacity
Rs./kg
Ton/day
Ton /year
Rs./year
formaldehyde
22
42.855
14999.25
329983500
NH3
20
16.131
5645.85
112917000
Total
442900500
Nos.
Pay/month
pay/year
M.D.
60000
720000
V.P.
40000
G.M.
35000
420000
28000
336000
15000
180000
12000
720000
Supervisor
10
6000
720000
Technician
3000
108000
Chemist
6000
144000
Clerk
3500
252000
Peon
2000
96000
Skilled labours
10
4000
480000
20
3000
720000
Production
Manager
Plant Incharge
Product.
Engineer
Unskilled
labours
Total
4896000
58
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Equipments
No
Total
Capacity Price/unit
price
Reactor
10 M
1,700,000
Centrifuge
10hp
533617
533,617
Dryer
9M
1533617
1533617
1000000
1000000
Pumps
5hp
41500
332,000
Storage tank
50M
932567
1865134
20M
465000
465,000
50M
932567
932567
Boiler
7M
1265655
1,265,655
Cooling Tower
355690
355,690
Holding Tank
565000
1130000
20M
Total
1,700,000
9,579,663
9579663
1 painting
40 % P.E.C.
3831865.2
10 % P.E.C.
957966.3
3 Piping installed
80 % P.E.C.
7663730.4
4 Electrical installed
15 % P.E.C.
1436949.45
70 % P.E.C.
6705764.1
improvement
70 % P.E.C.
6705764.1
Land
6 % P.E.C.
574779.78
Direct cost
37456482.3
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
3745648.23
A
10 % D.C.
fee
3
7491296.46
20 % D.C.
6
3745648.23
Contingency
10 % D.C.
Indirect Cost
14982592.9
(iii)
52439075.3
Working Capital:
13109768.8
(iv)
Working capital
15 % T.C.
1.25F.C.I.
working capital.
60
65548844.0
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HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Manufacturing Cost:
10 to 50 % T.P.C.
442900500
2 Operating labour
10 to 50 % T.P.C.
4896000
15 % O.L.C.
734400
4 Utilities
15 % T.P.C.
132870150
3146344.51
6 % F.C.I.
6
471951.677
6 Operating supplies
15 % M & R
7 Lab charges
10 % O.L.C.
489600
2 % T.P.C.
17716020
603224966.
Fixed Charges:
1 Depreciation
10 % F.C.I.+2 % Building
5378022.808
2 Local taxes
1 % F.C.I.
524390.7526
3 Insurance
1 % F.C.I.
524390.7526
4 Rent
582443.5104
Fixed charges
7009247.824
Plant Overhead:
1 Plant Overhead
4388372.258
HEXAMINE
2013-2014
Manufacturing Cost:
Manufacturing cost :-
614622586.3
General Expenses:
Adm. Cost
15 % Plant Overhead
658255.8387
cost
10 % T.P.C.
88580100
R.N.D.
5 % T.P.C.
44290050
133528405.8
General Expenses
748150992.1 Cost/year
71.25247544 Rs/Kg
Selling Price:
Selling price :-
75 Rs/Kg
Total Income:
Total Income :-
787500000 Rs./year
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2013-2014
Gross Earning:
Gross Earning :-
39349007.89 Rs/year
23609404.73 Rs/year
Net Profit:
Net Profit :-
2.22110959
( F.C.I+Dep/year) /(Net
Pay out peroid :-
profit+Dep/year)
1.994557744
Rate of Return:
Rate of Return :-
net profit/(F.C.I.+W.C.)100
36.01803367
15.01742729
sales/(F.C.I.)
B.E.P
n = F.C./(S.P-D.P.C)
F.C.
144926026
Rs
D.P.C /Kg
57.449997
Rs/kg
Sell Price
75
Rs/kg
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HEXAMINE
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Chapter-13
Important aspects of safety
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HEXAMINE
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Hazards Identification:
Emergency Overview CAUTION! May form combustion dust concentrations in air.
nuisanance dust Irritating to eyes and respiratory system..
First-Aid Measures:
Ingestion: Wash out mouth thoroughly with water and give plenty of water to drink.
Obtain Medical Attention.
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Skin Contact
1) Wash off thoroughly with water.
2) Remove contaminated clothing and wash before re-used.
3) In severe cases, Obtain Medical Attention.
Eye Contact Irrigate thoroughly with water for at least 10 minutes.
If discomfort persists, Obtain Medical Attention.
Fire-Fighting Measures:
Extinguishing Media Foam, water fog, dry chemical. Fire and Explosion Hazards Fine dust
dispersed in air in sufficient concentrations, and in the presence of an ignition source is a
potential dust explosion hazard.May evolve toxic fumes in fire. Special Firefighting
Procedures. Special Equipment for the Protection of Firefighters In the event of a fire, wear
full protective clothing and NIOSH-approved self-contained breathing apparatus with full
facepiece operated in the pressure demand or other positive pressure mode and full
protective clothing for Chemicals.
Environmental Precautions:
1) Remove all sources of ignition.
2)This material should be kept out of sewage and drainage systems and all bodies of water.
3) Clean up releases as soon as possible
4) Ventilate the area of leak .
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Storage:
1) Keep the Storage area dry , drafty and cool.
2) Keep away from all sources of ignition.
3) Keep away from the oxidisers
4) Make sure the extinguisher and Fire-detecting system was setting in appropriate place.
5) Store in a tightly closed container.
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Will
react
with
Hydrogen
Peroxide
to
product
an
explosive
material
incompatibles.
Toxicological Information:
Acute toxicity
1) LD10 oral : Mouth 512 mg/kg.
2) LD50 oral : Lungs: 9200 mg/kg.
Local effects 1) Irritating to eyes,skin and respiratory system.
Sensitization 1) Irritating to eyes respiratory system,and skin.
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This material forms a strongly basic aqueous solution, and this property may cause
adverse environmental effects.
It has the following properties: A high biochemical oxygen demand and a potential to
cause oxygen depletion in aqueous systems, a high potential to affect aquatic organisms,
a high potential to affect secondary waste treatment microbial metabolism, a high potential
to affect the germination and/or early growth of some plants, a low potential to
affect the growth of some plant seedlings, a low potential to biodegrade (Low persistence)
with unacclimated microorganisms from activated sludge, a low potential to
bioconcentrate. After dilution with a large amount of water, followed by secondary waste
treatment, this material is not expected to cause adverse environmental effects.
Disposal Considerations:
Recommended Methods for Safe and Environmentally Preferred Disposal
Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local regulations.
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Description:
Health Hazard:
HAZARD DESCRIPTION: Irritant and corrosive to skin, eye, respiratory tract and
mucous membranes. May cause severe burns, eye and lung injuries. Skin and respiratory
related diseases aggravated by exposure. Not recognized by OSHA as a carcinogen. Not
listed in the National Toxicology Program annual report. Not listed as a carcinogen by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Effects Of Overexposure:
Skin: Irritation, corrosive burns, blisters formation. Contact with liquid will freeze the
tissue, then produces a caustic burn. Inhalation: heavy, acute exposure may result in severe
irritation of the respiratory tract, glottal edema, bronchialspasm, pulmonary edema and
respiratory arrest.
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Chronic effects: Bronchitis. Extreme exposure (5000 ppm) can cause immediate death
from spasm, inflammation or edema of larynx.
Emergency Aid:
Skin: flush with copious amounts of water while removing contaminated clothing and
shoes. Do not rub, or apply ointment on affected area Ingestion: if conscious, give large
amount of water to drink. Refer immediately to physician.
Eye: flush with copious amounts of water for 15 min. Eyelids should be held apart and
away from eyeball for thorough rinsing. Speed and thoroughness in rinsing the eye is most
important in preventing latent permanent injuries. Inhalation: remove to fresh air.
Administer oxygen or artificial respiration if necessary.
Note to Physician: Lung injury may appear as delayed phenomenon, pulmonary edema
may follow chemical bronchitis. Supportive treatment with necessary ventilation actions,
including oxygen, may warrant consideration.
Physical Data:
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Not generally a fire hazard. If relief valves are inoperative, heat-exposed storage containers
may become explosion hazards. Ammonia contact with chemicals such as mercury,
chlorine, iodine, bromine, silver oxide, or hypochlorites can form explosive compounds.
Special hazards with chlorine to form chloramine gas, also a primary skin irritant and
sensitizer. Combustion may form toxic nitrogen oxides.
Chemical Reactivity
Stability:
Stable at room temperature. Ammonia will react exothermically with acids and water.
Conditions To Avoid:
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Avoid mixing with sulfuric acid or other strong mineral acids. Avoid mixing with
hypochlorites (chlorine bleach) or other halogens and sodium hydroxide. Avoid contact
with galvanized surfaces, copper, brass, bronze, aluminum alloys, mercury, gold, silver,
and strong oxidizers. Avoid heating.
Stop source if possible. If Exposure concerns are present, stay upwind and use water spray
downwind of leak source to absorb ammonia gas and dilute.
CAUTION: Adding water directly to liquid spills will increase volatilization of ammonia,
thus increasing possibility of exposure.
Waste Disposal:
Listed as hazardous substance under CWA (40 CFR 1164.40 CFR 117.3 Reportable
Quantity 100 lbs. OR 45.4kg) Classed as a hazardous waste under RCRA (40 CFR 261.32
Corrosive # D002). Comply with all regulations. Suitably diluted product may be disposed
of on agricultural land as fertilizer. Keep spill from entering streams or lakes.
Respiratory Protection:
MSHA/NIOSH approved respiratory protection with full face piece for gas and vapor
contaminants effective for anhydrous ammonia and able to be used for entry and escape in
emergencies. Refer to 29 CFR 1910.134 and ANSI: Z88.2 for requirements and selection.
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Ventilation:
Local exhaust sufficient to keep ammonia gas below Permissible Exposure Limits. Refer to
29 CFR 1910.134 and ANSI: Z9.2 for requirements and selection.
Protective Equipment:
Splash-proof, chemical safety goggles, rubber gloves and boots to prevent contact.
Respiratory protection. Cotton work clothes recommended. Refer to 29 CFR 1910.132 to
1910.136 for requirements.
Special Precautions
Storage And Handling:
Store in cool, well-ventilated area with containers tightly closed. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.111
prescribes handling and storage requirements for anhydrous ammonia as a hazardous
material.
Work-Place Protective Equipment:
As discussed above should be near, but outside of ammonia area. Eyewash and safety
shower in immediate vicinity. See 29 CFR 1910.141 for workplace requirements.
Disposal:
Ammonia is listed as a hazardous substance under FWPCA. See WASTE
Personal:
Avoid unnecessary exposure. Use protective equipment as needed. Do not wear contact
lenses.
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Hazards Identification:
Potential Acute Health Effects:
Very hazardous in case of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, . Hazardous in case of skin
contact (irritant, sensitizer, permeator), of eye contact (corrosive). Slightly hazardous in
case of skin contact (corrosive). Severe over-exposure can result in death. Inflammation of
the eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching.
Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for at
least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention
immediately.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin
with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be
used.Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention.
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LARGE FIRE: Use alcohol foam, water spray or fog. Cool containing vessels with water
jet in order to prevent pressure build-up, autoignition or explosion.
Small Spill:
Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an
appropriate waste disposal container. If necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute
solution of sodium carbonate.
Large Spill:
Flammable liquid. Poisonous liquid.
Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Stop leak if without risk.
Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material. Do not get water inside
container. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray to reduce vapors. Prevent entry
into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal.
Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Be careful that the
product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and
with local authorities.
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HEXAMINE
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Personal Protection:
Safety glasses. Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator
or equivalent. Gloves (impervious).
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HEXAMINE
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Toxicological Information
Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation.
Toxicity to Animals:
Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 42 mg/kg [Mouse]. (Formaldehyde)
Acute dermal toxicity (LD50): 15800 mg/kg [Rabbit]. (Methyl alcohol).
Acute toxicity of the mist(LC50): 454000 mg/m
4 hours [Mouse]. (Formaldehyde)
Toxic Effects on Humans:
Very hazardous in case of ingestion, .Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant, sensitizer,
permeator), of eye contact (corrosive), of inhalation (lung corrosive). Slightly hazardous in
case of skin contact (corrosive). Ingestion: Prolonged or repeated ingestion may cause
gastrointestinal tract irritation and ulceration or bleeding from the stomach. Other effects
may be similar to that of acute ingestion.
Disposal Considerations
Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental
control regulations.
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Chapter-14
Effluent treatment related to
product
81
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Emulsion breaking- It involves addition of chemicals and/or heat to cause dispersed oil
droplets to coalesce and separate from the wastewater. This process mainly used for
pre-treatment of oily wastewater. Commonly used method is acid cracking where
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is added to the oil water mixture until pH reaches 1 or 2.
Another alternative to this is where emulsion breaking chemicals such as surfactants
and coagulants are added to the mixture and the contents are mixed. After the emulsion
bond is broken, oil residue is allowed to float to the top of the tank. Heat may be applied
to speed the separation process. The oil is then skimmed by mechanical means or the
water is decanted from the bottom of the tank.
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HEXAMINE
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from the top of the clarifier over the weir. Solids get collected at the bottom and sludge
must be periodically removed, dewatered and disposed.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES
Chemical treatment may be used at any stage in the treatment process as and when
required. Mainly used methods are
Precipitation- It is carried to remove metal compounds from waste water. It is a twostep process. In the first step precipitants are mixed with wastewater allowing the
formation of insoluble metal precipitants. Detention time depends on the wastewater
being treated, chemical used and the desired effluent quality. In the second step
precipitated metals are removed from wastewater through filtration or clarification and
the resulting sludge must be properly treated, recycled or disposed. Various chemicals
used are lime, sodium hydroxide, soda ash, sodium sulphide and ferrous sulphate.
Normally hydroxide precipitation which is effective in removing metals like antimony,
arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc and sulphide precipitation
which is used in removing lead, copper, silver, cadmium etc. may be used.
SECONDARY TREATMENT
Biological treatment Processes
Biological treatment processes are used primarily for secondary treatment and use
microbial action to decompose suspended and dissolved organic wastewater. Microbes use
the organic compounds as both a source of carbon and as a source of energy. Success of
biological treatment depends on many factors such as the pH, temperature, nature of
pollutants, nutrient requirement of microbes, presence of inhibiting pollutants and the
variations in the feed stream loading.
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CONCLUSION
From the financial analysis it is clear that the capital investment required for
installing is not very high. The payback period is also not very high and the plant
gives very attractive returns.
For the adequate supply of the raw material formaldehyde, in the future we can set
up a plant of formaldehyde from methanol. And if the setup is efficiently managed
we can hopefully affect the profitability to the great extent.
85
HEXAMINE
REFERENCES
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
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2013-2014