IT Report

A TECHNICAL REPORT
ON
STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME
(SIWES)
HELD AT
SEPLAT PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT COMPANY PLC.

BY
OTUSANYA, GABRIEL TOBI
MATRICULATION NUMBER: 120313
PRESENTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
OGBOMOSO, OYO STATE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF DEGREE OF BACHELORS OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(AUGUST JANUARY) 2017.
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TECHNICAL REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
SCHEME (SIWES) TRAINING PROGRAMME
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis work to Almighty God for giving me the grace to
complete it and to my parents for their love and support.
OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

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CERTIFICATION
I, OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi , a student of Chemical Engineering of the
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Ladoke Akintola University of
Technology, Ogbomosho, Oyo State with Matriculation number 120313,
hereby certify that this industrial training report was compiled by me in
accordance to the requirements of the Students Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) as a summary of my experience during the
period of my training (9th AUGUST 2016 31 st JANUARY 2016) in SEPLAT
PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT COMPANY PLC
.................................................
Student
Signature &Date
Industry based Supervisor
Signature, Stamp & Date

ii

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Glory be to the Almighty God for keeping me through the course of my
Internship.
I want to say a big thank you to my parents, Mr & Mrs Otusanya whose
timeless words of encouragement have brought me this far.
My sincerest appreciation goes to Dr. Olalekan Badmus who played a very
significant role in securing my internship placement.
With much joy do I acknowledge and appreciate the entire Corporate
Subsurface and Western Asset Subsurface Team, the Corporate
Subsurface Industrial Training Coordinator Mr Adedeji Awujoola whose
timely advise always pushed me to gain more from the internship than I
planned for, always helping me realise how great an opportunity I had.
Also I will like to appreciate my Supervisor Mr Kingsley Akpara for giving
me so much more than the training plan specified, treating me like I was a
Reservoir Engineer in training always pushing me to know all that was
being done.
This acknowledgement will not be complete without mentioning the
following people Mr Tajudeen Gbadamosi & Mrs Obiageli Chuka-Umeh, my
Geophysics instructors, always making jokes that eased up the tension
and made me feel calm and welcome, Mr Isah Adeiza who made me love
Production Technology because of the joy and attitude which he went
about his work like it was fun and easy and Mr Ndubuisi Nwokolo my
Production technology Supervisor. All the young chaps I troubled when I
troubled when I was going round the disciplines; Mr Mohammad, Mr
Oghenetega Enaboje, Anita Odiete, Precious Okoro and Mr Setemi
Obatoki.

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To all my lecturers in Chemical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola Uni. Of Tech. I

say a big thank you for the knowledge and character that has been
imbibed in me through these past years.
God bless you all.
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ABSTRACT
One of the biggest problems facing the labour market today is the lack of
ready-made graduates who can be incorporated seamlessly into the
activities of the industry. This challenge has been traced to the tertiary
level of education and its root causes are lack of exposure of
undergraduates particularly in the area of science and technology to these
workplaces, hence not being able to bridge the gap between the
classroom and the industry. This however is the goal of the Students
Industrial Work-Experience Scheme which is an initiative that was
introduced to bridge the gap between the industry and the academia; this
was successfully achieved in my internship with SEPLAT Petroleum
Development Company Plc.
During the course of my internship I was attached to the Corporate
Subsurface Department which is a multi-disciplinary team comprising of
Reservoir Engineers, Petrophysicists, Production Geologists, Production
Technologists and Seismologists.
I was opportune to learn from each of the discipline in the Subsurface
Team ranging from the Petrophysicist, Geologist, and Production
Technologist to the Reservoir Engineer.
This report is a record of the knowledge gained from my learning and
training opportunities during my Students Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) with SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Plc.
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1Assets blocks of SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company plc
2.1 Elements of Petroleum Geology
2.2Hydrocarbon Exploration methods
2.3Petrophysical logs
2.4Schematic representation of constant composition expansion
2.5Phase behaviour of hydrocarbon mixture
2.6A Well Completion Schematics
2.7Well inflow and outflow performance curve
3.1 Scan of Depth map
3.2 Colour Coded Structural Depth Map
3.3 Seismic Section and Interpretations
3.4 Seismic Data with Fault picked and Horizon selected
3.5 Seismic section and interpretations
3.6 Identifying Lithology from reservoir identification tools
3.7 Fluid types differentiation and contacts.
3.8Hydrocarbon estimation from Petrophysical logs
3.9Graph of depth against Pressure
3.10 Volumetric Calculations
3.11 Well Completion Schematics
3.12 Well head Instrumentation Diagram
4.1 Operation Flow Diagram
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4.2 Instrumentation Diagram for Seplat-11T Field
LIST OF PLATES
1. Static and Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) survey operation at OVHOR.
2. Flowlines and Well heads for Sapele Oil producing fields.
3. Flowlines for Sapele wells.
LIST OF TABLES
1.1SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Organogram.
1.2Disciplines in the Subsurface departments and their duties.
2.1 Key summary on basic logging tools
2.2 Summary of methods used to estimate hydrocarbon reserves
2.3 Sand Production (causes, effects and parameters affecting sand production)
3.1 Flash calculation from PVT data
3.2 Analysis and Gradient plot based on the data acquired from the BHP survey

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Contents
DEDICATION..................................................................................................2
CERTIFICATION..............................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................4
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................6
LIST OF PLATES.............................................................................................7
LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................7
1.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................10
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES........................................................................................... 10
1.1.1 OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 11
1.2 SEPLAT PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT COMPANY.................................................................12
1.2.1 COMPANY HISTORY..................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2 STRATEGICALLY LOCATED, HIGH-QUALITY ASSETS...........................................................13
1.2.3 STRONG RELATIONSHIP WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES..............................................................15
1.2.4 PEOPLE.................................................................................................................. 16
1.2.5 COMPANY OBJECTIVES AND VALUES........................................................................16
1.2.6 ABOUT SUBSURFACE DEPARTMENT......................................................................18
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................21
2.1 GEOLOGY................................................................................................................ 21
2.1.1 ROCK
OR STONE...................................................................................................... 21
CLASSIFICATIONS............................................................................................................... 21
2.1.2 PETROLEUM
GEOLOGY............................................................................................... 23
2.1.3 HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION
EXPLORATION......................................................................................24
METHODS...................................................................................................... 24
2.2 PETROPHYSICS....................................................................................................... 25
2.2.1 Sources of data acquired.................................................................................26
2.2.2 DELIVERABLES OF A PETROPHYSICIST.............................................................26
2.2.3 WIRELINE LOGGING..........................................................................................27

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2.3 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING.......................................................................................31

2.3.1 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES...........................................................................34
2.3.2 PVT ANALYSIS................................................................................................... 36
2.3.3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms............................................................................38
2.3.4 RESERVE ESTIMATION......................................................................................41
2.4 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY....................................................................................42
2.4.1 WELL COMPLETION..........................................................................................43
2.4.2 WELL PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS.............................................................46
2.4.3 SAND PRODUCTION CONTROL.........................................................................48
3.0 METHODOLOGY (HANDS-ON PRACTICE)...................................................50
3.1 GEOLOGY.................................................................................................................. 50
3.2 PETROPHYSICS............................................................................................................ 53
3.3 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING.............................................................................................. 56
3.3 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY........................................................................................... 60
4.0 FIELD EXPERIENCE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.......................................64
4.1 MODE OF OPERATION FOR SAPL-21L...................................................................64
4.2 RESULT DISCUSSION...........................................................................................65
4.3 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................... 66
4.4 EXPERIENCES GAINED.........................................................................................66
4.5 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED.............................................................................67
4.6 OBSERVATIONS................................................................................................... 67
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................69
5.1 CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................... 69
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................... 70
REFERENCES............................................................................................... 71

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES
In the earlier stage of science and technology education in Nigeria,
students were graduating from their respective institution without any
technical knowledge or working experience. It was in this view that
students undergoing science and technology related courses were
mandated for students in different institution in the view of widening their
horizons so as to enable them have technical knowledge or working
experience before graduating from their various institutions. The program
came into existence following decree No. 47 of 8th October, 1971 as
amended in 1990. This decree gave birth to the founding of the Industrial
Training Fund (ITF) in 1973, which in turn established the Students
Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) to bridge the gap between
school-based knowledge and work-place skills. The student industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established by the industrial Training
Fund in (ITF) 1973 to enable students of tertiary institution have basic
technical knowledge of industrial works base on their course of study
before the completion of their program in their respective institutions. The
scheme was designed to expose students to industrial environment and
enable them develop occupational competencies so that they can readily
contribute
their
development
after
quota
to
national
graduation.
The
economic
major
and
background
technological
behind
the
embankment of students in SIWES was to expose them to the industrial

environment and enable them develop occupational competencies so that
they can readily contribute their quota to national economic and
technological development after graduation. The major benefit accruing to
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students who participate conscientiously in Students Industrial Work

Experience Scheme (SIWES) are the skills and competencies they acquire.
The relevant production skills remain a part of the recipients of industrial
training as life-long assets which cannot be taken away from them. This is
because
the
knowledge
and
skills
acquired
through
training
are
internalized and become relevant when required to perform jobs or

functions.
1.1.1 OBJECTIVES
The Industrial Training Funds policy Document
The Industrial Training Funds policy Document No. 1 of 1973 which

established SIWES outlined the objectives of the scheme. The objectives
are to:
1. Provide an avenue for students in higher institutions of higher
learning to acquire industrial skills and experiences during their
courses of study.
2. Prepare students for industrial work situations that they are likely to
meet after graduation.
3. Expose students to work methods and techniques in handling
equipment and machinery that may not be available in their
institutions.
4. Make the transition from school to the world of work easier and
enhance students contact for later job placements.
5. Provide students with the opportunities to apply their educational
knowledge in real work situations, thereby bridging the gap between
theory and practice.
6. Enlist and strengthen
employers
involvement
in
the
educational process through SIWES.

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1.2 SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company

1.2.1 Company History
SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company (SEPLAT) is a leading
independent oil and natural gas producer in the prolific Niger Delta area of
Nigeria and is based in Lagos. SEPLAT was formed in June 2009 through
the partnership of Shebah Petroleum Development Company Limited and
Platform Petroleum Joint Ventures Limited, both small Nigerian based
companies to specifically pursue upstream oil and gas opportunities in
Nigeria, and in particular divestment opportunities arising out of the
incumbent Major IOCs portfolios. Maurel & Prom, a French oil exploration
company, purchased a 45% share in the newly formed company.
Since SEPLAT acquired its first blocks and commenced production in 2010,
the Company has increased oil and gas production and grown reserves in
each year of operation and is today widely recognized as a leading
Nigerian independent oil and gas operator. Underpinning SEPLAT is a
strong balance sheet and profitable production base with a balanced mix
of oil and gas.
The Companys focus is on maximizing hydrocarbon production and
recovery from its existing assets, acquiring and farming into new
opportunities in Nigeria (specifically those which offer production, cash
flow and reserve replacement potential, with a particular focus on the
onshore and shallow water offshore areas) and realizing the upside
potential within its portfolio through exploration and appraisal activities.
The Company has increased its production and reserves year on year and
has consistently grown revenues and profits since it commenced
operations. Gross operated liquids production at OMLs 4, 38 and 41 at the
time of acquisition was 14,000 bopd. Through the implementation of a
focused re-development work programme and drilling campaign, the
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Company grew this to a peak rate of over 84,000 bopd in 2015,

representing a six-fold increase and significantly ahead of the peak rate
achieved by the previous operator of approximately 56,000 bopd in 1996.
Alongside its oil business, the Company has successfully established itself
as the pre-eminent supplier of natural gas to the domestic market in
Nigeria through substantial investments made in the commercialization,
development and monetization of the substantial gas reserves that exist
on its blocks.
1.2.2 Strategically Located, High-Quality Assets

Since its inception, SEPLAT has acquired an attractive portfolio of assets in
the prolific Niger Delta region.
SEPLAT has a 45% working interest in OMLs 4, 38 and 41 which are
located in Edo and Delta States onshore Nigeria. SEPLAT is operator of the
three blocks on behalf of the NPDC/SEPLAT Joint Venture. As operator,
SEPLAT is empowered with running the day-to-day operations activities
and is able to set production and operational improvement goals and lead
exploration activities, subject to the approval of its partners. Production is
predominantly from seven fields, namely Amukpe, Oben, Okporhuru,
Ovhor, Orogho, Sapele and Sapele Shallow, and the partners aim to bring
additional fields on-stream in the future.
SEPLAT also has a 40% non-operated working interest in OPL 283 Marginal
Field Area (Pillar). The block is located in the northern onshore depo-belt
of the Niger Delta and contains the Umuseti and Igbuku fields. The block is
operated by Pillar Oil.
In February 2015, the Company acquired a 40% interest in OML 53 and a
22.5% effective working interest in OML 55 from Chevron Nigeria Limited
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(CNL). OML 53 covers an area of 1,556km2 and is located onshore in Imo

State, in the north eastern Niger Delta approximately 60km north of Port
Harcourt. The block contains one producing field (Jisike), two undeveloped
fields (Ohaji South gas and Ohaji South oil), seven unappraised discoveries
(Apani, Alaoma, Emeabiam, Iheoma, Odinma, Omerelu and Owu), four
exploration prospects (Aku A, Manu A, Onyinye A and Owu South) and
numerous exploration leads.
OML 55 covers an area of 840km and is located in the swamp to shallow
water offshore areas in the south eastern Niger Delta. The block contains
five producing fields (Robertkiri, Inda, Belema North, Idama and Jokka).
The majority of production on the block is from the Robertkiri, Idama and
Inda fields. In addition to the oil potential on the block, there is also an
opportunity to develop the significant gas resources that have also been
identified.

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Figure 1.1: Asset blocks of SEPLAT Petroleum Development

Company Plc.

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1.2.3 Strong relationship with local communities

SEPLAT has built strong relationships with its key local communities,
promoting trust and confidence amongst its various stakeholders,
ultimately resulting in a stable operating environment that facilitates the
creation of shared value. In December 2010, the Company entered into a
Global Memorandum of Understanding with the communities within OMLs
4, 38 and 41 which host its operations and has established a trust fund for
community projects. To continue to nurture these relationships, SEPLAT is
fully focused on proactive engagement with the communities where it
operates, implementing community projects based on sustainable
development principles. These initiatives seek to promote local capacity
building. Support host community participation and enhance the quality of
life for individuals within these local communities through the provision of
high-standard free healthcare, implementation of education and
community development programs, skills training, educational
scholarships/grants and the development of local infrastructure.
Importantly, SEPLAT has established an operational base office within
these host communities, reflecting the depth of its commitment and the
importance it places on the relationship it has with its host communities
and partners.

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1.2.4 People
SEPLATs total work force is over 380 people. The Companys objective is
to be a first-class employer and it undertakes to comply with all relevant
regulations, frameworks, guidelines and best practice at all times. The
Company encourages and promotes diversity and equality of opportunity
throughout the business, and appreciates that its people constitute its
most valuable asset. It is committed to the continual learning and
development of employees to assist them in realizing their own, and
SEPLATs, full potential.
1.2.5 COMPANY OBJECTIVES AND VALUES
Maximize production and cash flows from operated assets
Move up 2C resources into 2P reserves category
Commercialize and produce gas reserves
Pursue a focused acquisition and farm-in strategy
Be a highly responsible corporate citizen
Vision; to be a world class energy company delivering premium

value to all stakeholders.
Mission; to build and sustain a world class oil and gas company
through innovative partnerships and premium value delivery.
Core Values
Safety: At SEPLAT, we strive to create a working environment where

accidents are unlikely to occur, and the health and safety of employees,
contractors and the public are not jeopardized.
Environment: We ensure that our operations are environmentally friendly.
The company implements programmes designed to promote
environmental sustainability.
Partnership: We are focused on creating and maintaining mutually
beneficial relationships with our stakeholders. Through proactive
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collaborations with stakeholders in the spirit of true partnership, we

deliver premium value.
Leadership: In working towards becoming a world-class energy company,
we work courageously and assiduously to lead and shape the future.
Leadership to us means acting responsibly at all times.
Accountability: We will perform at all times in a manner that makes us
accountable to both internal and external stakeholders. At SEPLAT, we
take responsibility for our actions.
Teamwork: We are committed to working effectively as a team in order to
deliver results far beyond our individual capabilities

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Table 1.1: SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Plc.

Organogram
1.2.6 ABOUT SUBSURFACE DEPARTMENT

The subsurface department is the division of the company in which the
subsurface team is situated. A subsurface team is a multidisciplinary team
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that manages production for a field and looks for ways of getting more
hydrocarbons out of that field. Teamwork is essential because the
staggeringly complex nature of a subsurface operation means that the
various disciplines have to integrate their specific areas of expertise for
the venture to be successful. Short lines of communication exist within the
team such that an inclusive atmosphere of shared purpose is created. In
SEPLAT, all subsurface disciplines come under one umbrella so that any
problems that arise can then be quickly recognized and solved by joint
effort. The members of the Team are:
Geologists
Petrophysicists
Reservoir Engineers
Production Technologists

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Table 1.2: Disciplines in the Subsurface Department and their

Job title
Asset
Job description
Manages and coordinates the work of everyone in the subsurface team.
manager
Spends
much
of
his/her
time
interpreting seismic
Geophysicist/ reservoir structure and fault distribution.

Seismologist
Where
data to
the
define
seismic
the
data
allow, depositional environments, and rock and fluid properties can also be
characterized.
Production
Responsible for understanding and modelling the geological framework of
geologist
the reservoir. Helps to identify and plan new well locations.
Petrophysicis A key task is to analyse logs to quantify the rock and fluid properties of the
t
Reservoir
engineer
reservoir at the well scale.
Predicts how much oil and gas a field is likely to produce, and may use a
computer simulation of reservoir performance to analyse how the field will
behave as well as taking a lead in reservoir management activities.
Responsible
Production
Technologist
for
optimizing
all
the
mechanical
aspects
of
hydrocarbon production from the wellbore to the surface facilities. Analyses

and treats problems related to scale formation, metal corrosion, drilling fluids,
wax formation, and solids precipitation between the reservoir and the surface
facilities.
duties

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 GEOLOGY
Geology
is
an earth
science comprising
the
study
of solid
Earth,
the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they

change. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features
of any celestial body (such as the geology of the Moon or Mars).
Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the
primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life,
and past
climates.
Geology
is
for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration

evaluating water
resources,
and
understanding
important
exploitation,
of natural
hazards,
the
remediation of environmental problems, and for providing insights into

past climate
change.
Geology
also
plays
role
in geotechnical
engineering and is a major academic discipline.
2.1.1 Rock or stone

This
is
natural
substance,
solid aggregate of
one
or
more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a common rock, is a

combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar and biotite. The Earth's outer
solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. Rock has been used by
mankind throughout history. The minerals and metals found in rocks have
been essential to human civilization.
Three
major
groups
of
rocks
are
defined: igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which

is an essential component of geology.

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Classifications
Igneous
Igneous
rock forms
through
the
cooling
and solidification of magma or lava. This magma can be derived from

partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust.
Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three
processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a
change in composition. Examples of igneous rocks are granite, basalts,
andesite etc.
Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks which is very key in the oil and gas industry because of
its ability to generate hydrocarbon are formed at the earth's surface by
the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals,
and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water
(sedimentation). Sedimentary rocks are divided into Clastic and Carbonate
rocks.
Clastic sediments: sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks
by erosion in a source area and then transported to the place of
deposition
by water, wind, ice, mass
of denudation).
Mud
rocks
movement or glaciers (agents

comprise
65%
(mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25%.

Carbonate sediments: sediments ae formed from chemical precipitation
or carbonate minerals. The two major types are limestone, which is
composed
of calcite or aragonite (different
and dolostone,
which
is
crystal
composed
forms
of
of
CaCO 3)
the
mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone).About

7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82%
of those being shales,
Metamorphic
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Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock typesedimentary

rock, igneous
rock or
another
older
metamorphic
rockto
different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the

original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism; meaning
to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties
and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith,
transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals,
by recrystallization. The temperatures and pressures required for this
process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface:
temperatures
greater
than
150
to
200 C
and
pressures
of
1500 bars.Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The

major types of metamorphic rocks are Marble, Anthracite, slate, quartzite
and others.
2.1.2 Petroleum geology
This is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and
exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological
disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil
exploration).
Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of six key
elements in sedimentary basins:

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Figure 2.1: Elements of Petroleum Geology
Source: a source rock is an organic rich rocks that generates or are

capable of generating hydrocarbon and examples are Sandstone, Shale
etc.
Reservoir: a reservoir is a permeable, porous, oil bearing rocks that

stores and transmit fluids.
Seal: a seal is a relatively low permeable rocks or cap rock that

impede the further migration of hydrocarbon from the reservoir. A
perfect example of a seal is Shale due to its relatively low permeability.
Trap: a trap is a configuration or a formation in the subsurface that

houses hydrocarbon which is formed when the buoyancy force driving
the upward migration of hydrocarbon through a permeable rock cannot
overcome the capillary force of a sealing medium.
Types of Traps
Structural traps: A structural trap, where a fault has juxtaposed a porous

and permeable reservoir against an impermeable seal. Oil accumulates
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against the seal, to the depth of the base of the seal. Any further oil
migrating in from the source will escape to the surface and seep. A
common example of a structural trap is faults (fracture along a
displacement of a rock ex. normal and reverse fault) and folds (the
crumpling and buckling of layers of rocks due to stress and pressure ex.
Anticline and syncline).
Stratigraphic traps: They are formed through the lateral and vertical
variation in the thickness, texture, porosity of the reservoir rocks
Maturation: These are various stages in the subsurface whereby hydrocarbon is
being generated and expelled from a source rock.
Migration style: This is the movement of hydrocarbon from a

source into a reservoir (primary migration) or movement within the
reservoir (secondary migration).
2.1.3 Hydrocarbon exploration

Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search
by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits
beneath the Earth's surface, such as oil and natural gas. Oil and gas
exploration are grouped under the science of petroleum geology.
Exploration methods
Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, outcrops,
pockmarks (underwater craters caused by escaping gas) provide basic
evidence of hydrocarbon generation (be it shallow or deep in the Earth).
However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to
detect and determine the extent of these deposits using exploration
geophysics. Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected
to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive seismic or regional seismic

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reflection surveys to detect large-scale features of the sub-surface

geology.
Field studies: geological studies on the visible surface features

( outcrops, seapages )
Survey methods: Gravity, Magnetic and seismic survey
Exploration well
Figure 2.2: Hydrocarbon Exploration Methods
2.2 PETROPHYSICS
Petrophysics (petro is the Latin for rock and physics is the study of
nature) is the study of
Physical and chemical rock properties and their interactions with fluids.
A
major
application
of
Petrophysics
is
in
studying reservoirs for
the hydrocarbon industry. Petrophysicists are employed to help reservoir

engineers and geoscientists understand
the
rock
properties

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reservoir, particularly how pores in the subsurface are interconnected,

controlling the accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons. Some of the
key
properties
studied
in
Petrophysics
are lithology, porosity, water
saturation, permeability and density. A key aspect of Petrophysics is

measuring and evaluating these rock properties by acquiring well
log measurements - in which a string of measurement tools are inserted in
the borehole, core measurements - in which rock samples are retrieved
from subsurface, and seismic measurements. These studies are then
combined
with
geological
and
geophysical
studies
and
reservoir
engineering to give a complete picture of the reservoir.

While most Petrophysicists work in the hydrocarbon industry, some also
work in the mining and water resource industries. The properties
measured or computed fall into three broad categories: conventional
petrophysical properties, rock mechanical properties, and ore quality.
Petrophysical
studies
are
engineering, geology, mineralogy, exploration
used
by petroleum
geophysics and
related studies.
2.2.1 Sources of data acquired
Direct
o Cores
Full-bore samples
Sidewall samples
o Mud logs
o Fluid sampling
Indirect
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o Logs
Open hole
Cased hole
2.2.2 DELIVERABLES OF A PETROPHYSICIST
Thickness (bed boundaries)
Lithology (rock type)
Porosity
Fluid saturations and pressures
Fluid identification and characterization
Permeability (absolute)
Fractional flow (oil, gas, water)
2.2.3 WIRELINE LOGGING
The oil and gas industry uses wireline logging to obtain a continuous
record of a formation's rock properties. Wireline logging can be defined as
being "The acquisition and analysis of geophysical data performed as a
function of well bore depth, together with the provision of related
services." Note that "wireline logging" and "mud logging" are not the
same, yet are closely linked through the integration of the data sets. The
measurements are made referenced to "TAH" - True Along Hole depth:
these and the associated analysis can then be used to infer further
properties, such as hydrocarbon saturation and formation pressure, and to
make further drilling and production decisions.

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Wireline logging is performed by lowering a 'logging tool' - or a string of

one or more instruments - on the end of a wireline into an oil well (or
borehole) and recording petrophysical properties using a variety of
sensors. Logging tools developed over the years measure the natural
gamma
ray,
electrical,
electromagnetic,
nuclear
acoustic,
magnetic
stimulated
resonance,
radioactive
pressure
responses,
and
other
properties of the rocks and their contained fluids. For this article, they are
broadly broken down by the main property that they respond to.
The data itself is recorded either at surface (real-time mode), or in the

hole (memory mode) to an electronic data format and then either a
printed record or electronic presentation called a "well log" is provided to
the client, along with an electronic copy of the raw data. Well logging
operations can either be performed during the drilling process (see
Logging While Drilling), to provide real-time information about the
formations being penetrated by the borehole, or once the well has
reached Total Depth and the whole depth of the borehole can be logged.
Real-time data is recorded directly against measured cable depth. Memory

data is recorded against time, and then depth data is simultaneously
measured against time. The two data sets are then merged using the
common time base to create an instrument response versus depth log.
Memory recorded depth can also be corrected in exactly the same way as
real-time corrections are made, so there should be no difference in the
attainable TAH accuracy.
The measured cable depth can be derived from a number of different

measurements, but is usually either recorded based on a calibrated wheel
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counter, or (more accurately) using magnetic marks which provide

calibrated increments of cable length. The measurements made must
then be corrected for elastic stretch and temperature.
Figure 2.3: Petrophysical Logs
OPEN HOLE LOGGING TOOLS
I.
GAMMA RAY
Gamma Ray log known as GR log. Its measure the intensity of
natural radioactivity of rocks. The intensity of GR is high in the
Shale because radioactive particles like Uranium, Potassium, and
Thorium are very fine grains. During deposition these particles
deposit with shale because Shale is also fine grain rock. Thats
why the value of GR is high in Shale. GR is the best log for
II.
correlation.
CALIPER LOG
Calliper log use to measure the hole size. Through this log we
III.
can determine the caving size and wash outs.

SPONTANEOUS OR SELF POTENTIAL LOG
The mechanism of this log can be understand with a very simple
experiment. Experiment: Take two beaker. Put water in both
beakers in equal quantity then mix salt in both beakers. In one
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beaker the quantity of salt must be less then other. Make salt
solution. Put a copper wire in these beaker and connect a Volt
Meter between them you can see the ion will move from high
concentration to low concentration. This is called Self Potential.
Same this principle use here. The quantity of salt in formation
water is different then the quantity of salt in drilling mud. Due to
this contrast of salt this potential produce. Through SP log we can
determine the permeable zone and also calculate the resistivity
IV.
of water.
CNL (COMPENSATED NEUTRON LOG)
CNL IS used to measure the porosity of rock. The mechanism of
CNL is very interesting. One thing that is common in Water, Oil
and Gas is Hydrogen. The mass of hydrogen atom and Neutron
is almost same. When we bombarded the neutron in the
formation , they collide with the hydrogen , if in the formation the
number of Hydrogen atoms is higher (water) then it slow down
the speed of neutron as the result little number of neutron will
received at the receiver and opposite result will be obtain in the
case of Hydrocarbon (Gas).
V.
LITHO DENSITY LOG

LDL stands for the litho density log. Through this log we can
measure the density of the rock. And with the combination of LDL
and CNL we calculate the porosity and Lithology.
VI.
SONIC
The Sonic log has a great importance in Petrophysics. Through
the Sonic log we calculate the porosity of the rock. The principle
of this tool is simple. Through sound wave we calculate the
porosity. As much pores present in the rock the travel time will be
greater and in less porous rock the travel time will be little.
Because the speed of sound wave in different medium is
different.
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RESISTIVITY LOG
Through this tool we obtain the resistivity of formation. The
resistivity of hydrocarbon is higher then the resistivity of
formation water.
VIII.
MDT
MDT stands for Modular Dynamic Formation Tester. Through this
log we can obtain the Formation Pressure and Formation Fluid
Sample. Through these pressure points we can establish the gas
water contact, oil water contact, oil gas contact etc.
CASED HOLE LOGGING TOOLS
IX.
CBL-VDL
CBL (Cement Bond Log), VDL (Variable Density Log) used to
check the bond of cement between casing and formation. This is
also a sonic log.
Table 2.1: Key Summary on Basic Logging Tools
TOOL
USES
CALIPER LOG
Diameter and shape of the wellbore,

hole volume.
GAMMA RAY
Identification of reservoirs, Lithology,

Bed thickness.
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
Lithology, Bed thickness and salinities

of interstitial water.
RESISTIVITY LOG
Fluid
saturation,
interstitial
water,
salinities
water
and
of
oil
bearing formations.
DENSITY LOG
Formation Types, Porosity, detect gas

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and fluid contact with neutron log

cross plot.
NEUTRON LOG
Formation types, Porosity, detect gas

and fluid contact with neutron log
cross plot.
SONIC
Porosity, degree of consolidation.
CARBON OXYGEN LOG
Fluid saturation, Fluid contact.
2.3 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Reservoir engineering is a branch of petroleum engineering that applies
scientific
principles
to
the
drainage
problems
arising
during
the
development and production of oil and gas reservoirs so as to obtain a

high economic recovery. Reservoir Engineering involves assessing oil and
gas deposits. Reservoir engineers firstly estimate the size of a reservoir,
then determine how much oil and gas reserves are in the reservoir and
finally work out how to maximize the economic return from extracting
them. The working tools of the reservoir engineer are subsurface geology,
applied mathematics, and the basic laws of physics and chemistry
governing the behavior of liquid and vapor phases of crude oil, natural
gas, and water in reservoir rock. Of particular interest to reservoir
engineers is generating accurate reserves estimates for use in financial
reporting to the regulatory bodies. Other job responsibilities include
numerical reservoir modelling, production forecasting, well testing, well
drilling and work over planning, economic modelling, and PVT analysis of
reservoir fluids. Reservoir engineers also play a central role in field
development planning, recommending appropriate and cost effective
reservoir depletion schemes such as water flooding or gas injection to
maximize hydrocarbon recovery. The ultimate responsibility of the
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reservoir engineer is to maximize the output of the reservoir without

causing overproduction. Overproduction implies producing more than
storage, transport, processing and selling capacity at any given time. This
generally leads to wasted resources and shortens the lifespan of the
reservoir.
Due to legislative changes in many hydrocarbon producing countries, they
are
also
involved
in
the
design
and
implementation
of
carbon
sequestration projects in order to minimize the emission of greenhouse

gases.
Reservoir Engineers generally operate in an office with occasional site
visits.
There are several options in Reservoir Engineering
Surveillance engineers - monitor existing reservoirs
Production engineers - work at optimizing production rates of oil and

gas
Simulation modelling engineers - conduct simulation studies to

locate potential reservoirs
Geothermal engineers - develop and maintain hot water and steam

reservoirs
RESERVOIR ROCK FLOW PROPERTIES

The key reservoir rock flow properties are
1. Porosity
2. Permeability
3. Fluid Saturation
Porosity
Porosity can be defined as the total void space as a measure of the
total bulk volume of a permeable rock. Alternatively, it can be
defined as the space or pores in a reservoir rock, which is not
occupied. Mathematically, this can be defined as:
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= VP/Vb
Pore Volume, Vp = Bulk Volume(Vb) - Grain Volume(Vg)
=(Vb - Vg)/Vb = 1 Vg/Vb
There are different types of porosity
1, Primary Porosity - Formed during initial deposition
2. Secondary Porosity - Formed during the stage of diagenesis and is
principally depended on the depositional environment. It is dictated
by grain size, matrix cementation, grain shape, sorting, etc.
3. Effective Porosity - This is a measure of the interconnected pore
spaces in a reservoir rock as a function of its bulk volume.
4. Absolute Porosity - This is a measure of the total pore spaces in a
rock as a function of its bulk volume
Permeability
This is defined as a measure of the ability of the permeable rock to
transmit fluid. It is a measure of the ease of flow of a fluid through a
porous medium.
It is defined from the basic Darcy equation.
Types of permeability
1. Effective Permeability
Permeability of a rock to a particular fluid in the presence of a
combination of fluids.
2. Relative Permeability
This is the ratio of effective permeability to a particular fluid as a
measure of the absolute rock permeability.
3. Absolute Permeability
This is a measure of the case of the flow of a single fluid through the
porous medium with the fluid being the only reservoir fluid.
Important mainly for experimental purposes where air or distilled
water can be used.
Fluid Saturation
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Usually, more than one fluid is present in a reservoir. Fluid

saturation defines the extent or the percent volume of the reservoir
pores occupied by a particular fluid.
Therefore Fluid Saturation can be defined as the volume of a
particular fluid as a measure of the total pore volume.
OTHER PROPERTIES
2.2.1 Formation Volume Factor
Formation Volume Factor (B) is the volume of fluid at reservoir
conditions as a measure of the volume at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure
Formation Volume Factor
B = VR/VS
VR = Volume at reservoir conditions
VS = Volume at standard conditions (Stock tank conditions) Unit =
Reservoir bbls/Stock tank bbls
2.3.1 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
Viscosity
Formation volume factor
API gravity
Bubble point and dew point
Dissolved Gas Oil Ratio(Rsi)
Composition
Oil viscosity
Absolute viscosity provides a measure of a fluids internal resistance to

flow. For liquids, viscosity corresponds to the informal notion of
"thickness". For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water.
Gas viscosity
Just as the compressibility of natural gas is much greater than that of oil,
water, or rock, the viscosity of natural gas is usually several orders of

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magnitude smaller than oil or water. This makes gas much more mobile in
the reservoir than either oil or water.
Oil formation volume factor
The oil formation volume factor (FVF) relates the volume of oil at stocktank conditions to the volume of oil at elevated pressure and temperature
in the reservoir. Values typically range from approximately 1.0 bbl/STB for
crude oil systems containing little or no solution gas to nearly 3.0 bbl/STB
for highly volatile oils.
Gas formation volume factor and density
Formation volume factor (FVF) is a useful relationship for relating gas

volumes in the reservoir to the produced volume at standard conditions.
Formation volume factor also enables the calculation of density. This page
discusses calculation of FVF and density.
Oil bubble point pressure
In their original condition, reservoir oils include some natural gas in

solution. The pressure at which this natural gas begins to come out of
solution and form bubbles is known as the bubble point pressure. This
page discusses calculations for bubble point and the solution gas/oil ratio
(GOR).
HYDROCARBON DEW POINT
The hydrocarbon dew point is the temperature (at a given pressure) at

which the hydrocarbon components of any hydrocarbon-rich gas mixture,
such as natural gas, will start to condense out of the gaseous phase. It is
often
also
referred
to
as
the HDP or
the HCDP.
The
maximum
temperature at which such condensation takes place is called the

cricondentherm. The hydrocarbon dew point is a function of the gas
composition as well as the pressure.
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Solution gas oil ratio
The solution gas-oil ratio (GOR) is a general term for the amount of gas
dissolved in the oil. Heavy oils (lower API gravity) has lower capacity
to contain dissolved gas than lighter oils. Solution GOR in black oil
systems typically range from 0 to approximately 2000 scf / bbl. For most
purposes, the solution GOR at the bubble point is the value of interest. At
pressures above the bubble point pressure the oil is said to be
undersaturated. Below the bubble point pressure, the gas begins to come
out of solution and form a free gas phase, and the oil is said to be
saturated.
2.3.2 PVT ANALYSIS
The Challenge for reservoir and production engineers is to maximize

hydrocarbon recovery in the minimum amount of time and smallest
expense. This means asking a variety of questions about what and how
the reservoirs will produce:
How large are the reserves? What will the primary recovery be? What kind
of crude will be produced and what will the market pay for it? Does the
crude contains unwanted compounds that will destroy the production
tubing or plug the well? For offshore wells, will the crude solidifies at
ocean-bottom
temperatures,
thereby
stopping
productions?
What
separator pressure will maximize liquid hydrocarbon recovery? Will gas

produced out of the well be re-injected, sold, or burned off?
Answering these questions requires anticipating the volumetric and phase
behaviour of produced hydrocarbons as they travel from the reservoir, up
the tubing, through surface separators and finally into pipelines; and of
hydrocarbon in place as reservoir pressure declines with production.
Hydrocarbon composition, viscosity, density, compressibility and other
properties change with pressure and temperature.

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In pressure volume temperature (PVT) lab, researchers employ an arsenal

of instruments to determine reservoir fluid behaviour and properties from
oil and gas samples. Their goal is to simulate what takes place in the
reservoir and at the surface during production.
TYPES OF PVT TEST
Constant
Composition
Expansion:
laboratory
test
usually
performed as part of a routine PVT analysis that measures the

change in volume of a reservoir fluid as a function of pressure. This
change is determined by measuring the total volume of a sample of
reservoir fluid at various pressures above and below the saturation
pressure. The pressure dependent volumes are normalized to the
volume of the samples at the saturation pressure.
Figure
2.4:
Schematic
Representation
Composition Expansion Experiment
of
Constant
Differential Liberation Expansion: A PVT process has been designed

in an attempt to provide a means of in part simulating the changing
systems as separation occurs within the reservoir below the bubble
point. The differential vaporization differs from the flash in that the
liberated gas is removed from the cell stepwise.
It can be

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At each step below the
bubble point the quantity of gas, oil volume, density, gas expansion
and gas compressibility are determined. The objectives of the
differential test therefore are to generate PVT data for conditions
below the bubble point.
Multistage Separator Test

Classification of reservoirs
OIL RESERVOIRS
Under-saturated oil reservoirs
Saturated oil reservoirs
Gas-cap reservoirs
GAS RESERVOIRS
Retrograde gas condensate
Wet-gas reservoirs
Dry-gas reservoirs
Crude oils are classified as
i Black oil
ii Volatile oil
iii Heavy oil

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Figure 2.5: Phase Diagram of Hydrocarbon mixture
2.3.3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
A reservoir rock will produce naturally as a consequence of the fluid it

contains, existing at high pressure with the rock also in a state of
compaction. The reservoir pressure is naturally used to produce from the
reservoir into the well, to the surface and finally into the separation unit.
The response of the reservoir to depletion is dynamic and the fluid
remaining in reservoir will change both in term of volume, composition
-and other properties. The manner in which the reservoir responds to the
depiction process is governed by the Drive Mechanism.
The basic concept regarding the production of fluid from the reservoir is
that for fluid to be produced as a result of its high pressure, then the
reservoir system will deplete and must therefore compensate for the loss
of the produced fluid by one or more of the following mechanisms:
1. Expansion of the reservoir rock matrix.
2. Expansion of connate water
3. Expansion of reservoir hydrocarbon
4. Expansion of the underlying aquifer
Overall, as oil is produced, the system may not be able to maintain its own
pressure and the overall pressure in the reservoir will decline. The
mechanism by which the reservoir produces fluid and compensates for the
production is termed the Reservoir Drive Mechanism. And it refers to the
method by which the reservoir provides the energy for fluid production.
There are a number of drive mechanisms and a reservoir can be under the
influence of one or more of these drive mechanisms simultaneously.
The key mechanisms are

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1. Solution Gas Drive Mechanism

2. Gas-cap expansion Drive Mechanism
3. Water Drive Mechanism
4. Gravity Drive Mechanism
5. Compaction Drive Mechanism
6. Combination Drive Mechanism
Solution Gas Drive Mechanism
If a reservoir contains oil initially above the bubble point then, as
production continues, removal of oil will be compensated for by the
expansion of the remaining oil. The production will be accompanied by a
reduction in the reservoir pressure, which will eventually drop below the
bubble point. Gas will come out of solution and any subsequent production
will lead to an expansion of both the oil and gas within the reservoir.
Gas Cap Expansion Drive
With reservoir pressure equal to or at some later stage less than the
bubble point pressure for the oil, the gas released from solution will
migrate upwards to form a gas cap on top of the oil. Production is
therefore through the expansion of the gas cap. The loss of the gas from
solution will lead to the oil having a much higher viscosity and hence
lower mobility.
With the solution gas drive mechanism, the production of fluids occurs
primarily with gas expansion as it moves towards the wellbore. The
performance of the gas cap drive reservoir in terms of oil production rate
and gas-oil-ratio (GOR) is similar, however the reservoir pressure declines
more slowly due to the capacity for expansion within the gas cap. Allowing
reservoir pressure to drop substantially will maximise the size of the gas
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cap accompanied by maximum expansion capability. However this will

reduce oil mobility.
Water Drive Reservoir Mechanism
In a reservoir with water drive mechanism, the production of fluids is
balanced by either aquifer expansion or flow of water into the reservoir
which helps to maintain reservoir energy. The net effect of water influx
into the reservoir may be to prevent reservoir pressure dropping. This
depends on large aquifer volume.
Expansion of aquifer into the depleted oil zone will lead to a steady
elevation in the oil-water- contact (OWC).
Gravity Drive Mechanism
In gravity drive mechanism, the hydrostatic pressure due to the oil column
and pressure of the gas cap provides the drive downdip to a producing
well. Effectiveness requires maximum structural dip, low oil viscosity,
good vertical/horizontal permeability, active gas cap and negligible
aquifer activity.
Compaction Drive Mechanism
The oil within the reservoir pore space is compressed by the weight of
overlying sediments and the pressure of the fluids they contain. If fluid is
withdrawn from the reservoir, the volume of produced fluid can be
compensated for by the overlying sediments compacting lower sediments.
This will cause a compensating compression of the fluid in the reservoir
pore system and potential increase in reservoir pressure.
Combination Drive

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In the majority of reservoirs the production of fluids is not controlled by

only one but a combination of several drive mechanisms. In such
situations, the response of the reservoir to production is less predictable.
2.3.4 RESERVE ESTIMATION
To better understand reserves estimation, a few important terms require

definition. Original oil in place (OOIP) and original gas in place (OGIP) refer
to the total volume of hydrocarbon stored in a reservoir prior to
production. Reserves or recoverable
reserves are
the
volume
of
hydrocarbons that can be profitably extracted from a reservoir using

existing technology. Resources are reserves plus all other hydrocarbons
that may eventually become producible; this includes known oil and gas
deposits present that cannot be technologically or economically recovered
(OOIP and OGIP) as well as other undiscovered potential reserves.
Estimating hydrocarbon reserves is a complex process that involves
integrating geological and engineering data. Depending on the amount
and quality of data available, one or more of the following methods may
be used to estimate reserves:
Volumetric
Material balance
Production history
Analogy
Table 2.2: Summary of methods used to derive hydrocarbon reserves
Method
Application
Accuracy

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Dependent
Volumetr
ic
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quality
of
reservoir
description. Reserves estimates often

OOIP, OGIP, recoverable reserves. Use early in life of field.
high because this method does not

consider
problems
of
reservoir
heterogeneity.
OOIP, OGIP (assumes
adequate
production
history Highly
dependent
Material
available),
recoverable
balance
(assumes OOIP and OGIP known). Use in a mature field with production
on
quality
of
reserves reservoir description and amount of
abundant geological, petrophysical, and engineering data.
available.
Reserve
estimates variable.
Productio Recoverable reserves. Use after a moderate amount of

n history production data is available.
data
Dependent on amount of production

history available. Reserve estimates
tend to be realistic.
2.4 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

The role of a production engineer is to maximize oil and gas production in
a cost-effective manner. Familiarization and understanding of oil and gas
production systems are essential to the engineers. This chapter provides
graduating production engineers with some basic knowledge about
production systems is both a diverse and complex area, varying greatly
between (operating) companies. Primarily responsible for the Production
system.
The Production System describes the entire production process and
comprises:
The Reservoir: Its productive capacity (Inflow Potential)
Wellbore: Production Interval, Sump and Wellbore fluids
Production
Conduit:
Tubing
and
Accessories
Performance
(Outflow/Vertical Lift)
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Surface Flow path and Control: Wellhead, Xmas Tree and Flow lines
Treatment facilities and Chemicals: Separators, Compressors, etc.
Production Technology interfaces with geoscience, drilling, Reservoir

Engineers,
Petrophysicists,
Engineers,
Production
well
Operation
intervention
Engineers,
specialists,
and
other
Process
Specialist
Subsurface/surface Engineers.
It comprises broadly two sub-disciplines:
Production Engineering
Fluid Flow, Reservoir Dynamics, Equipment Design, Installation, Operation
and Fault Diagnosis
Production Chemistry
The Fluids Produced, Injected, Treatment, Flow Assurance Phase
envelops, Physical changes due to changing well conditions, The Rock
Mineralogy, Physical/Chemical properties, strength and response to flow,
Metallurgy Corrosion Mitigation/Control.
2.4.1 WELL COMPLETION
Well completion which is the only link between the reservoir and the
surface is a set of operations meant to ease production from a well. Based
on the definition, this means that well completion is not only one of the
most important aspects of a well, but also it constitutes the connection
between the borehole and the pay zone, the pay zone treatment (if any),
equipment, and etc. of the same well.
Completion therefore, can be
defined as the interval that goes from well locating to well abandonment.

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Figure 2.6: A Well Completion Schematics

TYPES OF WELL COMPLETIONS
There are three categories of well completions:
Casing completions
The casing completion is the most used (90% of the time) of the three
types. There are five types of casing completions.
Conventional perforated casing completions: It is a completion technique
in which a casing string is run from the surface to the producing zone,

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followed by its cementing in place. This technique involves the perforation

of the casing string. Oil is produced through the casing string.
Permanent well completions: In this completion, the tubing and wellhead
are placed permanently. All other activities (completion or corrective
operations) are executed with a small diameter tool through the tubing.
Multiple-zone completions: It is a completion used when there is more
than one producing zone. The technique permits a synchronized
production of two or more producing zones. This technique is complex and
pricey due to the downhole equipment and tools used to complete the job.
Sand-exclusion completions: It is a complicated completion used when a
well is drilled in unconsolidated sand.
Water-
and
gas-exclusion
completions:
Water-and
gas-exclusion
completions are used when free gas conservation and lesser water
productions are needed. Thus to achieve it, appropriate zones inside the
producing zone are chosen.
Open-Hole completions
Open-hole completions are wells completed with the oil tubing string
placed above the productive zone, or in which the productive zone is left
open without protection. This technique is merely employed in steady rock
formations. It is used since it allows the zone of interest to be tested while
drilling, there is no formation damaged from drilling mud or cement, the
production is greater than other completions, and it is cheaper. Figure 1.1
shows an illustration of open-hole completion.
Drainhole completions
Drainhole completions are methods used to complete horizontal wells or
slant wells. The main advantage of the technique is to elongate the

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production zone in order to boost the productivity. Figure 1.2 shows two
types of drainhole completions.
2.4.2 WELL PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS
Reservoir deliverability is the oil or gas production rate achievable from

reservoir at a given bottom-hole pressure. It is a major factor affecting
well deliverability. Reservoir deliverability determines types of completion
and artificial lift methods to be used. A thorough knowledge of reservoir
productivity is essential for production engineers. Reservoir deliverability
depends on several factors including the following: Reservoir pressure,
Pay zone thickness and permeability, Reservoir boundary type and
distance,
wellbore
radius,
Reservoir
fluid
properties,
Near-wellbore
condition, Reservoir relative permeability. Reservoir deliverability can be

mathematically modelled on the basis of flow regimes such as transient
flow, steady state flow, and pseudosteady state flow. An analytical
relation between bottom-hole pressure and production rate can be
formulated for a given flow regime. The relation is called inflow
performance relationship (IPR). This chapter addresses the procedures
used for establishing IPR of different types of reservoirs and well
configurations.
INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP (IPR)
In inflow performance relationship (IPR) is a graphical method used in
production engineering to estimate the relationship between the flowrate
and the bottomhole flowing pressure.
IPR is a most common way in
production engineering to estimate reservoir deliverability. It is generally

used to estimate various operating conditions such as determining the
optimum production scheme and designing production equipment of a
particular well.
It is a Cartesian plot (IPR plot) of various bottomhole
flowing pressure test data versus the flowrate test data of a particular

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The IPR graph (inflow performance relationship) curve or an IPR
curve is shown
The magnitude of the slope of the IPR is called the productivity index
(PI or J)
J=
q
PrPwf
Where
J = productivity index in STB/D/psi, q = flowrate in STB/D, pr = pressure at
the external boundary of the drainage area in psia, pwf = bottomhole
pressure, psia
Dilemma of Production:
Inflow Performance
Higher Pwf => Lower Rates
Lower Pwf => Higher Rates
The following methods are used to generate IPRs;
Vogels Method
Standings Method
Fetkovichs Method
Wiggins Method
TUBING PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP (TPR)

Tubing performance relationship (TPR) is the relationship between
bottomhole pressure and the flowrate. TPR is used to observe the
connection between the total tubing pressure drop and a surface flowing
pressure value as a function of flowrate, GOR (GLR), tubing ID, density,
surface pressure, and average temperature. A well deliverability is mostly
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dependent of the pressure drop required to raise a fluid through the

production tubing at a certain flowrate. The tubing pressure drop is the
sum of the surface pressure, the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid, and the
frictional pressure loss due to the flow.
Dilemma of Production:
Outflow Performance
Higher Pwf => High Rates
Lower Pwf => Lower Rates
Figure 2.7: Well Inflow and Outflow performance curve

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2.4.3 SAND PRODUCTION CONTROL

Sand control refers to preventing/minimizing the sand and fine production
during hydrocarbon production, while Sand Management refers to a condition
where produced sand is handled at surface.
Table 2.3: Causes, effect and parameters affecting sand production
Causes
of
Sand
Production
Degree of consolidation
Effects
production
Erosion
of
Equipment
Production rate
Increase
in
water
of
sand
downhole
and
Parameters affecting
Formation strength
surface
facilities
Downtime
Low production
production
Acid stimulation
Perforation & Reservoir
Formation subsidence,
Additional operation cost
Fluid velocity
and disposal issues
Reservoir fluids
Completion practice
Production philosophy
SAND CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Evaluating sand failure tendency is key in determining;
Need for sand control
Type of sand control
Appropriate operating envelop
Sand Control techniques includes Passive (rate restriction) and Active control
technique:
Mechanical:
Gravel Pack
Standalone Screens
Expandable Sand Screens

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Premium/Pre-Packed Screens
Chemical
Sand Consolidation (SCON)
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology (Hands-on Practice)
3.1 Geology
I was taught how to draw contour maps by hand

I was also taught how to make Cross sections of the contour map
and in the process I learnt about vertical exaggeration and its
importance
I learnt the roles of a Geologist in Oil and Gas exploration, I was
taught on the basics of seismic data acquisition both 2D and 3D

I was able to identify faults off a seismic section, select a horizon
and also translate events off the Seismic data onto a Base map,
contour and cross section it.
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DEPTH MAP CONTOURING EXERCISE
Figure 3.1: Scan of depth map after I contoured it at intervals of 25ft

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Figure 3.2: Colour coded Structural Depth Map.
Figure 3.3: Cross sectioned map across A and A
MANUAL SEISMIC INTERPRETATION EXERCISE

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N
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SAMPLE
HORIZON
Figure 3.4: Seismic data with fault picked and Horizon selected

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Figure 3.5: Seismic Section and interpretations (Top Left; Seismic

section, Base map, Inline Seismic, X-Line seismic, Time map,
Contoured Map and Cross section)
3.2 Petrophysics
I was able to understand the role of a reservoir engineer in an Oil

and Gas industry and the interface between Petrophysics and other
disciplines.
I was able to visit an oil producing field for a Carbon-Oxygen
Logging and gyro Survey Operation and provided with preliminary
data that are acquired and was taught how to interpret it.
I learnt about methods of data acquisition (direct and indirect) and
modes of deployment.

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I was taught various Petrophysical Logging tools ( both Open hole

and Cased hole), Reservoir Identification tools, Hydrocarbon
detection tools based on wireline or Logging while drilling (LWD).

I learnt about fluid type differentiation, contacts using
Neutron/Density, Resistivity logs and wireline pressure samples
(MDT).
I was provided with Life petrophysical logs and perform some
interpretation and quick look evaluation on them; identifying the
reservoir from the Lithology logs, fluid contacts and types based on
the logs. Also did some volumetric estimation from the provided
logs.
I learnt about how to determine water saturation from petrophysical
logs using the Archies principle.
Figure 3.6: Identifying Lithology from Reservoir Identification

tools.
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Figure 3.7: Fluid Type differentiation and contacts.
Figure 3.8: Hydrocarbon Estimation from petrophysical data

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3.3 Reservoir Engineering
I was made to understand the role of the Reservoir Engineer in the

Oil and Gas Industry. I was also made to understand the interface
between the Reservoir Engineers and other disciplines

I was taught on fluid pressure gradients and its importance, I was
also able to study a Static and Flowing Bottom hole Pressure Survey
Proposal from which I was able to know how the operation runs.
I was able to go for Bottom Hole Pressure data acquisition at OVHOR
field Sapele Delta state. I was lectured on the types of BHP survey,
usefulness and objectives for the survey. I was also able to perform
some analysis and interpretations on the acquired data.

I learnt the importance of PVT analysis and also shown how fluid PVT
characteristics are being modelled and put to use in the conceptual
design of the production conduit by the Production Technologist

I was taught with the aid of software how Well testing analysis is
being done in the Industry and its importance

I also learnt about how to identify different drive mechanisms from
their production and pressure data

I learnt the various Material Balance equations for different classes
of Oil Reservoirs and Drive mechanisms

I was taught on Reservoir Simulation with the aid of Software and its
importance to the Reservoir Engineer

I learnt how to use some Reservoir Engineering Softwares such as
PVTP and MBAL under the guidance of my Supervisor

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-2000
2000
DEPTH
f(x) = 14.43x - 22148.52

R = 0.97
0
2000 4000
f(x) = 3.47x - 4093.86

R = 1
oil
4000
Linear (oil)
gas
Linear (gas)
6000
8000
10000
PRESSURE
Figure 3.9: Graph of Depth vs Pressure showing fluid pressure gradients and Gas-Oil
contact.

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Figure 3.10: Volumetric Calculations (Estimating the OIL in the

reservoir)
Table 3.1: Flash calculations from PVT Data (to determine the Bubble point pressure,
Acentric factor, critical pressure and temperature and different Pressure and
Temperature conditions)

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Plate 1: Field Picture taken during Static and Flowing Bottomhole

Survey Operation at OVHOR.

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Table 3.2: Analysis and Gradient Plot based on the data acquired
from the BHP survey.
3.3 Production Technology
I learnt about the roles of a Production Technologist at Various

stages of an asset up until abandonment
I learnt the difference between Production Chemistry and Production
Engineering
I learnt about the different data needed by the Production

Technologist and how they are acquired

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I also learnt about Well Inflow and Outflow Performance, types of

Well Inflow and Outflow Performance relationships and Parameters
that influence Well Performance
I received a lecture on the fundamentals of flow in the wellbore and

sources of Energy losses In the Production Conduit
I learnt about the various Completion equipment and their uses
I was taught on Perforations and factors affecting the choice of

perforation techniques
I also got to know the different types of perforations as well as

indications to know if your gun fired
I was taught on the various Sand Control methods employed by the

company and the different factors influencing the choice of
mechanism
I learnt about Artificial lift mechanisms employed by the company,

how they are designed to achieve optimal production through
modelling, as well as its impact on Well lifecycle Production
Performance

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Figure 3.11: Well Completion Schematics

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Figure 3.12: Well Head Instrumentation Diagram
Plate 2: Flowlines and Wellheads for the Sapele Oil producing

wells.

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Plate 3: Flowlines of the Sapele 11 29 30 31 32 Well.

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Chapter 4
4.0 Field Experience Results and Discussions.
TITLE:
CO LOGGING AND GYRO SURVEY ON SAPL-21L
CARRIED OUT BY: EMVAL (DRIFT RUN), GEOPLEX (GYRO SURVEY) AND
SCLUMBERGER (CO LOGGING)
AIM OF OPERATION: To determine the present fluid contacts and the
STOG based on log results.
EQUIPMENTS USED: Wireline logging unit( power pack, cabin, wireline
counter), air compressor, generating set, crane, wireline unit, pressure
controller unit, sheave, stuffing box, flow tube, lubricator, blow out
preventer, gyro tool, RST tool configured with
CCL, GR, pressure and
temperature sensor.
4.1 MODE OF OPERATION FOR SAPL-21L
The dummy tool (O.D 1.86 and 15ft) was run until it got to the SSSV at
115ftah where the flapper was retrieved and it was re-run with (1.72)
tool. During the drift run it was noticed that the tool speed reduced with
an increase in tension due to the viscosity of the fluid at 1745ftah. The
length of the tool was increased to 20ft in order to counteract the upward
force of the viscous fluid and it got to an HUD of 4410ftah which is
shallower than the expected surveyed depth. The length of the tool
cannot be increased since it has gotten to the maximum length, so
5000ltrs of diesel was pumped into the well to displace the fluid and a LIB
(1.68 O.D) was run that got stocked at the same depth (4410ftah). A drift
tool of 1.50 O.D was run and got to the expected surveyed depth at
6090ft. The operation was aborted because the gyro tool and RST tool has
an O.D greater than 1.5.

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4.2 RESULT DISCUSSION
From the interpreted impression on the LIB, I observed that the base of
the lead block was smooth i.e. There is no pressure exerted by the lead
block on any blockage. Also there was an obvious scratch on the body of
the LIB which implies that there was a compressive force on the LIB. Since
a drift tool of 1.5 O.D went through to the expected HUD 6090ft then
there is a collapsed tubing along 4410ftah.
Figure 4.1: OPERATION FLOW DIAGRAM

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Figure 4.2: Instrumentation Diagram for Sapele- 11T field
4.3 CONCLUSION
I thoroughly enjoyed my field trip and now I have very valuable

experience under my belt. Aside the experience and knowledge I got in
the CO logging and gyro survey operation at SAPL-IIT and SAPL-21L, I was
opportune to go for a BHP operation at OVHOR-16 swamp also visited the
Amokpe flow station.

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4.4 EXPERIENCES GAINED
The Extensive use of Microsoft Excel to analyse and solve the

mathematical aspect of the industry related problems.
Extensive use of Microsoft PowerPoint and enhanced presentation
skill
Proper workplace ethics.
Enhanced technical communication skills.
Gained proper team work habit and orientation
Proficient use of Petroleum experts Material Balance software
(MBAL).
Proficient use of Petroleum experts Well performance design
software (PROSPER).
4.5 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED
Difficulty in securing a place for my internship on time: Despite the

fact that I applied early to a number of companies, I didnt get a
place for my Internship till August which was already about two
months behind schedule.
Due to the few number of field operations that took place during the
course of my internship, more of the theoretical learning had to be
done.
Inability to complete my training plan because of the late
commencement of my training

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4.6 OBSERVATIONS
The following observations were made during my Internship period at

SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Plc.:
The Industries are Safety oriented and take great steps in ensuring
that people are well informed on the hazards around them and also
how to avoid them. They also encourage people to report Safety
issues either Safe or Unsafe
Teamwork between various disciplines is an essential factor to the
growth of the Industry
Everything is not going to be given to you on a silver platter, your

communication skills have to be spot on to be able to learn well.
The Management and General Staff in industries tend to judge

interns by their institutions, it is therefore important to be a good
ambassador of your institution by backing up hard work with
diligence and be a team player.
No matter the nature of the Department or organisation you might

find yourself in for Internship, do not limit yourself to the scope of
work there. Ask questions from every aspect possible and every
relevant Department, because that is the best way to learn well.
The Company has a strong will to impact the younger generation

with knowledge and the people at the company always maintain an
open door, ready to entertain any of your questions
Industry personnel are busy people and most times you have to
always follow up on them and work on your own while you can
always go back to them for guidance where you might be having

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issues. They respond better when they know you have been working
in their absence.

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CHAPTER 5
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 CONCLUSION
My time at SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Plc. has been a
wonderful experience and a much needed eye opener into what goes on
in the Business of Oil and Gas at the Exploration and Production level. It
has afforded me with the opportunity of understanding the importance of
all I am being taught in school.it has given me the much needed
knowledge I will need if I am to choose a career path in Chemical
Engineering and Petroleum and Gas Engineering It has also given me a
good foundation upon which I could start building up a Career path in a
chosen aspect of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering.
It has also
exposed me to workplace ethics which will be needed if I am to

successfully work in the Industry. I have been able to build relationships
which I know will be influential in my Career growth.
Hence, the SIWES programme has further exposed me to the relevance of
my discipline;
it
has
exposed
and
highlighted
possible
areas
of
specialization and where further studies and knowledge is required. I have

imbibed some corporate culture and more professionalism to my
discipline, including useful managerial and organizational skills.
I am grateful for the exceptional training I had in the different
departments in the Subsurface Team, I have become more skilful in the
field, more confident, and a better candidate for the job market.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The main objective of the SIWES programme is to give students a practical
knowledge of theoretical courses they offer in school. The following
recommendations are made to conclude this report.
The school should try and partake in the task of securing

placements for students for the SIWES programme to ensure prompt
training and compliance with the school calendar required for the
training.
Core software used by engineers in the industry should be

introduced and taught in the school curriculum.
Basic computer skills like the Microsoft office should also be included
in the school curriculum.
Private and public establishments should be encouraged and

educated by the Government on the importance of the SIWES
scheme so as to reduce cases of refusal of intending IT students by
companies.

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REFERENCES
Elsevier, (1986) Petroleum Production Engineering.

Dake, L.P. (1977), Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering.
Tarek, A. (2000), Reservoir Engineering Handbook (3rd Ed.)
Pedersen, K.S. and Christensen, P.L. 2007. Phase Behavior of
Petroleum Reservoir Fluids. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press

Mafe O.T (2013), Guide to successful participation in SIWES (2nd
Ed.) Sodipo Press.

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A TECHNICAL REPORT

SEPLAT PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT COMPANY PLC.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

Industry based Supervisor

Signature, Stamp & Date

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

To all my lecturers in Chemical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola Uni. Of Tech. I

4.2 Instrumentation Diagram for Seplat-11T Field

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

2.3 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING.......................................................................................31

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

embankment of students in SIWES was to expose them to the industrial

students who participate conscientiously in Students Industrial Work

internalized and become relevant when required to perform jobs or

The Industrial Training Funds policy Document

The Industrial Training Funds policy Document No. 1 of 1973 which

educational process through SIWES.

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

1.2 SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company

Company grew this to a peak rate of over 84,000 bopd in 2015,

1.2.2 Strategically Located, High-Quality Assets

(CNL). OML 53 covers an area of 1,556km2 and is located onshore in Imo

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

Figure 1.1: Asset blocks of SEPLAT Petroleum Development

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

1.2.3 Strong relationship with local communities

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

1.2.5 COMPANY OBJECTIVES AND VALUES

Maximize production and cash flows from operated assets

Move up 2C resources into 2P reserves category

Commercialize and produce gas reserves

Pursue a focused acquisition and farm-in strategy

Be a highly responsible corporate citizen

Vision; to be a world class energy company delivering premium

Safety: At SEPLAT, we strive to create a working environment where

collaborations with stakeholders in the spirit of true partnership, we

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

Table 1.1: SEPLAT Petroleum Development Company Plc.

1.2.6 ABOUT SUBSURFACE DEPARTMENT

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

Table 1.2: Disciplines in the Subsurface Department and their

Manages and coordinates the work of everyone in the subsurface team.

Geophysicist/ reservoir structure and fault distribution.

Responsible for understanding and modelling the geological framework of

the reservoir. Helps to identify and plan new well locations.

reservoir at the well scale.

hydrocarbon production from the wellbore to the surface facilities. Analyses

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they

for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration

remediation of environmental problems, and for providing insights into

engineering and is a major academic discipline.

2.1.1 Rock or stone

more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a common rock, is a

defined: igneous, sedimentary,

and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which

OTUSANYA, Gabriel Tobi/ 120313 | 5.0 Conclusions and

and solidification of magma or lava. This magma can be derived from

by water, wind, ice, mass

movement or glaciers (agents