© | An Overview ofthe Essay Ihe Process-Reflective Method Although most essays are written in stages, most writers do not engage with their topic mechanically but by moving back and forth—from composing to outline, for example, if they need to rethink their structure, or trom composing back to the research stage to check on a source or find more support for a point. Some writers, in fact, do not follow a linear process but begin composing without any firm plan in place, trusting to their instincts and realizing that it is sometimes only by writing something down and taking the risk oF going off-topic occasionally that they can discover what they really want to say. In the exploratory model, your intentions and goals are revealed through the act of writing itself, and an autline is less important than in the linear approach. Below, Frans de Waal, primatologist and author of Our inner Ape, describes his personal process. It illus trates the importance of revising and the necessity of finding the approach that works best for you: | write my books without much of an outline except for the chapter titles. My main strategy is to just start writing and see what happens. From one topic fol- lows another, and before you know it | have a dozen pages filled with stories and thoughts... | have a very visual memory, and remember events in great detail When | write, my desk fills up with ever higher piles of papers and books used for reference, until itis a big mess, which is something | cannot stand. | am very neat. So, at some point | put all that stuff away, print out the text ve written, and sit down comfortably with a red pen. By that time | have already gone over the text multiple times. with pen in hand, | do a very rigorous rereading and again change things around, —httpi//www.emory.edu/LIVING_LINKS/OurinnerApe/book htm! When de Wal reveals, above, that he has “gone over the text multiple times” before he considers large-scale changes, he is revealing his preference for a writing process in which he pauses to reflect, re-examine, and change, if necessary, before continuing—a kind of revision on the fly, er paragraph-by-paragraph approach. As with the traditional-linear approach, however, you should not be concerned with mechanical correctness as you ‘Typical activities in process-reflective drafts are rephrasing, clarifying, expand- ing, and connecting: you concern yourself with making logical transitions from one thought to the next and checking to see that your developing points are consistent with your general plan. You should begin with a few rough points and “reminders,” such as, important authors or quotations you want to use, but you do not need to have a detailed plan. Rather, the plan evolves as you write. Process-reflective writing can also be used tor in-class and exam essays in which there is seldom time to outline your points in detail = a= precess-reflective draft Adeaft that emerges froma flexible engagement with what you are writing, lone that reflects the rannectionc hetuimen thinking and writing. pn www.cbook3000.com7% FAITH | Academie Weting = —as ‘lala ‘An assertion about the topic appearing in the thesis statement and topic sentences, The Structure of the Essay Most essays are divided into an introduction, middle or body paragraphs, and a conclu- sion, Each part contributes in a different way to the essay. In this section you will learn techniques and strategies for drafting each part. Writing Introductions ‘The introduction is more than just a starting place. Its primary function is to inform the reader about the essay’s purpose, topic, and approach to the topic (usually through the thesis statement; it may include the essay’s main points. As well. the introduction may indicate the primary organizational pattern for the essay. In all these ways, the intro- duction previews what is forthcoming. A good introduction is persuasive: it must sufficiently interest dhe reader, e aging him or her to read on, perhaps by conveying the importance of the to Introduction not only introduces the essay but also introduces its writer; therefore, you must come across as credible and reliable. Otherwise, your essay may not be read. (See Issues of Credibility, page 83.) Student writers are often advised to write the introduction last because they will not know precisely how the topic will develop until the body of the essay is written. (On dhe gthiet hand, many writers like W have a conciete starting point. IF dhe Latter describes you best, yout should return to the introduction after you have written your middle paragraphs to ensure that it fits well with them, Writing Thesis Statements ‘The Greek word thesis refers to the act of placing or setting down. A thesis statement, then, isa formal assertion, a generalization that i applicable o the entire essay. However, this generalization can take different forme depending on piepase and audience Student and academic writers usually place the thesis statement in the Introduction; journal- istic writers often do not. For kinds of theses in academic essays, see chapter 2 (p. 21), “Thesis statements vary in what they include: © Asimple dusis sutement announces the topic and includes vomment about it, = An expanded thesis statement, or essay plan, includes the main painte in the order they will appear in the essay. ple thesis: Kenotransplantation, the transplantation of organs across a species barrier. is emerging as a possible alternative to transplants from human donors. Expanded thesis: In order to understand the extent of bullying today, we must consider who is affected by bullying, what are its impacts, and how ‘we can prevent it, ‘The thesis statement nally embodies a claim, the nature af which depends an the essay’s purpose: = Claims of fact arc common in expository easays in the aciences and social sciences in which reliable studies and factual information are used for support.© | AnUvervew ofthe Essay 75 © Claims of value or policy are common in argumentative essays. Such claims argue that something, such as a law, is good or bad or that it neede to change. + Interpretive claims are common in humanities essays in which the writer sets ‘nt to analyze one oF more primary sources by using a specific frame of refer. ence, such asa critical theory, For example, a poem could be analyzed through its literary motifs or through the lens of feminist theary. When you write a ‘metorical or critical analysis, you wil aso use an interpretive claim (the essay you analyze is your primary source) The follu iy statenenats Uemuustiate different kinds of claims. Thesis with factual claim: Cultural, psychological, and economic factors are withdrawal from society by extreme isolation. ‘ing to an increasingly prevalent phenomenon, hikikomori, or the Thesis with policy claim: Mare sustainable, shade-grown caffee plantations need to be established In order to counter the effects of habitat destruction and help maintain the planet's diversity. ‘Thesis from a rhetorical analysis with interpretive claim: In his essay, Robidows presents a strong argument through the use of historical documentation, examples, and appeals to ethos. ‘The thesis you write must not just state your topic but also show the reader how the cssay will be developed. Once you have narrowed your topic, you should work on your thesis to ensure itis + informative + well-focusea + clearly expressed Creating Reader Incerest Readers need to be convinced at the outset that your essay is worth reading, The most traditional way to generate interest and persuade your reader of the topic’s importance 45 10 use a logical opening: to begin with a untversal statement that becomes more specific and ends with the most specific claim, the thesis itself; this method is called the inverted triangle method. ‘One riek in thie approach is that in making the firet sentence too broad or famil Jar, it fails to interest the reader. Iherefore, student writers are often encouraged to use a dramatic opening, Examples of dramatic openings include the use of personal experience, description, or narration, or asking a pertinent question that intrigues the reader. An opening could also make an emotional appeal; however, use these appeals cautiously because you cannot always assume that a typical reader will respond in the way you wish. The following examples illustrate two different ways of attracting reader interest. Note that. in hoth cases, the last sentence is the thesis, statement www.ebook3000.com Fact-based claims are common in exposition Claims of value or policy are comman in acgument. Interpretive claims are common inthe humanities, in Which primary sources are analyzed, na — logieal opaning Atechnique for creating reader interest by Deginning witha generalization and ‘narrowing to the thesis. dramatie opening A technique for creating reader interest by beginning witha ‘question. illustration, aneedete, quotation, ‘description, or other attantion-grabbing technique.74 PARTIE | Acadenic Wiiting Logical opening. The writer begins with a statement about her subject area, health and nutrition. In sentence 3, she mentions the importance of reliable research. Her specific \opic is addressed in sentence 4, and her thesis is her final sentence: The field of health and nutrition is evolving fast, which can make it confusing as ‘experts often disagree on what is healthy and what is not. The average citizen is easly Influenced by media claims, which may be part truth and part “hype.” A good way to ‘acura that what ie eing eoncumed ie honofical ta health i t research exactly what itis and how its wonsituents uffect de human body; this research enables educated health decisions ‘and personalized diets. Coffe isan example ofa controversial health topic today. Millions of people drink coffee every day, yet few huvw ils ue effect vn lial I Canna ale, 14 billion cups of coffee are consumed each year (Hales & Lauzon, 2008). Despite old studies which show coffee ae detrimental to health, nev research on the health benc- fits of coffee have begun to emerge. While certain health concerns still exist based primarity can quantity of consumption and any proeistng health conditions, now avidence euggorte that caffeine as well a other compounds present in coffee offer surprising health benefits student writer Clara Buttemer Dramatic opening (questions): The writer begins with two questions, referring to the popular connotation of perfectionism. Using the reversal strategy, she then cites the definition of experts. Her final sentence makes it clear that her essay will focus on the problems of the “maladaptive perfectionist’ What does it mean to say that one isa perfectionist? Does it mean that one does every- thing perfectly? In common language, the term “perfectionist” carries the connotation that the pertectionistic individual does everything pertectly, but according to pertection- {sm experts in social psychology, perfectionism isa term referring to a mentality, or st cof cognitions, that are characteristic of certain people, According to Hollender (as clted in Slade & Owens, 1998), perfoctianicm refers to “the practice af demanding af onoself cor others a higher quality of peiformance dhan is vequived by Ue situation” (p. 384), Although the name suggests to the layperson that perfectionism would be a desirable trait, this quality is in fact often unrecugnized for its detsimental effects on the lives of people who are maladaptively perfectionistic. Perfectionism is associated with mental illness ‘and can contribute to problems in area of life such as acadernic sucese and intimate relationships, student writer Erin Walker Le ij Glu In the following paragraphs 1, Womenin ocietyhave come along way, fromearningthe right to vote to becoming politcal leaders, and from rid a. identify the method for creating interest ing horses side saddle to riding motorcycles. Today, with b. discuss how the writer establishes his or her more dual income families and an increasing number of credibility wives whose salaries are more than their husbands, the © identify the thesis statement and whether it isa gender wage gap has improved significantly. I loweves, simple thesis or an expanded one ‘women are still not treated equally in the workplace, and women's salaries remain a very relevant issue as, on You can also pre-read Rhetorical Patterns and Paragraph _average, women make only seventy-two cents for every Development, page 79, Ww determine Use essay’s anain dollar hat men make (Drolet, "Why has the gender wage organizational method. ‘gap narrowed?”). In a society that has promoted genderpay equality since 1958 by implementing the Female Employees tqual Pay Act (Canadian Human Rights ‘Commission “Federal Government adopts the Female Employees Equal Pay Act’), how can such a large dispar- ity stil exist? Dy examining the gender wage gap and its causes, the problem is clear, but what are the solu- tions? Action must be taken to overcome ths disparity by an extensive education program that informs society about the gender wage gap and its contributing factors student writer Jacquetine Greenard 2. On April 6, 1994, the plane transporting Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana was shot down, killing everyone on board. This tragedy was only the begin- ‘ing; the death of President Habyarimana setin motion a violent genocide that had been brewing for more than a rentury The dominant Hutuis feared an upise ing of the oppressed Tutsis and sought to avold the threat by exterminating them, The Rwandan capital of Writing Middle Paragraphs © | An Overview ofthe Essay 75 Kigali war engulfed in violence within minutes of the president's death, and the presidential guard embarked ‘on a “campaign of retribution.” A massive Hutu civl- ian mob known as the interahamwe, meaning “those ‘who attack together” rampaged across the country for the next three months as anti-Tutsi propaganda pumped through the airwaves. The Rwanda Patriotic Front (PF) eventually launched an organized counter- attack in July and regained control of Kigali, but by the time the last shot was fired, nearly 800,000 Tutsis had fst ter fives lin Ue afleriniatt uf this niass mur, experts began analyzing how a tragedy of this mag- nitude could have happened and have isolated three rain fartore: the long- 5 Many peuple do resist ute Lemptation Lo engage in selserving behaviours that con- tribute to climate change. Yet, admittedly, many do yield ta the temptation. What will it Lake to lange these people's behaviour’ As a start—but only a start—understanding anuitonmentsrelated mativations, attitudes, cocial and organieational perceptions, ratio. nales,blases, habits, bartiers to change, life-context, and trust in government will help. Certainly, psychologists are already engaged in the effort on their own. For example, some have investigated the psychological dimensions of global warming (e.g, Dresner, 1989-90; |» Heath & Gifford, 2006; Nilson, von Borgstede, & Biel, 2004). However, the major thesis of the present article is that we psychologists must do more, 4 Ido not wich to argue that environmental prychology is, or even could be, a stand alone panacea. For example, Schmuck and Vlek (2003) advocate that we work more closely with environmental acientizts. However, | believe that we must work with at least four other groups to be effective: natural scientists, technical experts, policy experts, and local citizens 5s Fortunately, environmental psychologists have a history of interdisciplinary col- laboration, beginning with geography and architecture, embodied in the collaborations between Rohert Sommer, Humphry Osmond, and Kiya l2umi in 19508 Saskatchewan (Sommer, 1983), or between Raymond Studer and David Stea in the United States (1966). More recently, and more pertinent to cureent concern, fruitful collaborative workis being done in sustainability research (e., Schoot Uiterkamp & Viek, 2007), including some collaborations that represent new bridges. Schoot Uiterkamp and Vlek (2007) describe five instances of collaborations, and their account is particulaly valuable for ils advive about the practicalities of engaging in multidsciplinary studies. This callaharation trend has been influenced, one suspects, by polices at nacional and International gran agen- cies that, for better or worse, vieually require interdisciplinary collaboration. In teers oF t of forces in which ctructural factors above or external to the influencing policy, collaborative efforts not only have “face credibility" based on the very breadth af their appraach, but also euccece that ic legitimately hated an the inereaced validity of policy suggestions that emerge from studying a given problem with multiple valuable perspectives.