RCS-I

Introduction

Chapter I

CHAPTER I
Introduction
1.1. General Introduction
Concrete is a conglomerate, artificial stone like material obtained by hardening and curing a
mixture of mainly cement, water and aggregates and sometimes admixtures. The main
cementing constituents of portland cement are tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2 abbreviated
C3S) and di-calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2 abbreviated C2S) which when combined with water
undergo chemical reactions that result in cementing gels called tobermorite gels. They are
so named due to their similarity in composition and structure to a natural mineral
discovered in Tobermory, Scotland. The hydration reaction is according to the following
equations



  + 2 
  +




  + 2 
 +

C2SH and CSH are di- and mono-calcium silicate gels respectively, and CH is Ca(OH)2
There are hypothesis trying to explain as to how these gels impart strength to concrete.
The first hypothesis says it is due to force of adsorption. According to this hypothesis these
gels are about 1/1000 of the size of portland cement grains (10m) and have enormous
surface area (about 3*106cm2/g) which results in immense attractive forces between
particles as atoms on each surface are attempting to complete their unsaturated bonds by
adsorption. These forces cause particles of the gel to adhere to each other and to every
other particle in the cement paste. The second hypothesis says that the gel attracts one
another and everything around them due to adhesive Vander Waals forces.
Whichever way, tobermorite gels form the heart of hardened concrete in that it cements
everything together. The finished product, plain concrete has a high compressive strength
and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one-tenth of its
compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement has to be provided to
resist tension to compensate for the weak tension regions in reinforced concrete.
It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforced concrete section from the homogeneity
of steel or wood that requires a modified approach of structural design, as will be explained
in subsequent chapters. The two component of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete
section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the two
materials involved.
Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as construction materials in countries around
the world for the construction of buildings, bridges, underground structures, water tanks,
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RCS-I
Introduction
Chapter I
television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, highway and airfield
pavements and many more structures.
Reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material throughout the world because of the
wide availability of constitutions of concrete and reinforcing steel bars, the relatively simple
skills required for its construction and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to
other forms of construction.
Other advantages of reinforced concrete are:

Mouldability to any desired shape in forms while plastic,

Economy
Fire resistance
Suitability of material for architectural & other functions
Rigidity
Low maintenance

But concrete has also disadvantages; an important one is that quality control when
manufactured in the field sometimes is not as good as for other construction materials that
are made in factory. Another disadvantage is that concrete is a relatively brittle material i.e.,
it easily breaks in tension while it is very strong in compression. This disadvantage can
however be offset by reinforcing concrete with steel in the tension zone. Other
disadvantage, concrete is difficult to dismantle after hardening and large portion of the xsection is not effectively used due to cracks. Concrete requires formwork which most of the
time is expensive and supervision after pouring is difficult. Concrete has relatively low
strength per unit volume (or weight) and undergoes time dependent volume changes such
as drying shrinkage, which if restrained, may cause cracking and deflections. Furthermore,
deflections tend to increase with time due to creep of concrete under sustained loadings.
Design of concrete sections involves determining the cross sectional dimensions of concrete
structural members and the required quantity of reinforcement. A large number of
parameters have to be dealt with in design of concrete sections such as geometrical width,
depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain and steel stress. Consequently,
trial and adjustment are necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions
based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of
the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, applicable codes and environmental
conditions.

1.2. History of Development of Concrete

1.2.1. Cement and Concrete
Lime mortar was first used in structures in Minoan civilization in Crete about 2000BC. This
type of mortar had the disadvantage of gradually dissolving when immersed in water and
hence could not be used for exposed joints or underwater joints. About the third century
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Introduction
Chapter I
D.C the Rotilans discovered a volcanic ash called pozzolana (named after the village of
pozzoli where the ash was discovered) which when mixed with limestone, burnt and ground
had an excellent hydraulic cementing quality with far better strength which could also be
used under water. They used light volcanic rock as aggregates.
The most remarkable concrete structure built by Romans was the dome of Pantheon in
Rome completed in A.D. 126. This dome had a span of 44 m, a span not exceeded until the
19th century. The lowest part of the dome was concrete with aggregate consists of broken
bricks. As the builder approached the top of the dome they used lighter and lighter
aggregate, using pumice at the top to reduce the dead-load moments. Although the outside
of the dome was and still is covered with decorations, the marks of the forms are still visible
on the inside.
While designing the Eddystone Lighthouse off the south coast of England just before A.D.
1800, the English engineer John Smeaton discovered that a mixture of burned limestone
and clay could be used to make cement that would set under water and be water resistant.
Owing to the exposed nature of this lighthouse, however, Smeaton reverted to the triedand-true Roman cement and mortised stonework.
In the ensuing years a number of people used Smeaton's material but the difficulty of
finding limestone and clay in the same quarry greatly restricted its use. In 1824, Joseph
Aspdin mixed ground limestone and clay from different quarries and heated them in a kiln
to make cement. Aspdin named his product Portland cement because concrete made from
it resembled Portland stone, a high-grade limestone from the Isle of Portland in the south of
England.
This cement was used by Brunei in 1828 for the mortar used in the masonry liner of a tunnel
under the Thames River and in 1835 for mass concrete piers for a bridge. Occasionally in the
production of cement the mixture would be overheated, forming a hard clinker which was
considered to be spoiled and was discarded. In 1845, L C. Johnson found that the best
cement resulted from grinding this clinker. This is the material now known as Portland
cement. Portland cement was produced in Pennsylvania in 1871 by D. O. Saylor and about
the same time in Indiana by T. Millen of South Bend, but it was not until the early1880s that
significant amounts were produced in the United States.

1.2.2. Reinforced Concrete

W, B, Wilkinson of Newcastle-upon-Tyne obtained a patent in 1854 for a reinforced
concrete floor system that used hollow plaster domes as forms. The ribs between the forms
were filled with concrete and were reinforced with discarded steel mine-hoist ropes in the
center of the ribs. In France, Lambot built a rowboat of concrete reinforced with wire in1848
and patented it in 1855. His patent included drawings of a reinforced concrete beam and a
column reinforced with four round iron bars. In 1861, another Frenchman, Coignet,
published a book illustrating uses of reinforced concrete.
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Chapter I
The American lawyer and engineer Thaddeus Hyatt experimented with reinforced concrete
beams in the 1850s. His beams had longitudinal bars in the tension zone and vertical
stirrups for shear. Unfortunately, Hyatt's work was not known until he privately published a
book describing his tests and building system in 1877.
Perhaps the greatest incentive to the early development of the scientific knowledge of
reinforced concrete came from the work of Joseph Monier, owner of a French nursery
garden. Monier began experimenting about 1850 with concrete tubs reinforced with iron
for planting trees. He patented his idea in 1867, this patent was rapidly followed by patents
for reinforced pipes and tanks (1986), flat plates (1869), bridges (1873) and stairs (1875).
In1880-1881, Monier received German patents for many of the same applications. These
were licensed to the construction firm Wayss and Freitag, which commissioned Professors
Morsch and Bach of the University of Stuttgart to test the strength of reinforced concrete
and commissioned Mr. Koenen, chief building inspector for Prussia, to develop a method of
computing the strength of reinforced concrete. Koenen's book, published in 1886,
presented an analysis which assumed that the neutral axis was at the mid-height of the
member.
The first reinforced concrete building in the United States was a house built on Long Island
in 1875 by W. E, Ward, a mechanical engineer. E. L Ransome of California experimented on
reinforced concrete in the 1870s and patented twisted steel reinforcing bar in 1884. In the
same year, Ransome independently developed his own set of design procedures. In 1888 he
constructed a building having cast-iron columns and a reinforced concrete floor system
consisting of beams and a slab made from flat metal arches covered with concrete. In 1890,
Ransome built the Leland Stanford, Jr. Museum in San Francisco. This two-story building
used discarded cable car rope as beam reinforcement. In 1903 in Pennsylvania, he built the
first building in the United States completely framed with reinforced concrete.
In the period from 1875 to 1900, the science of reinforced concrete developed through a
series of patents. An English textbook published in 1904 listed 43 patented systems, 15 in
France, 14 in Germany or Austria-Hungary, 8 in the United States, 3 in the United Kingdom
and 3 elsewhere. Most of these differed in the shape of the bars and the manner in which
the bars were bent.
From 1890 to 1920, practicing engineers gradually gained knowledge of the mechanics of
reinforced concrete, as books, technical articles, and codes presented the theories. In an
1894 paper to the French Society of Civil Engineers, Coignet (son of the earlier Coignet) and
de Tedeskko extended Koenen's theories to develop the working stress design method for
flexure, which was used universally from 1900 to 1950. During the past seven decades
extensive research has been carried out on various aspects of reinforced concrete behavior,
resulting in the current design procedures.

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Chapter I
Pre-stressed concrete was pioneered by E. Freyssinet who in 1928 concluded that it was
necessary to use high-strength steel wire for pre-stressing because the creep of concrete
dissipated most of the pre-stress force if normal reinforcing bars were used to develop the
pre-stressing force. Freyssinet developed anchorages for the tendons and designed and built
a number of pioneering bridges and structures.

1.2.3. Design Specifications for Reinforced Concrete

The first set of building regulations for reinforced concrete was drafted under the leadership
of Professor Morsch of the University of Stuttgart and was issued in Prussia in 1904.Design
regulations were issued in Britain, France, Austria and Switzerland between 1907and 1909.
The American Railway Engineering Association appointed a Committee on Masonry in l890.
In 1903 this committee presented specifications for portland cement concrete. Between
1908 and 1910 a series of committee reports led to the Standard Building Regulations for
the Use of Reinforced Concrete published in 1910 by the National Association of Cement
Users, which subsequently became the American Concrete Institute.
A Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete was established in 1904 by the
American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society for Testing and Materials, the
American Railway Engineering Association and the Association of American Portland
Cement Manufacturers. This group was later joined by the American Concrete Institute.
Between 1904 and 1910 the Joint Committee carried out research. A preliminary report
issued in 1913 lists the more important papers and books on reinforced concrete published
between 1898 and 1911. The final report of this committee was published in 1916. The
history of reinforced concrete building codes in the United States was reviewed in1954 by
Kerekes and Reid.
The first Ethiopian code was developed in 1972. This was revised in 1983 and had 3 volumes
(Ethiopian Standard Code of Practice: ESCP: 1983). The second revision was made in 1995
and this consists of 13 volumes which are currently used for design.

1.3. Material Aspect of Reinforced Concrete

To understand and interpret the total behavior of a composite element requires knowledge
of the characteristics of its components. Concrete is produced by the collective mechanical
and chemical interaction of a large number of constituent materials. Hence a discussion of
the function of each of these components is vital prior to studying concrete as a finished
product. In this manner, the designer and the materials engineer can develop skills for the
choice of the proper ingredients and so proportion them as to obtain an efficient and
desirable concrete satisfying the designers strength and serviceability requirements.

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Chapter I

1.3.1. Concrete
1.3.1.1. Ingredients of Concrete
a) Cement
Cement is the most important ingredient of concrete because it is the hydration reaction
that gives strength to concrete. This ingredient is also the most expensive in plain concrete
production.
Portland cement is produced from a mixture of ground clay (contains Si02 and Al2O3) and
lime (CaO) and other minor ingredients such MgO and Fe2O3 by heating to the point of
incipient fusion (clinkering temperature). The clinker is then ground to different degrees of
fineness to get cement.
Table 1.3.1.1-1 shows the main chemicals in portland cement and the relative contribution
of each component toward the rate of gain in strength. The early strength of Portland
cement is higher with higher percentages of C2S. If moist curing is continuous, later strength
levels will greater, with higher percentages of C2S. C3A contributes to the strength
developed during the first day after placing the concrete because it is the earliest to
hydrate.
Rate of
Component
Reaction
Tricalcium silicate, C3S
Medium
Slow
Dicalcium silicate,C2S
Tricalcium aluminate, C3A
Fast
Tetracalcium alumino ferrate, C4AF
Slow

Heat
Liberated
Medium
Small
Large
Small

Ultimate
Cementing Value
Good
Good
Poor
Poor

Table 1.3.1.1-1Properties of Cements

Type of Cement

C3S

C2S

C3A

Component (%)
C4AF CaSO4

CaO

MgO

Normal: I

49.0 15.0

12.0

8.0

2.9

0.8

2.4

Modified: II

45.0 29.0

6.0

12.0

2.8

0.6

3.0

High early strength: III

56.0 15.0

12.0

8.0

3.9

1.4

2.6

Low heat: IV

30.0 46.0

5.0

13.0

2.9

0.3

2.7

Sulphate resisting: V

43.0 36.0

4.0

12.0

2.7

0.4

1.6

Table 1.3.1.1-2 Percentage Composition of Portland Cements

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General
Characteristics
All-purpose
cement
Comparative low
heat liberation;
used in large
structures
High strength in
3 days
Used in mass
concrete dams
Used on sewers
and structures
exposed to
sulphate

RCS-I
Introduction
Chapter I
When portland cement combines with water during setting and hardening, lime is liberated
from some of the compounds. The amount of lime liberated is approximately 20% by weight
of the cement. Under unfavorable conditions, this might cause disintegration of a structure
owning to leaching of the lime from the cement. Such a situation should be prevented by
adding a siliceous mineral such as pozzolan to the cement. The added mineral reacts with
the lime in the presence of moisture to produce strong calcium silicate.
The size of the cement particles strongly influences the rate of reaction of cement with
water. For a given weight of finely ground cement, the surface area of the particles is
greater than that of the coarsely ground cement. This results in a greater rate of reaction
with water and a more rapid hardening process for larger surface areas. This is one reason
for the high early strength type-III cement.
Type of cement affects durability of concrete also. Disintegration of concrete due to cycles
of wetting, freezing, thawing, and drying and propagation of resulting cracks is a matter of
great importance. The presence of minute air voids throughout the cement paste increases
the resistance of concrete to disintegration. This can be achieved by the addition of airentraining admixtures to the concrete while mixing.
Disintegration due to chemicals in contact with the structure, such as in the case of port
structure and sub-structure can also be slowed down or prevented. Since the concrete in
such cases is exposed to chlorides and sometimes sulphates of magnesium and sodium, it is
sometimes necessary to specify sulphate resisting cement. Usually, type II cement will be
adequate for use in seawater structures.
Since the different types of cement generate different degrees of heat at different rates, the
type of structure governs the type of cement to be used. The bulkier and heavier in cross
section the structure is the less the generation of heat of hydration that is desired. In
massive structures such as dams, piers, and caissons, type IV cement are advantageous to
use. From this discussion it is seen that the type of structures, the weather, and other
conditions under which it is built and will be used are the governing factors in the choice of
the type of cement that should be used.
b) Water and Air
Water
Water is required in the production of concrete in order to precipitate chemical reaction
with the cement, to wet the aggregates and to lubricate the mixture for easy workability.
Normally, drinking water can be used in mixing. Water having harmful ingredients such as
silt, oil, sugar or chemicals is destructive to the strength and setting properties of cement. It
can disrupt the affinity between the aggregate and the cement paste and can adversely
affect workability of a mixture.

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Excessive water leaves uneven honeycombed skeleton in the finished product after
hydration has taken place while too little water prevents complete chemical reaction with
the cement. The product in both cases is a concrete that is weaker than and inferior to
normal concrete.
Entrained Air
With the gradual evaporation of excess water from the mix, pores are produced in the
hardened concrete. If evenly distributed, these could give improved characteristics to the
product. Very even distribution of pores by artificial introduction of finely divided uniformly
distributed air bubbles throughout the product is possible by adding air-entraining agents
such as vinsol resin. Air entrainment increases workability, decreases density, increases
durability, reduces bleeding and segregation, and reduces the required sand content in the
mix. For these reasons, the percentage of entrained air should be kept at the required
optimum value for the desired quality of the concrete. The optimum air content is 9% of the
mortar fraction of the concrete. Air entraining in excess of 5-6% of the total mix
proportionally reduces the concrete strength.
c) Aggregates
Aggregates are those parts of the concrete that constitute the bulk of the finished product.
They comprise 60 to 80% of the volume of the concrete and have to be so graded that the
whole mass of concrete acts as a relatively solid homogeneous, dense combination, with the
smaller sizes acting as an inert filler of the voids that exist between the larger particles.
Since the aggregates constitute the major part of the mixture, the more aggregate is used in
the mix the cheaper is the cost of the concrete, provided that the mixture is of reasonable
workability for the specific job for which it is used.
Aggregates are of two types: coarse aggregates and fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates are
usually manufactured by crushing stone and fine aggregates are natural sand obtained by
the natural disintegration of rock or artificial sand obtained by artificially crushing stones.
Coarse Aggregate
Properties of the coarse aggregates affect the strength of hardened and its resistance to
disintegration, weathering, and other destructive effect. The coarse aggregate must be
clean of organic impurities and must bond well with the cement gel. Table 1.3.1.1-3 gives
grading or particles size distribution requirements of coarse aggregates by Ethiopian
Standard for Concrete and Concert Products, ES C.D3.201.

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Nominal size of
graded aggregate

Percentage passing through test sieves having square openings

75mm
100
-

38-5
19-5
13-5

Chapter I

63mm
-

37.5mm
95 - 100
100
12

19mm
30 - 70
95 100
100

13.2mm
2.8
90 - 100

9.5mm
10 - 35
25 - 55
40 - 85

4.75mm
0-5
0 - 10
0 - 10

Table 1.3.1.1-3 Grading requirements for coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]

Coarse aggregate shall be free of injurious amounts of organic impurities. The amount of
deleterious substance in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits specified in Table
1.3.1.1-4.

Deleterious substance

Friable soft fragments

Coal and lignite
Clay lumps
Materials passing 63m sieve including
crushed dust

Maximum percentage by
mass
3.00
1.00
0.25
1.50

Table 1.3.1.1-4 Permissible limits for deleterious substances in coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]

Other requirements are soundness and resistance to abrasion. Concerning soundness,

coarse aggregate shall not show loss in mass exceeding 12 percent when subjected to five
cycles of wetting and drying with sodium sulphate solution or 18 percent when magnesium
sulphate solution is used. The maximum loss in mass when coarse aggregate is subjected to
abrasion test shall not exceed 50 percent.
Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate is smaller filler made of sand. It ranges in size from No.4 to No. 100 (4.75 mm
to 150m). A good fine aggregate should always be free of organic impurities, clay, or any
deleterious material or excessive filler of size smaller than No. 100 sieve. It should
preferably have a well-graded combination. The following requirements are given by
Ethiopian Standards [ES D3.201].
The grading requirement of fine aggregate shall be within the limit specified in table 1.3.1.15
The fine aggregate shall not also have more than 45 percent retained between any two
consecutive sieves. The fineness modulus shall not be less than 2.0 or more than 3.5 with a
tolerance of 0.2.

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Sieve
9.50mm
4.75mm
2.36mm
1.18mm
600m
300 m
150 m

Chapter I

Percentage passing
100
95 - 100
80 - 100
50 - 85
25 - 60
10 - 30
2 - 10

Table 1.3.1.1-5 Grading requirements for fine aggregates [ES D3.201]

Table 1.3.1.1-6 gives limits of deleterious substances for fine aggregates.

Deleterious Substance
Maximum percentage by mass
Friable particles
1.0
Clay or fine silt (materials passing 63m
sieve) in fine aggregates used for
- Concrete subject to abrasion
3.0
- All other concrete
5.0
Coal Ignite
1.0
Table 1.3.1.1-6 Permissible limits for deleterious substance in fine aggregates [ES C.D3.201]

Fine aggregates, when subjected to five cycles of soundness test, shall not show loss in
mass exceeding 10 percent when sodium sulphate solution is used or 15 percent
magnesium sulphate solution is used.
Characteristics of the finished product, concrete can be varied considerably by varying the
proportion of its ingredients. Thus, for a specific structure it is economical to use concrete
with the desired characteristics though it may be weak in others. For example, concrete for
building should have high compressive strength whereas for water tanks, water tightness is
of prime importance.
Performance or concrete in service depends on properties both in the plastic and hardened
states.

1.3.1.2. Properties in the Plastic State

a) Workability - is an important property and concerns the ease with which the mix can be
mixed, handled, transported and placed with little loss of homogeneity so that after
compaction it surrounds all reinforcements completely, fills the form work and results in
concrete with the least voids.
b) Temperature - Care should be taken to minimize the temperature due to evolving heat
of hydration if cement is greater than or equal to 400kg/m3 and the least dimension of
concrete to be placed at a single time is 600mm or more.

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Chapter I

1.3.1.3. Properties in the Hardened State

a) Compressive strength
The main measure of the structural quality of concrete is its compression strength. Tests for
this property are made on cylindrical specimen of height equal to twice the diameter
(usually 6x12 inches, i.e. 150x300mm) originally as specified by American society for Testing
and materials (ASTM). According, the cylinder specimens are moist cured at about 7050F,
generally for 28 days and then tested in the laboratory at a specified rate of loading usually
to reach the maximum stress in 2 to 3 minutes. The compression strength obtained from
such test is known as the cylinder strength fc or fck and this is the main property specified for
design purpose.
Depending up on the mix (especially the water cement ratio) and the time and quality of
curing, compressive strength of concrete can be obtained up to 100 MPa . For most practical
and ordinary use (fck) available ranges between 20 to 50 MPa.
The compressive strength is calculated from failure load divided by cross-sectional area
resisting the load and reported in units of force per square area. In EBCS 2-1995, concrete is
graded based on tests of 150 mm cubes at the age of 28 days which may be considered as
the characteristic cube compression strength in MPa and graded as C5, C15, C20, C30, C40,
C50 and C60 the numbers being characteristic compressive strength in MPa. This may be
converted to equivalent cylinder compressive strength fck as
 = 0.80
The 28 day compressive strength may be obtained from 7 days compressive strength using
experimentally developed empirical relations. One formal is
 =  + 30
S7 and S28 are7 and 28 day strengths in psi (W. A. Slater)
Strength can be increased by

Decreasing W/C ratio

Using high strength aggregates because that makes 65-75% of the volume of
concrete.

Grading the aggregates to produce a small percentage of voids in the concrete

Moist curing the concrete after it has set

Vibrating the concrete in the forms while plastic
Concrete strength is chiefly influenced by W/C ratio, it can be estimated by,
 =


!/

$
(
)
%%

A and B are empirical constants that depend on age, curing condition, type of cement
properties of aggregates and testing method. W/C is water cement ratio.
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Figure 1.3.1.3-1Effect W/C ration on strength

Other factor affecting concrete strength is degree of compaction.

Figure 1.3.1.3-2Effect of degree of compaction on strength

b) Tensile strength
Even though compression strength of concrete is best utilized, its tensile strength is also
important in a variety of items. It is used to design for shear, torsion and crack width. This is
much lower than compressive strength and general falls between 8 and 15 percent of
compressive strength. It is difficult to determine from tension test due to problem with
gripping and is indirectly determined from split-cylinder test or flexure test (modulus of
rupture) or from empirical formulae.
In a split-cylinder test, a 150mm*300mm compression test cylinder is placed on its side and
loaded in compression along the diameter as shown in figure 1.3.1.3-3. The splitting tensile
strength, fct is determined as,
' =

2( -$
, . , 01*23 4 56*27+89 3803
)*+ %

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Chapter I

Figure 1.3.1.3-3 Split-cylinder test

In flexure test a plain concrete beam, generally 150mm*150mm*750mm long is loaded in

flexure at the third points of a 600mm span until it fails due to cracking on the tension face
as shown in figure 1.3.1.3-4. It can be estimated by,
; 6;
:    , *8@A98 3803
< >?

Figure 1.3.1.3-4 Flexure test

EBSC 2-1995 uses the following empirical formulae,

/

'  0.21
Where fctk tensile strength of concrete in MPa
fck characteristic cylinder strength in MPa
c) Creep
It is strain that occur under constant sustained compressive load. It is also defined as
deformation of a member under sustained load. It results in stress redistribution and
additional deformation and should be considered. For example, in the design of RC beams
for allowable stress the effects of creep are taken into account by reducing the modulus of
elasticity of concrete usually by 50%.
Creep is

Proportional to stress

Increases with increase in W/C ratio

Decrease with relative humidity of atmosphere
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Chapter I

d) Volume change
Shrinkage is the shortening of concrete during hardening and drying under constant
temperature. The prime cause of shrinkage is due to loss of a layer of adsorbed water from
the surface of the gel particles. It depends on relatively humidity (but recoverable on
wetting and of composition of the concrete.
Essentially, Shrinkage occurs as the moister diffuses out of the concrete which result the
exterior to shrink more rapidly than the interior. This leads to tensile stresses in the outer
skin of the concrete and compression stresses in the interior. The effect of shrinkage can be
reduced by using less cement and by adequate moist curing.
e) Density
Increase in density results in increase in strength. Density can be increased using denser
aggregate, graded aggregates, vibrating and reducing w/c ratio.
f) Durability
Concrete durability has been defined by the American Concrete Institute as its resistance to
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes. Concrete
should be capable of withstanding

Weathering such as corrosion and mainly freezing and thawing. This can be
improved by increasing water tightness.

Chemical reaction

Wear

1.3.1.4. Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

Component of a mix should be selected to produce concrete with desired characteristics at
lowest cost possible. For economy the amount of cement should be kept to a minimum.
Because of the larger number of variables involved, it is usually advisable to proportion
concrete mixes by making and trail batches.
The selection of the relative proportion of cement, water and aggregate is called mix design.
The important requirements in mix design are the following, which can summed up as
workability, strength, durability and economy.
a) The fresh concrete must be workable or placeable
b) The hardened concrete must be strong enough to carry the loads for which it has
been designed
c) The hardened concrete must be able to withstand the condition to which it will be
exposed to in service life
d) It must be capable of being produced economically.
A start is made with selection of W/C ratio, then largest size of aggregate (dictated by
sectional dimension of structural members and spacing of reinforcements). Then several
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Introduction
Chapter I
trial batches are made with varying ratio of aggregates to obtain the desired workability
with the least cement. Test should be made to evaluate compressive strength and other
desired characteristic. Observations should be made of the slump and appearance of
concrete. After a mix has been selected, some change may have to be made after some field
experience with it.
If this is expensive or not justified the mix proportions which are appropriate for grades C5
to C30 may be taken from EBCS 2-1995 Structural use of concrete page 90.
Minimum mixing time measured from the time the ingredients are put together is given in
table 1.3.1.4-1. Over mixing can remover entrained air and increase fines requiring more
water for workability. The maximum mixing time may be taken 3 times the minimum mixing
time as a guide.
Capacity of mixer (m3)
1.5
2.3
3.0
4.5

Time of mixing (minutes)

1.5
2.2
2.5
3.0

Table 1.3.1.4-1 Minimum mixing time for production of Portland cement concrete

After mixing the concrete, the chemical reaction of cement and water in the mix is relatively
slow and requires time and favorable temperature for its completion. This setting time is
divided in to three distinct phases as:
1. First phase: time of initial set, requires from 30 to 60 minutes for completion, at
which the mixed concrete decreases its plasticity and develops pronounced
resistance to follow,
2. Second phase: time of final set requires from 5 to 6 hours after mixing operation,
where the concrete appears to be relatively soft solid without surface hardening,
3. Third phase: time of progressive hardening, may take about one month after
mixing where the concrete almost attains the major portions of its potential
hardness and strength.

1.3.2. Reinforcing Steel

It is a high-strength and high cost steel bar used in concrete construction (e.g., in a beam or
wall) to provide additional strength. When reinforcing steel is used with concrete, the
concrete is made to resist compression stress and the steel is made to resist tensile stress
with or without additional compressive stress.
When RC elements are used, sufficient bond between the two materials must be developed
to ensure that there is no relative movement between the steel bars and the surrounding
concrete. This bond may be developed by,

chemical adhesion
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natural roughness
closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforcement bars as shown in
figure
Reinforcing bars varying 6 to 35 mm in size are available in which all are surface deformed
except 6.

Figure 1.3.2-1 Type of reinforcement bars

Some bar size and areas for design purpose available in Ethiopia are given in table
Diameter
(mm)
Area (mm2)
Weight (kg/m)

10

12

14

16

20

24.

28
0.222

50
0.395

78.5
0.619

113
0.888

154
1.210

200
1.570

314
2.470

450
3.500

Table 1.3.2-1Reinforcement bar properties that are available in Ethiopia

Characteristic properties of reinforcing bars are expressed using its yield strength fy (fyk) and
modulus of elasticity Es. Fy ranges between 220 to 500 MPa, with 300 MPa common is our
country. Es ranges between 200 to 210 GPa.

1.4. Concrete Placement and Curing

1.4.1. Concrete Placement
When concrete is discharge from the mixer, precaution should be exercised to prevent
segregation.
Vibration is desirable after pouring the fresh concrete because it eliminates voids and brings
particles into close contact. The resulting consolidation also ensures close contact of the
concrete with the forms, with reinforcement and other embedded items.
For consolidation of structural concrete, immersion vibration are recommended. Oscillation
should be at least 7000 vibration per minute when the vibrator head is immersed in
concrete. Each yd3 (0.765m3) of concrete should be vibrated at least 1 minute.

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Formwork retains concrete until it has set and produced the desired shape and sometimes
the desired surface finish. Formwork must be supported on false work of adequate strength
and rigidity. Forms must also be tight, yet they must be of low cost and often easily
demountable to permit reuse.
Early striking forms is generally desirable to permit quick reuse, start curing as soon as
possible and allow repairs and surface treatment while the concrete is still green and
condition are favorable for good bond.
The time between casting of concrete and removal of the formwork depends mainly on the
strength development of the concrete and on the function of the formwork. Provided the
concrete strength is confirmed by test on cubes stored under the same condition, formwork
can be removed when the cube strength is 50% of the nominal strength or twice the stress
to which it will then be subjected whichever is greater, provided such earlier removal will
not result in unacceptable deflection such as due to shrinkage and creep [EBCS 2-1995].
In the absences of more accurate data the following minimum periods are recommended by
EBCS 2-1995.
1. for non-load bearing parts of formwork like vertical forms for beams, columns and
walls 18 hours
2. for soffit formwork to slabs . 7 days
3. for props to slabs .. 14 days
4. for soffits formwork to beams . 14 days
5. for props to beams .. 21 days

1.4.2. Curing Concrete

While more than enough water for hydration is incorporated into normal concrete mixes,
the loss due to evaporation from the time the concrete is placed is usually so rapid that
complete hydration may be delayed or prevented. Rapid drying causes also drying shrinkage
surface cracks. Therefore it is important to keep fresh concrete moist for several days after
placing either by sprinkling, ponding or by surface sealing. This operation is called curing. If
curing is properly done for a sufficiently long period, curing produces stronger and more
watertight concrete. The most common field practice is curing by sprinkling. Portland
cement concrete should be cured this way for 7-14 days. Curing is especially important in
hot climate to replenish water lost due to rapid evaporation.

1.5. Stress-Strain Relation for Concrete and Reinforcements

Strength and deformation of reinforced concrete members can be calculated from stressstrain relations of concrete and reinforcement steel and the dimensions of the members.

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1.5.1. Concrete
a) Uniaxial Stress Behavior
Under practical conditions concrete is seldom stressed in one condition only (Uniaxial
stress). Nevertheless an assumed uniaxial stress conditions can be justified in many cases.

Compressive Stress Behavior

The compressive strength and deformation characteristics (-) of concrete is usually
obtained from cylinders with h/d = 2, normally h = 300mm and d = 150mm. Loaded
longitudinally at a slow strain rate to reach maximum stress in 2 or 3 minutes. Smaller size
cylinders or cubes are also used particularly for production control and the compressive
strength of these units is higher. These can be converted with appropriate conversion
factors obtained from tests to standard cylinder or cube strengths.
Figure 1.5.1-1 presents typical stress-strain curves obtained from concrete cylinders loaded
in uniaxial compression.

Figure 1.5.1-1 Stress-strain curves for concrete cylinders loaded in uniaxial compression

The curves are almost linear up to about half of the compressive strength. The peak of the
curve for high strength concrete is relatively sharp but for low strength concrete the curve
has a flat top. The strain at maximum stress is approximately 0.002. At higher strains, after
the maximum stress is reached, stress can still be carried even though cracks parallel to the
directions of loading become visible in the concrete. Tests by Rusch have indicated that the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress depends on the strength of the
concrete with more curvature for weaker concrete. A widely used approximation for the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress is reached is a second-degree parabola.

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The extent of falling branch behavior adopted depends on the limit of concrete strain
assumed useful (0.0035 for LSD and 0.003 for USD).

Tangent and Secant Moduli of Elasticity

Three ways of defining the modulus of elasticity are illustrated in figure 1.5.1-2. The slope of
the line that is tangent to a point on the stress-strain curve, such as A, is called the tangent
modulus of elasticity, ET, at the stress corresponding to point A. The slope of the stressstrain curve at the origin is initial tangent modulus of elasticity. The secant modulus of
elasticity at a given stress is the slope of the line through the origin and through the point on
the curve representing that stress for example point B. Frequently, the secant modulus is
defined by using the point corresponding to 0.4 - 0.5 of the compressive strength (fck),
representing the service-load stress. Whenever Ecm is used it usually means the secant
modulus in MPa.

Figure 1.5.1-2 Initial, tangent and secant modulus of elasticity

In the absence of more accurate data, in case accuracy is not required, an estimate of the
mean secant modulus Ecm can be obtained from table 1.5.1-1 for given concrete grades as
given by EBCS 2-1995.
Grades of Concrete
fck (N/mm2)
fctm (N/mm2)
fctk (N/mm2)
Ecm (GPa)

C15
12
1.6
1.1
26

C20
16
1.9
1.3
27

C25
20
2.2
1.5
29

C30
24
2.5
1.7
32

C40
32
3.0
2.1
35

C50
40
3.5
2.5
37

C60
48
4.0
2.8
39

For concrete cubes of size 200 mm, the grade of the concrete is obtained
by multiplying the cube strength by 1.05 (EBCS2 2.3).
Table 1.5.1-1 Grades of Concrete and their strength characteristics

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The following empirical formula is also given by EBCS 2-1995, in which Ecm is in GPa and fck is
in MPa.
CD  9.5#  8&

GH


The stress-strain curve in figure 1.5.1-3 is simplified for design to a parabolic rectangular
stress block as given by EBSC 2-1995.

Figure 1.5.1-3 Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for concrete

When the load is applied at a fast strain rate, both the strength and modulus of elasticity of
concrete increase, for example it is reported that for a strain rate of 0.01/sec the concrete
strength may increase by as much as 17%.
Rusch, conducting long term loading tests on confined concrete found that the sustained
load compressive strength is 0.8 of in short-term strength, where short term strength is
determined from an identically old and identically cast specimen that is loaded to failure
over a 10-minute period when the specimen under sustained load has collapsed. In practice
concrete strength considered in design of structures is short-term strength at 28 days. The
strength reduction due to long term will be partly offset by higher strength attained by
concrete at greater ages.
Creep strains due to long-term loading cause modification in the shape of the stress-strain
curve. Some curves obtained by Rusch for various rates of loading are given in figure 1.5.1-4.
It can be seen that for various rates of loading, the maximum stress reached gradually
decreases but the descending branch falls less quickly, the strain at which maximum stress is
reached increases with a decreasing rate of loading (strain).

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Figure 1.5.1-4 Stress-strain curves for concrete with various rates of axial compressive loadings

Tensile Stress Behavior

It is difficult to get tensile strength of concrete from direct tension test due to difficulties of
holding specimens to achieve axial tension and the uncertainties of secondary stresses
induced by the grips of testing devices. Therefore, it is indirectly determined from split
cylinder test or from flexure test on plain concrete beams of 150mm square cross-section.
The split-cylinder strength from theory of elasticity is,


2( -$
, .
)*+ %

The split-cylinder strength ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 of the modulus of rupture. The difference
is mainly due to non-linear stress distribution near failure in flexural members when failure
is imminent.
Because of the low tensile strength of concrete, tensile strength of concrete is usually
ignored for flexure in strength calculations of reinforced concrete members. When it is
taken in to account like for shear or torsion the stress-strain curve in tension may be
idealized as a straight line up to the tensile strength. Within this range the modulus of
elasticity in tension may be assumed to be the same as in compression.

Poison's Ratio
Poisons ratio for concrete is usually in the range 0.15 to 0.2; however values between 0.1
and 0.3 have been determined. Poisons ratio is general lower for high strength concrete.
At high compressive stresses the transverse strains increase rapidly owing to internal
cracking parallel to the direction of loading.
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b) Combined Stress behavior

In many structural situations concrete is subjected to direct and shear stresses. By
transformation of stresses, stress at a point can be represented by three mutually
perpendicular principal stresses.
In spite of extensive research, no reliable theory has been developed for determining the
failure strength of concrete under a general three dimensional state of stress.

Biaxial Stress Behavior

Some investigators reported that the strength of concrete subjected to biaxial compression
may be as much as 27% higher than uniaxial strength.
For equal biaxial compressive stresses, the strength increase is approximately 16%. The
strength in biaxial tension is approximately equal to the uniaxial tensile strength.
On other planes than the principal, normal and shear stresses act. Mohr's failure theory is
used to obtain strength for this combined case. Figure 1.5.1-5 shows how a family of Mohr's
circle for failures in tension, compression and other combinations is enclosed in an envelope
curve.

Figure 1.5.1-5 Strength of concrete under general two-dimensional stress system

A failure curve for elements with direct (normal) stress in one direction combined with
shear stress shown in figure 1.5.1-6.

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Figure 1.5.1-6 Combinations of normal stress and shear stress causing failure of concrete

The curve shows that the compressive strength of concrete is reduced in the presence of
shear stress.

c) Creep
Figure 1.5.1-7 shows that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is a function of time. The
final creep strain may be several times as large as the initial elastic strain. Generally creep
has little effect on the strength of a structure but it results in increase in service load
deflections.
The creep deformation due to constant axial compressive stress is shown in figure 1.5.1-7.

Figure 1.5.1-7 Typical creep curve for concrete with constant axial compressive stress

The creep proceeds at a decreasing rate with time. The magnitude of creep strain depends
on the composition of the concrete (aggregate type and proportions, cement type and
content and W/C ratio), the environment and the stress-time history.

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d) Shrinkage in Concrete
When concrete loses moisture by evaporation, it shrinks. Shrinkage strains are independent
of the stress in the concrete. If restrained, shrinkage strains can cause cracking of concrete
and generally results in increase in deflection of structural members with time.
A curve showing the increase in shrinkage strain with time appears in figure 1.5.1-8. The
shrinkage occurs at a decreasing rate with time. The final shrinkage strains vary greatly
being generally in the range 0.0002 to 0.0006 but sometimes as much as 0.0010.

Figure 1.5.1-8 Shrinkage strain of concrete

1.5.2. Reinforcement Steel

Bar Shape and Size
Reinforcement steel bars are round in cross-section. To restrict longitudinal movement of
the bars relative to the surrounding concrete and for force transfer from the bars to the
concrete, deformations are rolled on to the bar surfaces. Minimum requirements for
deformations such as spacing, height and circumferential coverage have been established
by experimental research. ASTM specifications require the deformations to have average
spacing not exceeding 0.7 of the nominal bar diameter and a height at least 0.04 to 0.05 of
the bar diameter. The deformations must cover 75% of the bar circumference. The angle
that these deformations make with the axis of the bar should not be less than 45. Generally
longitudinal ribs are also present.

Figure 1.5.2-1 Deformed Bar

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Deformed steel bars are produced in sizes ranging from 8mm to 35mm in Ethiopia. 6mm is
plain bar and is used for stirrups.

Monotonic Stress Behavior

Typical stress-strain Curves for reinforcement steel figure 1.5.2-2 are obtained from
monotonic tension test. The curve exhibits an initial linear elastic portion, a yield plateau a
strain hardening range and finally a range in which the stress drops of until fracture occurs.
The slope of the linear elastic portion gives modulus of elasticity, which ranges from 200 to
210 GPa.
The yield strength fy is a very important property of reinforcement steel and is used as
design stress in ultimate strength design (USD) and design stress obtained from y in limit
state design (LSD).

Figure 1.5.2-2 Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcement steel

y can easily be read for ductile steel. It is taken as stress at 0.2% offset for steel without
well-defined yield plateau.
The minimum strain in the steel at fracture is essential for the safety of the structure that
the steel be ductile enough to undergo large deformation before fracture. This should
usually be 4.5 to 12%.
Generally the stress-strain curves for steel in tension and compression are assumed to be
identical. Tests have shown that this is a reasonable assumption.
The effect of fast rate of loading is to increase the yield strength of steel. For example, it has
been reported that for strain rate of 0.01/sec the lower yield strength may be increased by
14%.

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In design it is necessary to idealize the shape of the stress-strain curve. Generally the curve
is simplified idealizing it as two straight lines. EBCS 2 gives the simplified stress-strain curve
shown in figure 1.5.2-3 for LSD.

Figure 1.5.2-3 Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel

Reversed Stress Behavior

If reversed (tension-compression) type loading is applied to a steel specimen in the yield
range, a stress-strain curve of the type shown in figure 1.5.2-4 (a) is obtained. This figure
shows that under reversed loading the stress-strain curve becomes non-linear at a stress
much lower than the initial yield strength. This effect is called Bauschinger effect. Figure
1.5.2-4 (b) gives an elastic perfectly plastic idealization for reversed loading which is only an
approximation. Reversed loading curves are important when considering the effect of high
intensity seismic loading on members.

Figure 1.5.2-4 a) Bauschinger effect for steel under reversed loading, b)Elastic-perfectly plastic
idealization for steel under reversed loading

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1.6. Overview of Design Philosophies

Design is a process used in engineering to specify how to create or do something. A design
must satisfy such requirements like functional, performance and resource usage. It is also
expected to meet restrictions on the design process, time of completion, cost, or the
available tools for doing the design.
Structural design can be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the engineers
feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical
structure that will serve its intended purpose (Salmon and Johnson 1990). It is the process
of determining the dimensions and layout of the load resisting (structural) components of a
structure to satisfy the purpose of use, to possess safety and durability, and to be
economical. In civil works, buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls, highway pavements,
aircraft landing strips are typical with individual specialized design procedure.
Structural Analysis is the assessment of the performance of a given structure under given
loads and other effects, such as support movements or temperature change.

Figure 1.6-1 Reinforced Concrete Building Components

This material provides the first encounter on the analysis and design of the individual
structural elements of reinforced concrete structures, with emphasis on:

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Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads and subjected to flexural
stress,
Slabs horizontal plate elements carrying gravity loads and subjected to
flexural stress, and
Columns vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally
subjected to axial compressive force with or without bending moment.

In (reinforced concrete) buildings, architectural planning and design is carried out to

determine the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the clients requirements.
The structural engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to realize the
architects concept. The structural analysis versus design cycle is represented by the
flowchart in figure 1.6-2.

Figure 1.6-2 The Structural Design Process

Once the form and structural arrangement have been finalized the structural design
procedure consists of the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

idealization of the structure into component parts

load estimation on the various structural components
analysis to determine the maximum internal stresses and strains
design of sections and reinforcement arrangements
detail drawings and bar schedule preparation

There are three methods of concrete design. These are

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1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method
2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method (also called Load Factor Method (LFD))
3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method

1.6.1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method

In this method the section of reinforced concrete members are designed assuming straightline stress-strain relationships, i.e., the response and stresses are elastic. The stresses in the
concrete and steel at service load are kept below a stress called allowable or permissible
stress, which is obtained dividing the ultimate strength of the materials by safety factor. For
instance, the allowable compressive stress in extreme fiber of concrete should not exceed
0.425 fck and that of tensile stress in steel 0.52 fyk, for class-I works.
The internal bending moments and forces for a structure are calculated assuming linear
elastic behavior. Because of elastic stress distribution is assumed in design, it is not really
applicable to a semi-plastic (elasto-plastic) material such as concrete, nor is it suitable when
deformations are not proportional to the load, as in slender columns. It has also been found
to be unsafe when dealing with the stability of structures subject to overturning forces. This
method was used from 1900-1950 for the design of reinforced concrete members.

1.6.2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

After about half a century of practical experience and laboratory tests the knowledge of the
behavior of structural concrete under load has vastly increased and the deficiencies of
elastic theory (working stress design method) have become evident. The deficiencies of
WSD are,
i.

ii.

iii.

Reinforced concrete sections behave in-elastically at high loads; hence elastic

theory cannot give a reliable prediction of the strength of the members because
inelastic strains are not taken into account.
Because reserve of strength in the inelastic range of stress-strain of concrete is
not utilized, the Working Stress Design Method is conservative and hence results
in uneconomical design.
The stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear and is time dependent. Creep
strains can be several times elastic strains. Therefore, modular ratio used in WSD
is a crude approximation. Creep Strains can cause a substantial redistribution of
stresses and actual stresses in structures are far from allowable stress used in
design.

In the ultimate strength method, sections are designed taking the actual inelastic strains
into account. The design stresses used are the ultimate strengths of materials and for safety
the loads are magnified or scaled up by load factors. Typical load factors used are 1.4 for
dead load and 1.7 for live load. Structural analysis is carried out either assuming linear
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elastic behavior of the structure up to ultimate load or by taking some account of the
redistribution of actions due to the non-linear behavior at high loads.
As this method is does not apply factors of safety to material stresses, it cannot directly take
account of variability of the materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections
or cracking at working loads.
USD method became accepted as an alternative design method in building codes of ACI in
1956 and of UK in 1957. This method was popular from 1950 up to 1960s.

1.6.3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method

More recently, it has been recognized that the design approach for reinforced concrete
should ideally combine the best features of ultimate strength and working stress design.
This is desirable because if sections are proportioned by ultimate strength requirements
alone there is a danger that although the load factors are adequate to insure safety against
strength failure, the cracking and deflections at service loads may be excessive. Cracking
may be excessive if the steel stresses are high or if the bars are badly distributed.
Deflections may be critical if the shallow section, which are possible in USD, are used and
the stress are high. Thus, to ensure a satisfactory design, the deflections and crack widths
must be checked for service loads to make sure that they lie within reasonable limiting
values dictated by functional requirements of the structure. This check requires the use of
elastic theory. Therefore, in the LSD method structures will be designed for strength at
ultimate loads (ULS), and deflection and crack width checked at service loads (SLS).
This design philosophy is gaining acceptance in many countries throughout the world
including Ethiopia. EBCS2-1995 is based on the LSD method.

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