ME2104

Mechanical Analysis and Design

DAE2
Design and Selection of Mechanical Elements

Compilation of reports which students

prepared for DAE2 exercise
January 2014

Page 1 of 56

Table of Content
1.

BEARINGS ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.

2.

GEARS ................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.

3.

HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBERS................................................................................................................... 32

CAR CRUMPLE ZONES ................................................................................................................................ 33
ELASTOMERIC SHOCK ABSORBERS ............................................................................................................... 34
PNEUMATIC SHOCK ABSORBERS .................................................................................................................. 35

SPRINGS ................................................................................................................................................ 37
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.

7.

JACKSHAFT .............................................................................................................................................. 27
RECTANGULAR KEYWAY............................................................................................................................. 28
WOODRUFF KEYWAY ................................................................................................................................ 29
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 30
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 30

SHOCK ABSORBERS ............................................................................................................................... 31

5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.

6.

COMPARISONS ........................................................................................................................................ 17
PRINCIPALS OF SQUARE, ACME AND BUTTRESS SCREW SELECTION ...................................................................... 18
PRINCIPLES OF ROLLER SCREW SELECTION ..................................................................................................... 20
RECIRCULATING BALL SCREW...................................................................................................................... 21
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 22
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 22
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 23

SHAFTS & KEYWAYS .............................................................................................................................. 26

4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.

5.

SPUR GEARS ........................................................................................................................................... 12

HELICAL GEARS........................................................................................................................................ 13
WORM GEARS......................................................................................................................................... 13
BEVEL GEARS .......................................................................................................................................... 14
APPENDICES: ........................................................................................................................................... 16
REFERENCES:........................................................................................................................................... 16

POWER SCREWS .................................................................................................................................... 17

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.

4.

JOURNAL BEARINGS .................................................................................................................................... 5

MAGNETIC BEARINGS ................................................................................................................................. 6
SLIDE BEARINGS ......................................................................................................................................... 7
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS ....................................................................................................................... 8
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. 9
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................. 9

EXTENSION SPRINGS (MADS SANDAL) .......................................................................................................... 38

SPIRAL SPRINGS (HIEP NGUYEN) ................................................................................................................. 39
DISC SPRINGS .......................................................................................................................................... 39
TORSION SPRINGS .................................................................................................................................... 41
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 42
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 42

BELT DRIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 43

7.1.

FLAT BELTS ............................................................................................................................................. 44

Page 2 of 56

7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.
8.

V-BELTS ................................................................................................................................................. 45
V-T LINK BELTS ....................................................................................................................................... 46
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 47
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 48

COUPLINGS............................................................................................................................................ 49
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.

FLANGE COUPLINGS.................................................................................................................................. 50
SLEEVE COUPLINGS................................................................................................................................... 51
CLAMP COUPLINGS................................................................................................................................... 52
UNIVERSAL JOINT ..................................................................................................................................... 53
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 54
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 55

Page 3 of 56

1. Bearings
Bearings are required to support loads particularly when there is a relative motion between
components. Bearings allow smooth motion between components to ensure parts in a mechanical
assembly can function efficiently and effectively together. Bearings can support radial, static and
dynamic loads depending on which bearing is used.
The basic static load rating can be defined as the load the bearing can withstand without permanent
deformation of any component. The basic dynamic load is the load to which the bearings can be
subjected while achieving a rated life (L10) of 1 million revolutions (rev). Fatigue occurs over a large
number of cycles of loading; for a bearing, that would be a large number of revolutions. The rated
life is typically referred to as the L10 life at the rated load and it is the standard means of reporting
the results of many tests of bearings of a given design. It is known to represent 90% of the bearings
would achieve at a successfully rated load. [1]
There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes.
Type of Bearing and examples
Roller Bearings
- Deep grove
- Angular contact
- Needle

Applications and material selection

A common application of roller bearings is in
conveyor belts as they have the ability to hold
heavy radial loads due to their larger contact
area. The roller in these bearings is a cylindrical
shape and is designed to support large loads
over a large area. They are however not
designed to support thrust loading. The common
material used to manufacture roller bearings is
AISI 52100 steel [2]

Slide Bearings
- Roller slides
- Compound slides
- Rack slides

Applications for slide bearings include Pedestrian

footbridges and for expansion and movement of
joints on structures. A common material used to
manufacture slide bearings is stainless steel [3]

Magnetic bearings
- Active electromagnetic bearings
- Passive bearings
- Hybrid/bearingless bearings

An application of electromagnetic bearings is in

machining. They are used in cutting tools where
grinding and milling is required. Electromagnetic
bearings use a range of materials during
manufacture. Common materials include copper
coils, iron/cobalt for the rotor, iron stator for the
core and stainless steel.
Journal bearings are commonly used in diesel
and gasoline piston engines and in high steam
turbines. A lubricant such as oil or even water is
used which is commonly housed by a steel
backing. Aluminium alloy is used for the bearing.

Journal Bearings
- Fluid dynamic bearings
- Hydrostatic bearings
- Dry bearings

[4]

Page 4 of 56

1.1.Journal Bearings
Journal bearings are primarily designed to reduce friction by supporting an applied radial load. They support
some sort of cylindrical shaft and are often used when the load is light and motion is relatively continuous such
as in crankshafts. There are three main features:
Oil inlet
Rotating shaft/journal
Lubricant e.g. oil
Housing
Housing

Figure 1 A journal bearing

Journal bearings can be classified into three main types:

1.
2.

Dry bearings i.e. no liquid is used for lubrication. A natural oxide layer is used.
Fluid dynamic bearings. These are usually used at high load and rotation speeds for precision
applications.
3. Hydrostatic bearings are pressurised from external fluid lifting the shaft. Common fluids which are
used include oil, water or air.
Initially metal surfaces of the shaft and housing are in contact but once the shaft starts to rotate at a higher
speed, results in a pressure increase in the fluid causing the shaft to elevate. At this point the metal surfaces
are no longer in contact with each other and only in contact with the lubricant which results in a higher
mechanical efficiency, saving energy as well as increasing the life span of the bearing.

Application of journal bearings

A common application of journal bearings are in diesel-fueled piston engines and gasoline engines in motor
vehicles. Journal bearings allows smooth motion between the metal surfaces. The crankshaft is normally only
contacted by oil which explains why the long engine life that requires regular change of oil. Bearings are made
from hard metal material and make use of non-metals such as nylon and teflon to make up the fin
BEARING MODULE, M :

V
P

[5]

BEARING PRESSURE, P (Pa) :

[=dynamic lubricant viscosity (Pa x s), V=linear

F
[ F=load bearing (N) , d=diameter bearing (m) ,
dL

velocity (m/s), P= bearing pressure (Pa)]

L=bearing length (m)]

SURFACE (linear) VELOCITY ,V (m/sec) :

PRESSURE VELOCITY VALUE,

V R [(=angular velocity (rad/s) , R=bearing radius

(m)]

Pv (Pa x m/s) :

Pv PV [P=bearing pressure (Pa) , V= linear velocity

(m/s)]

SUMMERFELD NUMBER, S : S

N
P

VELOCITY, U (m/s) :
(rev/sec) ]

[P=bearing

U 2RN [N=rotational speed

pressure (Pa)]
SERVICE LIFE t (sec) :

SLIDING DISTANCE S (m):

S
[(s=sliding distance (m) , V=linear velocity (m/s)]
V

V
[k=specific wear rate (m2/N), F=load bearing
KF

Page 5 of(N),
56V=surface (linear) velocity (m/s)].

1.2.Magnetic Bearings
1) What is a magnetic bearing:
Magnetic bearings are used when other bearings have reached their limit. They
allow a rotor to rotate without friction or physical contact. Their chosen field
concerns applications with high speed rotations and those for which it is
necessary to minimize losses, prevent wear, do not pollute a sensitive
environment by dust or lubricant, remove vibrations, operate at very low or high
temperature
and
limit
maintenance.
For our project, we will focus on one specific type of magnetic bearings: Active
bearings.
The
active
bearings
are
electromagnets whose current is
controlled to maintain the movable
part of the magnetic circuit in a fixed position. They require a
supply of energy to operate. To supply each of the actuators
constituting an active level, you need a power supply, a control
and a position sensor. The radial magnetic bearing stator
comprises electromagnets, usually made of a stack of laminations
with copper coils wound. A current is applied to each coil to
produce attractive forces on laminated iron rotor parts so to
(6)
levitate the shaft inside the bearing . The clearance or magnetic
air-gap between the stator and the rotor is 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
Figure 2 Example of magnetic bearing
2) Fields of use:
-High Speed: The rotational speed of a ball bearing is limited under penalty of mechanical problems and
overheating. The absence of contact in a magnetic bearing allows achieving much higher speeds.
-Limit friction and wear: Friction is totally absent on a fully magnetic suspension because there is no contact
between moving and static parts, which also improves the bearing life.
-Operate at any temperature: Magnetic suspension, made of suitable materials, is capable of operating at
extreme temperatures. It can thus be subjected to low temperatures near absolute zero, or be used at high
temperatures at the turbine outlet.
-High precision required: The bearing controlled by a servo can position the movable part with great precision.
This depends mainly on the quality of the sensors used and is therefore not subject to the changes of external
constraints.
3) Applications:
Magnetic suspensions are used in very different fields. They can withstand pieces of only few grams such as
disks electric meter to several tons machines such as certain compressors. The parts in levitation may be
immobile e.g. telescopes or subjected to high speeds such as centrifuges and turbines. Lets give some
applications:
-Machining: Magnetic suspensions can equip pin milling and turning cutting tools (grinding and milling) at
speeds inaccessible with pins over conventional bearings.
-Space: The main application of the suspensions in the spatial
relates to implementation flywheel for stabilizing a satellite or s
distance of the air gap
to store energy. The magnetic bearings are also used in some
o
magnetic permeability
devices shooting.
n
turns of wire
4) Calculations :
A
cross-sectional area of the magnet
The force of an electromagnet can be calculted :
The current required is given by :

The magnetic field generated is :

Page 6 of 56

shaft angle of rotation

inductance of the coil

Area of the coil

radius of the field generated

1.3.Slide bearings
A linear-motion bearing or linear slide is a bearing designed to provide free motion in one dimension. There
are many different types of linear motion bearings. Recognized slider bearings are split into bearing types
Rolling-element
Bearing

Plain Bearing

The properties of the bearing are determined by the coefficient of

friction of the two materials upon one another and the loads
transferred to the bearing. These properties can be aided by the use

Ball Bearing
slides

Dovetail Slides

of lubricants, generally oil or grease.

Roller Slides

Compound slides

[7]

Rack slides

Sliding contact bearings advantages

and disadvantages to rolling bearings
Advantages:
The design of the bearing and housing
is simple.
They occupy less radial space and are
more compact.
They cost less.
The design of shaft is simple.
Disadvantages:
The frictional power loss is more.
They required good attention to lubrication.
They are normally designed to carry radial load or axial
load only
The magnitude of the specific bearing load can
be determined using p = K P/C
2
p=
specific bearing load [N/mm ]
K = specific load factor depending on the basic
2
dynamic load rating [N/mm ]
P=
equivalent dynamic bearing load [kN]
C=
basic dynamic load rating [kN]
The mean sliding velocity for constant movement
-7
can be obtained from v = 5,82 10 dm f
V= mean sliding velocity [m/s]
d m mean diameter of inner ring or shaft washer
=
[mm]
= half the angle of oscillation [degrees]
-1
F= frequency of oscillation [min ]

The basic rating service life is calculated in two

steps
First the factor Gh is calculated using
2,5
Gh = b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 [330/(p v)]
Gh=
basic rating service life for the initial
lubrication
b1=
factor for load direction
for constant direction loads b1 = 1
for alternating direction loads b1 = 2
b2=
temperature factor
b3=
sliding factor
b4=
velocity factor
b5=
factor for angle of oscillation
2
P=
specific bearing load [N/mm ]
V=
mean sliding velocity [m/s]
In the second stage, multiplication factors are
used to obtain the basic rating service life. GhN =
Gh f fH
GhN=
basic rating service life for regular
relubrication
Gh=
basic rating service life for the initial
lubrication
f=
factor depending on the angle of
oscillation
fH=
factor depending on frequency of
relubrication

Page 7 of 56

1.4.Rolling Element Bearings

What are rolling contact bearings?
They are bearings that use spherical balls or some other type of roller between the stationary and the moving
elements.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Rolling contact bearings are widely used because of its low starting & low running friction characteristics, relatively
low price, being almost maintenance free and for its operational ease.

[12]

However, at higher speeds the friction increases and is noisy whilst running, and has low resistance to shock loads.
[13]

Types of loads
Roller contact bearings can take pure radial loads, thrust loads, or a combination of both.
Design

Usually consist of four main parts:

[10]

Inner ring
Outer ring
Rolling component
Cage or separator

[10]
Types of rolling contact ball bearings
B

Thrust
Load
Capacity

Good

Fair

Excellent

Good

Good

Excellent

Excellent

Poor

Excellent

Poor

Excellent

Fair/good

Excellent

Excellent

Single-row deep groove

ball bearing

Double-row deep
groove ball bearing

[2]

Angular contact bearing

Radial
Load
Capacity

Cylindrical roller
D

Needle

Spherical roller

Tapered roller

[9]

Equivalent load

Equivalent load is the constant radial load that

would produce the same rated life for the bearing
as the combined loading.

P= equivalent load [N]

V= rotational factor
R= applied radial load [N]
T= applied thrust load [N]
X= radial factor
Y= thrust factor

[8]

Rated life
k

L10 = (C / Pd) (10 ) [rev]

P=VXR + YT

[4][11]

Where
C = basic dynamic load rating
Pd = design (actually applied) load

L10h = 60nL10 [hrs]

where n = rotational speed [rpm]
L10s = (D/1000)L10 [km]
where D = wheel diameter [m]

If non-ideal conditions are present:

Ladj = aTaRaOCL10
[9]
Load/Life relationship
Where
k

aT = adjusted temperature coefficient

L2 / L1 = (P1 / P2)
Page 8 of 56 aR = adjusted reliability coefficient
Where k = 3.00 for ball bearings or 3.33 for
aOC = lubrication & dust prevention
roller bearings.
coefficient

1.5.Appendices

Table 1 - Typical bearing life in hours for different applications

Table 2 Deviations in bearing fits on shafts

Table 2- Deviations in bearing fits in housing

1.6.References
[1] http://engineering.union.edu/~tchakoa/mer419/Roller_contact-lecture.pdf
[2] http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-a-journal-bearing.htm
[3] http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/twiki/pub/CfdTm/PresFile44/Desigen-3_(Bearings).pdf
[4] wisegeek.com - under the tab journal bearings
Page 9 of 56

Journal bearings material

[5] http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ret-monitor.com/articles/wpcontent/uploads/2010/01/bearings-bi-metal-journal-bearing1.jpg&imgrefurl=https://www.highpowermedia.com/RET-Monitor/3596/bi-metal-journal-bearingsmaterials-andconstruction&h=360&w=450&sz=23&tbnid=k5OAz3QNt5HRwM:&tbnh=121&tbnw=151&zoom=1&u
sg=__LspxHwNFgBHxeVAliTU1X7cemY=&docid=REiiTTXf1q8EdM&sa=X&ei=kaehUpinGcSq7Qb84oD4Aw&ved=0
CF8Q9QEwBQ
Electromagnetic bearings:
(6) http://www.skf.com/group/products/magnetic-systems/technology-key-benefits/activemagnetic-bearings/index.html
http://www.intechopen.com/books/fundamental-and-advanced-topics-in-wind-power/windturbine-gearbox-technologies
http://www.magneticbearings.org/technology-2/technologies/active-bearings/#prettyPhoto
Slide bearings
[7] http://www.skf.com/group/products/bearings-units-housings/spherical-plain-bearings-bushingsrod-ends/general/selection-of-bearing-size/mean-sliding-velocity/index.html
[7] http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/twiki/pub/CfdTm/PresFile44/Desigen-3_(Bearings).pdf
Rolling contact bearings
[8] http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/~ra600/ME1105/Lectures/ME1105-16.pdf
[9] http://abe.ufl.edu/tburks/Presentations/ABE4171/Rolling%20Contact%20Bearings.pdf
[10] http://engineering.union.edu/~tchakoa/mer419/Roller_contact-lecture.pdf
[11] http://www.learneasy.info/MDME/MEMmods/MEM30009A/Bearings/Bearings.html
[12] http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Machine%20design1/pdf/mod14les2.pdf
[13] http://mes2005.tripod.com/Bearings.pdf
Tables 1, 2 and 3 (Appendices)
http://engineering.union.edu/~tchakoa/mer419/Roller_contact-lecture.pdf

Page 10 of 56

2. Gears
Gears are widely used almost in all industrial applications and are the most common device for
transmitting power in between the systems. The basic function of gears is to transfer the rotational
speed, power and direction between input and output shaft. Below are different and common types
and description of gears.
Types of Gears

Diagram

Description
Parallel and co-planer shafts
connected by gears are called
spur gears. This type of
arrangement is called spur
gearing.

Spur Gears

The advantages of spur gears

include their simple design,
manufacture and maintenance.
Used in machines like washing
machines or clothes dryer.
Bevel gears are intersecting but
coplanar shafts connected
gears are called bevel gears.

Bevel Gears

Bevel gears are used in

situations that require power to
be transmitted at different
angles but tend to be right
angle. Common application for
these gears is mechanism for
hand drill.
Rack and Pinion Gears

The rack and pinion mechanism

is used to transform rotary
motion into linear motion and
from linear to rotary motion.
These gears are used in
automobiles like rack railways.

Internal Gears

Internal gears have better load

carrying capacity than external
spur gears and are safer in use
than others because teeth are
guarded. The sliding action is
reduced due to relative reduced
slippage of the teeth.

Helical Gears

Helical gears have their teeth

inclined to the axis of the shafts
in the form of helix; hence they
are named as helical gears.
Smoother, quieter and high
speed gears and can take high
loads. Common applications of
these gears are in automobiles,

Page 11 of 56

elevators and compressors.

Other includes feed drives,
rolling mills and machine tools.

These gears has one tooth

called worm and worm wheel
meshes with the worm and
transmits torque and rotary
motion through right angle.
Applications include mechanical
gates, machine tools, musical
instrument and heavy
machinery.

Worm and Worm Wheel Gears

2.1.Spur Gears
Spur gears are the most common types of gears used to transmit power between systems from one
shaft to other. The reasons for their common use are relatively simple design, economy of
manufacture, and high efficiency of up to 99% and absence of side thrust. Spur gears works more
accurate at low speeds as increasing the speed makes them noisier although they can take high
loads at high speeds. A spur gear selected generally is with gears ratio of between 1:1 to 1:6 and
pitch velocity of 25m/s. For the selection of spur gears the inputs are considered which include,
module (m), speed of the rotating shaft (n), power (W), pressure angle (), width of the gear (b),
material selection and correction factors. And the outputs need to calculated are pitch diameter (D),
circular pitch (Pc), centre distance (c), tangential load(Ft),pitch velocity(v) and Lewis form factors. For
most of the gears, the gear proportion is based on the module (m) of the gear and below is the
relation between module and pitch diameter:
Equation (1)
The preferred values for module are:
0,5 0,8 1 1,25 1,5 2,5 3

10 12

16

20

25

32

40

50

The relations between force (Ft), velocity (v) and rotational speed (n) are shown below:
Equation (2)
(

Equation (3)

Equation (4)

d Pitch diameter (mm). n Rotating speed (rpm). W Power (kW). Ft tangential force.
An important variable is the normal pressure angle which is generally standardised to be 20 degree
and gears required to have pressure angles between 15 to 17.5 degrees. And the basic bending
stress for the gears teeth is obtained by using Lewis Formula as below:
Equation (5)
b tooth bending stress (MPa). b Face width (mm). m Module. Y Lewis form factor
All the correction factors are to be taken from the tables:
Equation (6)

Page 12 of 56

Equation (7)
Kv - Velocity Factor. Ka Over load factor. Km Load distribution factor. Ks - Size Factor
fs Safety factor. p pinion stress factor.
Some applications of the spur gear are that it is used in washing machines, clothes dryers and
occasionally in toys. The advantages of the spur gear is that it has a low cost, easy to manufacture
and widely available. The disadvantages are the gear is unique to the pinion (and vice versa).

2.2.Helical Gears
Helical gears are very similar to the way that they operate to spur gears except that their teeth are cut
at an angle to the axis of the gear instead of straight and parallel to the axis like the teeth of a spur
gear. Helical gears are used to connect non-intersecting shafts. Helical gears with 45-degree angles
are used to connect parallel shafts or shafts at right (90) angles. Helical gears are manufactured as
both right and left-hand gears. The teeth of a left-hand helical gear, as their name suggests, lean to
the left when the gear is placed on a flat surface. The teeth of a right-hand helical gear lean more to
the right when placed on a flat surface. Opposite hand helical gears run on parallel shafts. Gears of
the same hand operate with shafts of 90. Helical gears also operate in a more quiet way than spur
gears. For this reason, their most common use is in car gearboxes where noise from the gearboxes is
an issue. A pair of helical gears connecting parallel shafts must have the same pitch and pressure
angle but they must be of an opposite direction of teeth. On the other hand, if the gears will connect
non-parallel shafts, they can be of the same teeth angle or opposite.
The calculations for helical gears are very similar to those for spur gears. The difference is that for
helical gears the calculations are in the normal direction because the angled teeth have a resultant
force perpendicular to the teeth surface.
The separation force is calculated by:
Where Ft is the tangential force,
The axial force is given by:

is the pressure angle and is the angle of the teeth (helix angle).

Some applications of helical gears are that is used in elevator, compressors and machine tools. The
advantages are that is makes the process smoother, it is quieter than the spur gear and rotates at
high speeds. The disadvantages are that it is expensive to manufacture, less efficient that the spur
gear and has a high friction level.

2.3.Worm Gears
Worm gear is a gear that allows motion transmission between two perpendicular rotation axes placed
on two different planes. The worm gear consists of 2 parts; a worm, which is a small cylinder with
spiral teeth (similar to a screw) that lies on top and interlocks with a worm gear which is the same
pitch as the worm. Worm gears are quiet in operation. As the worm rotates the worm gear is forced to
rotate due to a screw like action. Worm gears are used when a large speed reduction ratio is required
between crossed axis shafts which do not intersect. The efficiency of a worm gear can vary from
anything between 20% up to 98%. Worm gears at higher ratios are self-locking therefore the worm
can drive the gear but the gear cannot drive the worm. The worm gear action is a sliding action which
results in significant frictional losses. After picking the type of gear needed (in this case worm gear),
the selection process for worm gear is started by picking:
Module is calculated the same way as spur gear (equation 1):
Typical modules (m) for worm gears are: 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.25, 1.6, 2.0, 2.5, 3.15, 4.0, 5.0, 6.3, 8.0,
10.0, 12.5, 16.0, 20.0, 25.0, 32.0, 40.0, and 50.0.

Page 13 of 56

In order to calculate the Centre distance, the pitch diameters of the worm and the gear can be
calculated using the above equations. The centre distance is calculated using:
.
This is the diameter of the worm plus the diameter of the gear divided by 2.
Gear ratio is calculated by

, where NG is the number of teeth on the gear and Nw is the number of

teeth on the worm.

The power of a worm gear can be calculated using the torque and angular velocity but to determine
torque the tangential force and radius is required.
Tangential force,
[rpm] and r is the radius).

, (where p is the pitch diameter of the worm, n is the rotational speed

.

To determine the velocity you use the equation

(m/s) (where d is the pitch diameter of the

worm and n is the rotational speed [rpm]. Angular velocity,

and r is the radius).

(rads/sec), (where v is the velocity

From all of the above the power can be calculated.

The efficiency of the gear can be calculated using the pressure angle () and the lead angle ().
.
The materials mainly used for worm gears are steel, cast iron and gray iron. Some applications for a
worm gear are that it is used in conveyor systems and high performance cars. The advantage of the
gear is that it can achieve a high gear ratio; it is fairly quiet and long life. The disadvantage is it can be
inefficient, produce a low gear speed and have high stress due to less contact area.

2.4.Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are another important type of gears. They allow a change of operating angle. Differing of
the number of teeth (effectively diameter) on each wheel allows mechanical advantage to be
changed. By increasing or decreasing the ratio of teeth between the drive and driven wheels one may
change the ratio of rotations between the two, meaning that the rotational drive and torque of the
second wheel can be changed in relation to the first, with speed increasing and torque decreasing, or
speed decreasing and torques increasing. The disadvantages are they required careful assembly as
the tips of the two cones intersect and the bevel gears supplied must be used in pairs. The shafts
bearings must be capable of supporting significant forces and they can be noisy. Bevel gear has a
gear ratio ranges from 1:1 to 4:1 and the pitch line velocity is 20 m/s. It has high efficiency between
98-99%. For the selection of bevel gears it is essential to consider calculating the torque, tangential
force, separating force and the average velocity of the gear face.
The usual modules (m) for Bevel gears are: 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
From equation (1) pitch diameter,

can be found.

The relationships between torque, tangential force and separation force are shown below:
Torque (Nm) can be obtained by the equation
= rotational speed of pinion shaft (rpm)
Tangential force (N), Ft can be obtained by the equation

Page 14 of 56

= pinion pitch diameter (mm)

= Torque (Nm)

Separating force (N),

= Tangential force (N)

= pressure angle of teeth

The average velocity of gear face, V can be found by using the pitch cone angle, and the mean
pitch diameter,
but shaft angle, gear width and number of teeth of gear and pinion must be
known.
To find pitch cone angle,
= shaft angle

= number of teeth of gear

= number of teeth of pinion

To find mean pitch diameter,

w = gear width (mm)

= pitch cone angle

= pitch diameter (mm)

Average velocity of gear face (m/s),

= mean pitch diameter (mm)

= rotational speed of gear (rpm)

The applications of a bevel gear are that it is used in hand drill, automobiles and power plants. The
advantages are that it can be made out of a variety of materials, it has a flexible angle of operation
and it is very durable. The disadvantages are that it takes a long time to manufacture as it has to be
carefully assembled and it is noisy.

Page 15 of 56

2.5.Appendices:
Parameters
Diameter Pitch (dp)
Module (m)

Definitions
Number of teeth per one inch of pitch circle diameter.
Length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per tooth.
Distance between adjacent teeth measured along the pitch
circle diameter
Distance between the axes of two gears in mesh.
Height of the tooth above the pitch circle diameter.
Depth of the tooth below the pitch circle diameter.

Calculation
m= d/z

The outside diameter of the gear.

Do= (z+2)m

Diameter on which the involute teeth profile is based.

Db= dcos
p=zm

Pressure Angle ()

The diameter of the pitch circle.

Point at which the pitch circle diameters of two gears in mesh
coincide.
Angle between tooth profile at pitch circle dia. and radial line
passing through same point.

Whole Depth (h)

The total depth of the space between adjacent teeth.

h= 2.25m

Circular Pitch (P)

Centre Distance (c)
Addendum (ha)
Dedendum (hf)
Outside Diameter
(Do)
Base Circle
Diameter (Db)
Pitch Circle
Diameter (p)
Pitch Point

P=m
c= (dg+dp)/2
ha=m=0.318P
hf= h-c

2.6.References:
1. http://www.constructionknowledge.net/general_technical_knowledge/general_tech_basic_six_
simple_machines.php
2. http://www.indiamart.com/ashokagears/types-of-gears.html
3. http://mechanicalmania.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/types-of-gear.html
4. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Gear_Efficiency.html 3/12/13
5. http://www.mae.ncsu.edu/eischen/courses/mae415/docs/BostonGearHelicalGears.pdf
6. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Helical_Gears.html
7. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Worm_Gears.html
8. http://www.robot-and-machines-design.com/en/Articles/Mechanics/Tips-Guides/271-GearsSelection-How-To-Choose-A-Gear.html
9. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IIT-MADRAS/Machine_Design_II/pdf/2_16.pdf
10. http://www.sdp-si.com/D805/D805_PDFS/Technical/8050T060.pdf

Page 16 of 56

3. Power Screws
Power screws translate rotational motion in to smooth, uniform linear motion. They can hold high
loads and are therefore useful in situations where a heavy load needs to be raised or lowered. In this
report we aim to discuss the various types of power screws, their applications and how to select the
best power screw for the task. To aid with this we will create a mathematical model which will allow
us to make a safe selection for the design. We will also compare the relative advantages and
disadvantages of each screw.
The table below represents the four types of power screw thread:
Power
Screw

Discernment

Square

Acme

High efficiency.
Tough to machine.
Expensive.
Thread angle of 0.
Most efficient for
transferring torque to
linear motion.

Linear jacks.
Clamps.

Easier to manufacture.
Increased friction causes
reduced efficiency.
Thread angle of 29

Lathes
Mills

Triangular shape.
High efficiency.
Cheap to manufacture.
Efficient in applying loads in
a single direction.

Screw jack.
Vice.

Small friction, therefore

high efficiency.
As the shaft rotates the
balls inside the nut move
along a groove between the
nut and the shaft.
Can withstand high loads.

Hospital bed
adjusters.

Machine tool
controls

Automotive power
steering.
Motion controls in
planes or aircraft
simulators.

Buttress
Thread

Applications

Ball

3.1. Comparisons

Page 17 of 56

Thread/Screw

I emphasise that the main advantage of power screws is to convert rotation to linear motion
however the selection of power screws depend on the application, which is the reason why power
screws are designed to fit a particular profile. For instance Ball and Roller screws are specially
designed so that balls and rollers can roll over the screw threads whereas Lead screws (Square,
Buttress, and Acme) are designed to slide into position during application.
Lead screws have greater energy losses due to friction when large areas slide in contact with its
threads. Square screws have the least friction losses and show less signs of sliding however its
threads are the most difficult to machine, for this reason acme screws may seem like a better
alternative. Also acme screws are able to withstand backlash however this is at the cost of
performance. Another thing is that there is more friction arising in Acme threads because they have
29 degree thread angles.
Buttress screws are generally used where the load is only required in a single direction. They can be
as efficient as Square screws in this sort of application. In contrast to Square, the triangular threads
on the Buttress screw are easy to machine making Buttress the cheapest of Lead screws to
manufacture.
Ball screws are high precision screws, they can be used in high load applications, withstanding high
thrust with minimal friction. Both the performance and mechanical efficiency of Ball screws are
greater than that of any Lead screw. Its disadvantage is that it can be back driven, so the balls can
slip between the nut and screw. Also ball screws can be incompatible in tight fit applications because
the nut adds to the bulk of the device.
Roller screws can withstand higher loads than ball screws because the nut rollers have a greater
surface contact with the screw than balls do in ball screws, they can produce high rotational speeds
and have a greater relative efficiency at high speeds. They also incur a minimal amount of friction
but they rank higher than ball screws in term of the actual life of the device. They are one order of
magnitude more expensive in manufacturing costs than ball screws and they also appear to be
bulkier than ball screws.

3.2.Principals of square, Acme and Buttress screw selection

1. Select a manufacturer/Standards catalogue and check the sizes available in square, acme or buttress
power screws.
2. Start with one selection and under the given loading condition get material properties, and
3. Calculate against Forces, torque and efficiency Equations:

Raising torque (with thrust collar friction negligible)

Lowering torque (with thrust collar friction negligible)

For Square thread = 0; Acme thread = 14.5 and Buttress thread = 7

Efficiency

Page 18 of 56

4.

Torque required carrying the load by the collar

Calculate stresses

The maximum nominal shear stress in torsion of the screw body can be expressed as

The transverse shear stress at the centre of the root of the thread due to load F is:

The axial nominal stress

Bearing Stress

Bending Stress

Principal stress

((

(tension or compression) is:

) )

Maximum sheer stress

((

) )

Graphs 3 and 4 show the forces, the bearing stress and the bending stress acting on screw thread
respectively.
5.

6.

Examine if safe and find factor of safety.

If not satisfactory test next larger size screw.

Where:
is the major diameter(mm)
the minor diameter =
(mm)
is the mean diameter (mm)
is the pitch between adjacent threads (mm)
is the number of threads
is the lead of thread= n.p (mm)
is the mean collar diameter (mm)
is the lead angle of the thread= tan-1 l/(.dm )(radians)
Page 19 of 56

 is the thread angle (radians);

is the coefficient of friction of the screw
c is the coefficient of friction of the screw /thrust collar surfaces
is the compressive force (N)
is the torsional torque required to raise the load(Nm)
is the torsional torque required to lower the load(Nm)
To is the self-locking torque resulting from load (Nm)
is the shear stress (Pa)
is the axial normal force (Pa)
is the bearing stress (Pa)
B = Bearing stress (Pa)

3.3.Principles of Roller screw selection

Description
A Roller screw is a type of screw similar to Ball screws used for transferring rotational motion to
linear motion at high precisions and speeds with minimal friction. The Roller screw has a nut and
screw configuration which embeds rollers. Rollers are used to transfer torques from the nut to the
screw. Roller screws vary in type, some have threaded rollers whist others have grooved rollers. The
complexity of the Roller screw device provides it with more bearing points than a Ball screw for a
given volume so loads can be transferred at higher speeds with greater efficiency.
Application
Here are some applications of these mechanical actuators as follows:

Satellites They are integrated in satellite mechanisms to deploy satellite panels.

Aerospace motion/positioning systems Found in traditional aircrafts within an assembly of
components that have a steering mechanism.
Simulators In flight simulators.

Selection
Based on my research I have found that the two main Roller screw manufacturer are Spiracon and
SKF. The main difference between Spiracon and SKF is that SKF preload their screws to reduce
deformations and increase efficiency whereas Spiracon design screws to meet specifications.
In most applications, the lead of a screw thread is chosen so that friction is sufficient to prevent
linear motion being converted to rotary, that is so the screw does not slip. [12]
Procedure:

From the Technical Chart in Section 3.1.6., make an initial selection of a Spiracon model to
suit the required maximum dynamic and static loads.
Choose a screw lead and calculate the rotational speed to suit the required linear speed:
(

Check that the rotational speed is below the maximum speed shown in the Technical Chart
for the model selected.
Calculate the total number of revolutions of the screw for the operating life required:
Check the operating life for the selected Spiracon model:
Page 20 of 56

( )

Establish length (L) based on the required stroke and bearing support conditions. For length
(L), check that the rotational speed is below the critical speed limit, given by the formula:

Calculate the torque required to drive the screw:

Parameters:
C = Dynamic capacity (kN) from Technical Chart
F = Application dynamic load (kN) (or FM, mean load)

3.4.Recirculating Ball Screw

Where are they used?
This power screw is used in a variety of applications such as

Automobile power steering gears where it translates the axial motion of the steering wheel
to rotary motion of the wheels
Fighter aircrafts for the actuation of the trailing edge flap systems, landing gears and
horizontal stabilisers.
CNC machines for X-Y recorders
Hospital bed adjusters
Machine tool controls

And other designs where high precision and high speed efficiency is necessary.

How do they work?

The ball nut is positioned on a shaft that has the same groove as it's own internal groove. As the
shaft is rotated, the balls move along the groove in between the nut and the shaft supporting any
applied axial load. As the balls reach the end of the nut, they are collected back towards the other
end by way of ball guides.
What are the advantages?
Rolling friction is generated which is quite low. This pushes the efficiency of the screw to
over 90%
Stick slip occurs due to the difference between the
How are they selected?

Page 21 of 56

There are various parameters that are involved in the selection of a ball screw, most of which are
calculated by the mathematical model. The purpose for which the ball screw will be needed greatly
affects the calculations so different variants have been included in the model from which the user
must choose in order to complete the calculations. Also, for the maximum operational speed of the
ball screw, the lower of the critical and the permissible rotational speed is chosen.

3.5. Conclusion
The mathematical models for each type of power screw, although different, all calculate the type of
torque specific to their function. For the square, acme and butress screws, the models calculate the
major parameters such as the raising, lowering and collar torques, the efficiency, the stresses
involved in the operation and the safety factor. For the roller screw, the torque, power and life of
the screw are calculated by the mathematical model. The final model, for the selection of
recirculating ball screws, calculates the life, the maximum operational speed and the stresses
involved are calculated.

3.6.References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Cams_Springs/Power_Screws_2.html
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design 8th edition.
Design of Machine Elements
http://www.beaver-online.com/57.html
http://www.cbmind.com/linear/thk/pdf/Ballscrew%20Product%20Specifications.pdf
http://www.learneasy.info/MDME/MEMmods/class_projects/backstop/controller/Topic4BallscrewCalculations.pdf
http://machinedesign.com/motion-control/critical-look-acme-ball-and-roller-screws-linearmotion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller_screw
http://www.powerjacks.com/Planetary-Roller-Screw-Spiracon.php
http://www.powerjacks.com/Downloads/Datasheets/PJSJDS-SS-EN-01.pdf
http://www.skf.com/files/779280.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_thread
Design of Machine Elements
By V. B. Bhandari page 216
http://www.beaver-online.com/57.html
http://www.thomsonlinear.com/downloads/articles/Specifying_Selecting_Applying_Linear_Ball
_Screw_Drives_taen.pdf
http://www.cbmind.com/linear/thk/pdf/Ballscrew%20Product%20Specifications.pdf
http://www.learneasy.info/MDME/MEMmods/class_projects/backstop/controller/Topic4BallscrewCalculations.pdf

Page 22 of 56

3.7.Appendices

Figure 1: Materials mechanical properties

Figure 2: Preferred pitches for threads

Figure 3: Load analysis

Page 23 of 56

Figure 4: Thread stresses / bearing and bending

Figure 5 shows the catalogue for Spiracon screws

Page 24 of 56

Figure 6 shows the bearing support conditions

Page 25 of 56

4. Shafts & Keyways

They are the constituents that transmit power from one rotating member to another connected to it
like gears, pulleys, couplings, and flywheels, and in turn are themselves supported by bearings
resting in the rigid machine housings. Thus they are subjected to torsional shear force from power
transmission and bending moment due to reactions from the members that are supported by them.
Shafts are made to have circular cross-section and could be either solid or hollow.
Type of Shaft
Straight

Cranked

Jackshaft

Articulated

Applications
Straight shafts are used for power transmission. Such shafts are
commonly designed as stepped cylindrical bars, that is, they have
various diameters along their length. Such shafts are used for fastening
of the parts fitted to them, particularly the bearings, which have to be
restricted against sliding in axial direction
The crank may be connected to another element like connecting rod to a
rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received
from the shaft.
Can be used as an extended or spacer (maintain a distance between two
components) to link the driver and the driven unit. It may use in any
combination of a flexible, coupling or universal joint to provide the
flexibility require to make the connection.
Articulated shafts transfer torques between shafts which are not aligned
with each other. Articulated shafts are limited in terms of speed, as the
movement of the intermediate shafts is never uniform. Torque
components are generated in the joints as a result of changes in the
direction of the torque.

In order to lock a hub or bushing and shaft together, and prevent the shaft from rotating in the
bore, a key is commonly inserted into a keyway that is machined in both the bore and shaft. The
key is responsible for preventing rotation between the shaft and the bore, and carries a portion
of the torque load.
Type of Keys
Rectangular Key
Square key
Parallel Key

Gib-head Key

Feather Key

Woodruff Key

Applications
The keys are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in the
keyway of the hub or boss of the pulley or gear.
The only difference between a rectangular sunk key and a square
sunk key is that its width and thickness are equal.
The parallel sunk keys may be of rectangular or square section
uniform in width and thickness throughout and is used where the
pulley, gear or other mating part is required to slide along the shaft.
It is a rectangular key with a head at one end known as gib head. It is
usually provided to facilitate the removal of key. They are used to lock
flywheel and pulleys on shafts.
A key attached to one member of a pair and which permits relative
axial movement of the other is known as feather key. It is a special
key of parallel type which transmits a turning moment and also
permits axial movement. It is fastened either to the shaft or hub, the
key being a sliding fit in the key way of the moving piece.
The woodruff key is an easily adjustable key. It is a piece from a
cylindrical disc having segmental cross-section in front view. This key
is largely used in machine tool and automobile construction.

Page 26 of 56

4.1.Jackshaft
A jackshaft can be used as an extended or spacer (maintain a distance between two components)
to link the driver and the driven unit. It may use in any combination of a flexible, coupling or
universal joint to provide the flexibility require to make the connection. A jackshaft as an
intermediary component is the most common mechanical design part that can be used to
transfer rotational force or torque in a machine and mostly supported on components such
as gears, bearing or belts, pulleys or a crank.
The following consideration must be taken into an account in order to design a Jackshaft
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The diameter size and the spacing of the component

The bending deflection (bending moment)
Fa
Shear force action on the shaft
Torsional deflection
Stress force on the shaft.
The elastic modulus
The maximum span of the shaft
a

Fb

b
W1

c
W2

The distance between the two supports

The second moment of inertia which is the geometrical property of the cross sectional area in which
it reflects and how its points are distributed from the arbitrary axis.

This is used in the design of the shaft or beam.

The main shaft

Page 27 of 56

4.2.Rectangular Keyway
A rectangular sunk key is shown in Figure below. The usual proportions of this key are: Width of
key, W= d/4 and thickness of key, t = 2W/3= d/6. Where d = Diameter of the shaft or diameter of
the hole in the hub.
The distribution of the forces along the length of the key is not uniform because the forces are
concentrated near the torque-input end. The non-uniformity of distribution is caused by the twisting of
the shaft within the hub. However it is assumed that the distribution of forces along the length of key
is uniform. The forces acting on a key for a clockwise torque being transmitted from a shaft to a hub
are shown below.

A key connecting the shaft and hub as shown above picture where T = Torque transmitted by the
shaft, F = Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft, d = Diameter of shaft, L = Length
of key, W = Width of key, t = Thickness of key, and and c = Shear and crushing stresses for the
material of key.
A little consideration will show that due to the power transmitted by the shaft, the key may fail due to
shearing or crushing. Considering shearing of the key, the tangential shearing force acting at the
circumference of the shaft,
F = Area resisting shear x shearing stress = L x w x
Torque transmitted by the shaft,

(a)

Considering crushing of the key, the tangential crushing force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
F = Area resisting crushing x Crushing stress
Torque transmitted by the shaft,

(b)

The key is equally strong in shearing and crushing, if

(Equating (a) and (b)). Or
The permissible crushing stress for the usual key material is at least twice the permissible shearing
stress. Therefore, we have w = t. In other words, a square key is equally strong in shearing and
crushing.
In order to find the length of the key to transmit full power of the shaft, the shearing strength of the
key is equal to the torsional shear strength of the shaft.
The torque transmitted by the key,
(1)

(2)

and the torque transmitted by the shaft

(Taking

1=

Shear stress for the shaft material)

From eq. (1) (2)

(Taking W=d/4)
When the key material is same as that of the shaft, then =

Page 28 of 56

. L = 1.571d

from Eq. (3)

4.3.Woodruff Keyway
Woodruff keyways are milled into the shaft, leaving a semi-circular slot for the key to sit in.
The corresponding keys have the same curvature as the slot.
These keys have advantages when compared to other types of keys. If they are inserted
properly, they will not slide out due to their circular geometry. They provide a reduction in
stress concentration on the shaft, since there are no sharp corners and a long keyway is not
required to be machined into the shaft. These keys can rotate and be used for a variety of
different angles, which makes them useful in tapered shafts and holes. There are also
disadvantages, in that the key can be complicated to install correctly. These keys also
cannot take such high loads, due to geometric constraints in length and depth.

F
w

h
D

In the diagrams and equations; w is the key width, I is its length, and h is its depth. F is the
reaction forces on the key, causing the shear, and T is the torque these forces provide. D is
the diameter of the shaft. is the shear stress, and A is the area that the shear stress acts
on. y is the tensile yield strength of the material selected, y is the corresponding shear yield
strength, and NF is the factor of safety in the design.

1) The area of the key that the shearing force acts on is calculated with:

2) The force applied to the key is:

3) Combining equations 1) and 2) with the definition of shearing stress yields:

4) The maximum shear stress theory states that:

5) Inserting equation 4) into the equation for factor of safety gives:
6) Finally equating equations 3) and 5), and rearranging for the key width gives:

Based on these equations, the ideal width of a woodruff key can be calculated if the torque
on the shaft and its diameter are known, as well as the factor of safety, ideal length of the
key, and yield strength of the material (this is chosen based on material selection prior to key
selection). This width can then be looked up in a catalogue, and a suitable key chosen.
An example table can be seen in the appendices, with a variety of key widths.

Page 29 of 56

4.4.Appendices

Figure 1: Woodruff keyway standard sizes,

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Keyways/woodruff_keyways.html

4.5.References

Childs Peter N.R, Mechanical design, Butterworth-Heinemann, U.K, 2003

AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S Units (2nd edition), American
Association of state highway and transportation officials, Washington, D.C 1998, W/1999
interim revisions.
ASTM D 1194-94,Standar test methods for bearing capacity of soil for static load and spread
footings. American society for testing and materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Brown D.(2001), Drilled foundations in Piedmont Residual Soils: Effects of construction on
axial capacity, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering.
https://uqu.edu.sa/files2/tiny_mce/plugins/filemanager/files/4220115/Keys%20and%2
0Key%20Ways.pdf

Page 30 of 56

5. Shock Absorbers
A shock absorber is a device which manages and controls load changes. They reduce the
effects of shock, high impact forces, thus reducing the occurrence of fatigue in a design.
Different types of shock absorbers perform this by different means. Pneumatic and hydraulic
convert kinetic energy to heat and crumple zones absorb impact energy by controlled
deformation.
Type of shock
absorber

Advantages

Disadvantages

Hydraulic

High pressure applications,

Damps oscillations.

Maintenance required to ensure no

leaks, performance reduces due to oil
aeration (cavitation)

Can absorb high energy impact

levels

Single use. Disaster prevention

Elastomer

Can be custom made to fit many

physical applications

Temperature sensitive, cannot go into

a chemically corrosive environment,
low impact applications

Pneumatic

Compact, moderate life

expectancy

Maintenance required to ensure no

leaks

Application

Reason for application

Car suspension, building and

structures suspension

Oscillations are damped

Crumple zones

Type
Hydraulic
Crumple zone

Bicycle suspension

Light, compact, easy to maintain

Car suspension, landing gear of

aeroplane, safety doors

Reduces shock damage and absorbs

excessive forces

Elastomer
Pneumatic

Absorbs high impact load

Car bumper

Comparison of impact forces on the block surface due to falling mass

Mass

Height of
mass

Surface
area

Youngs modulus
of cylinder

Potential energy
of mass

Deformatio
n length

10kg

0.5m

0.007m2

2.1x1011N/m2

4.905Nm

0.1m

Page 31 of 56

Without shock
absorber

k block

Spring shock
absorber

Hydraulic and
pneumatic shock
absorbers

Elastomer

Fmax : 0.981 KN

Fmax : 0.491 KN

Fmax : 231 KN

EA
lblock

Fmax 2(mgh)k
Fmax : 2840 KN

5.1.Hydraulic Shock Absorbers

Hydraulic shock absorbers are based on the principle of fluid incompressibility. Forces
applied to the piston of shock absorber, pressurises the fluid and forces it to flow through
restricting orifices. It creates internal pressure which allows smooth and controlled
deceleration of the moving load. The impact energy is converted into heat energy of the oil
and then emitted to the atmosphere. When the load is removed, the compressed spring
tends to return to its original position. In order return it rapidly, a check valve is used which
opens and allows oil to flow.

Figure 1: Hydraulic shock absorber

Selection
In order to select a shock absorber, mass of the object, desired distance above the piston,
frequency and stroke have to be selected. Based on the equations below, maximum energy
and effective mass are calculated. Based on the calculated values desired shock absorbers
may be chosen from the Parker-Origa Catalogue. When the shock absorber is selected,
based on its geometry deceleration rate, reaction force and stopping time are determined.
Page 32 of 56

Potential Energy of an object per cycle is calculated from equation (1a). Where m is mass of
the object [kg] and h is height above the shock absorber [m].
(1a)
W1 mgh
Propelling energy per cycle is represented by equation (2). Where s is stroke [m]
(2a)
W 2 mgs
Total Energy per hour is calculated from equation (3). W T represents total energy of the
object per cycle and x is number of cycles per hour.
W WT x
(3a)
The mass that needs to be added to the system in order to correctly predict behaviour of the
system is called effective mass [kg]. It indicates whether the shock absorber can be adjusted
to perform properly.

me

2 WT
Vf

(4a)

Reaction force on the object is determined from equation (5) Where Vf is final velocity of the
falling object

1.5 WT
s

(5a)

Shock absorber stopping time is calculated using equation (6)

2.6 s
Vf

(6a)

Deceleration of the object can be obtained from equation (7)

0.75 V f2
s

(7a)

5.2.Car crumple zones

Figure 2: Crumple Zone

A specific application of a shock absorber is the crumple zone of an automobile. This is a

single use shock absorber. Its function is to convert the kinetic energy as the vehicle hits an
object by a controlled deformation. As the car hits a wall, or another object, it is subjected to
a significant load change. To prevent the passengers being subjected to dangerously high
levels of deceleration, the crumple zone will collapse. The collapse will occur in such a way
as to control the impact shock.

Factors affection variant

Page 33 of 56

Materials

Deformation length

Deformation time/deceleration
time
Impact velocity
Mass of vehicle

The material from which the car and the crumple zone is
made. A cars body work generally use aluminium, some
plastics. Light weight and relatively strong. Steel is often
used in crumple zones as it bends and deforms, as
opposed to breaking. The deformation absorbs some of
the impact forces.
The amount of the car which is intended to deform and
absorb the impact this would equate to the stroke of a
hydraulic shock absorber.
The amount of time which the crumple zone will take to
deform and decelerate the vehicle to a stop.
What velocities should the zone typically be suitable for.
Urban speeds typically, 15-30mph, motorway 70mph
The mass of the vehicle will affect the cars momentum.

Equations involved in modelling

To find the energy of the car. Calculate the kinetic energy.
(1b)
When the crumple zone is modelled as a spring. Using the equations in the model below,
the deformation length is represented by x. The crumple zone is modelled as a spring with
constant k. E is Youngs modulus.
(2b)
(3b)
(4b)
Or

(5b)

5.3.Elastomeric Shock Absorbers

Elastomeric shock, also known as rubber buffers are mechanical
elements that unlike other types of shock absorbers, store the energy
that they absorb at impact. A drawback is that the stored energy is
returned to the load, which produces rebound and potential for
damage to the load or the machinery. However, they are common in
different applications due to their high elasticity, dynamic performance
and low compressibility.
Figure 3: Elastomeric Shock Absorber

Applications of rubber buffers include shock absorption in prosthetics, mountain bikes,

elevator bump stops, vibration dampening in hand tools, anti-vibrations mats/pads, noise
insulation, toilet seats and crane buffers.

Conservation of energy:

(1c)

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Re-arranging equation 1 in terms

of :

(2c)

(3c)

Declaring Youngs Modulus in

terms of :

(4c)

Equating equation 4 to equation 3

(5c)

Rearranging equation 5 in terms

of F:

(6c)

Rearranging equation for restoring

force in terms of k:

(7c)

Substituting Equation 4 into

equation 7

(8c)

Substituting equation 8 into

equation 6:

(9c)

Equation for impact force:

(10c)

Equation for deflection can be

obtained by substituting equation
8 into equation 3:

(11c)

5.4.Pneumatic Shock Absorbers

Pneumatic shock absorbers generally consist of a sliding piston encased in a cylinder which
is filled with a gas. Air is often used due to its compressibility however nitrogen and other
gases are used. As the gas is compressed, the system acts similar to springs as the
pressure increases to resist the force. Once the element absorbs the energy, it releases the
hot air into the atmosphere. The energy tends to be mostly absorbed towards the end of the
stroke.
Pneumatic systems often operate for longer, requiring less maintenance. Compressible
gases reduce the shock damage as it absorbs excessive forces in comparison to hydraulics,
whereby the forces are directly transferred. In the event of loss of power, the necessary gas
can be compressed and stored allowing the element to continue to run if other means of
power is lost.

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Figure 4: Pneumatic shock absorber

Selection
The following parameters must be considered in the selection process of pneumatic shock
absorbers: Mass to be decelerated m (kg), impacted velocity at shock absorber vf (m/s),
propelling force F (N) and cycles per hour C (1/h). Equations 2a, 3a, 4a, are the same for
calculating parameters.
(1d)
Equation 1d is the kinetic energy per cycle (Nm)
(2d)
Equation 2d is the total energy per cycle
(3d)
(4d)
Equation 3d represents the vertical motion upwards and Equation 4d represents the vertical
motion downwards.
References:
1. http://www.qontroldevices.com/shock-operation.html
2. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Cams_Springs/Shock_absorbers.html
3. http://exoticautomation.com/ford-pdf/18.1%20Shock%20Absorber.pdf

Page 36 of 56

6. Springs
A spring is a component that is used to store mechanical energy in the form of strain energy
and/or provide a mechanical force. Although the broad variety of springs, they all follow the
same principle, where the deflection is proportional to the force exerted, and that they all
operate in the linear region of the material they are made from. This implies that brittle
materials will generally not act as good as ductile materials, as they can deform more before
plastic deformation takes place. For this reason ferrous alloys are usually preferred, but
varieties of bronze alloys and copper alloys are also commonly selected.
Type of Spring

Advantages

Disadvantages

Extension Spring

They absorb energy and

create a resistance to a
pulling force.

When an extension spring

fails it will drop whatever
load it is carrying.

Spiral Spring

Longest working life

compared to other types of
springs.

When the angle is greater

than 360, the inner surfaces
touch, this causes
unnecessary friction.

Disc Spring

High loads can be applied

with small deflection,
therefore high energy
capacity.

To achieve lower stiffness

stacking is required but
stacking the springs can lead
to added unwanted effects,
friction. If the stack is to high
it causes instability.

Torsion Spring

A force is exerted in a
circular arc

The spring usually dont

allow for large displacements
due to the high stresses
induced on the inner fibres.

Type of Spring

An application

Reason for application

Extension Spring

Used to hold the drum of a

washing machine

Counters the inertia when the

washing machine is rotating
fast.

Spiral Spring

Most of automatic watch and

clocks have spiral spring in
mechanisms.

Lower friction than other

types of spring.

Disc Spring

Mechanical Safety Brake for

wind turbine when it is

High force can be exerted by

the spring, pushing the lever
activating the mechanical

Page 37 of 56

Torsion Spring

stationary

brake.

Hand grip exerciser

A force is imposed back on

the arm when clamped
together. The displacement is
small and the torque is high.

6.1.Extension springs (Mads Sandal)

Extension or tension springs are springs that are designed to stretch as loading is applied and due to
this the spring creates a resistive force to the applied tension in the opposite direction, from Newtons
Laws. If two components that are attached to the spring move apart from each other, the spring will
try to pull them back. Hooks or loops are added to the two ends of the spring so that components can
be fitted to the spring, this enable the spring to be attached easily to components. The extension spring
differs from the compression spring by having the coils very close together this then creates an initial
tension, which needs to be overcome for the spring to elongate. Dependant on how tightly the coils
are together, depends on how much the initial tension is; therefore these springs can be manipulated to
meet different requirements for different applications. Extension springs are used in applications like
trampolines, staplers and garage doors assemblies.
C Spring index
D Spring diameter (m)
d wire diameter (m)
F Axial force (N)
Linear deflection (mm)
k Spring stiffness
Initial tension load (G
Initial tension stress range (Pa)
Max shear stress (Pa)
Whal factor = (4C-1)/(4C-4)+(0.615/C)
Initial axial force (N)
n number of active coils
G Modulus of rigidity

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6.2.Spiral springs (Hiep Nguyen)

The general structure of spiral spring is long flat rectangular piece of material. The material
then is equally or increasingly coiled up. The spiral spring is able to produce linear torque for
360 rotations deform.
The formula for torque delivered by a spiral torsion spring is:

The stress applied to spiral spring can be calculated using:

With different materials, stress applied to spiral spring can vary from 1210 to 1380 MPa. The
other importance is the geometry of the spring, the arbor diameter (A) and outside diameter in
the free condition (OPf). The spiral spring cannot reach the designed deflection if the space
between coils is too small. However, the spring will not be able to fit in the system if the
outside diameter is too large. Therefore, the formula to calculate the close approximation of
the minimum ODf is involved:

E: Modulus of elasticity
: Angular deflection in revolution
L: Length of active material
M: Moment or torque
b: Material width
t: Material thickness

MPa
degree
mm
N.mm
mm
mm

6.3.Disc springs
Disc springs are also commonly defined as Bellville Springs or Belleville washers. These
springs are small in size and conical in shape. Due to the conical shape these springs are able
to withstand high loads with very little deflection, which can be desirable for some
engineering characteristics as previously discussed in the application table in section 1.
Because of the high loads and little deflection these springs have very high energy storage
ability. The variety of loads compared to deflections of these springs is down to the geometry
of the spring but in particular, overall height of the disc (H) and the thickness of the material
(t). There are two sub types of spring discs, ones which have contact surfaces and ones that
dont. The reason to have contact surfaces is to enable better loading for bearings, however
due to this alteration of the geometry higher forces are generated and to compensate for this
effect the thickness is the new thickness has to be reduced to 94-96% of the original
Page 39 of 56

thickness. If you would like to increase the stiffness of the disc spring arrangement then
putting it in parallel with another spring would achieve the desired effect. However this will
induce some friction within the system which will have to be taken into account when the
spring is being constantly loaded and unloaded. You can also pair two disc springs in series,
this will decrease the stiffness in the spring arrangement and allow more deflection.

Governing Equations:
Force equation for without contact surface:
)

[(

Force equation with contact surface:

[

Where:
The equations for equations for stress at four
critical points (as seen in the diagram above)
for no contact surfaces (K4=1):
[

( )
[( )

[
( )

Nomenclature

Shape Factors:
(

( )

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] [(

( )

6.4.Torsion springs
Torsion springs are a subgroup of helical springs, but the purpose of a torsional spring is to
provide a torque or store rotational energy in the coils. A force is therefor applied on the
springs moment arm to provide the desired effect. The force provided by the spring is acting
orthogonal to the moment arm; hence the force will be exerted in a circular arc. The moment
arms are connected to other components and when displaced the spring will try to return them
to their original position.
The important geometrical parameters to consider when designing or selection a torsional
spring is: the length of the moment arm, the diameter of the wire and that of the spring and
the number of coils. From this the spring index can be obtained, as spring diameter over wire
diameter. Note that this is measured when no forced are applied, as the diameter of is
decreasing and spring elongates in the lateral direction. This is an important parameter as it is
central to the stress calculations. The stress induced is not torsional stress, but bending stress.
When the spring is actuated the wire diameter decreases and friction is caused between the
coils. The stress induced on the inner fibre (compressive) is considerably higher then the
stress induced on the outer diameter (tensile),
and increases further when the spring index
reduces. The reason for this is that the spring
should always be loaded in the direction that
makes the diameter decrease. The length of
the spring is usually given by the diameter of
the wire times the number of coils on the
spring as they tend to be close packed, or
close wound

Governing Equations
32T
S=
KB
pd3
4C 2 - C -1
KB =
4C(C -1)
(1) and (2) gives equations for stress, and
the correction factor for a spring with
round wire

Dm =

D1 N b
N b + Dq

Equation express the decrease in spring

diameter

Nomenclature
(1)
(2)

(3)

R (m)
D (m)
d (m)
C
KB
L (m)
q (deg)
S (Pa)
T (N)

(4)

L d (Nb 1 )
Equation express natural length of wire

Page 41 of 56

Length of moment arm

Spring diameter
Wire diameter
Spring index
Stress correction factor
Length of spring
Displacement
Stress
Force

6.5.Appendices
Best Initial Tension Stress
range = i
(N/mm 2 )
3
140
205
4
120
185
5
110
165
6
95
150
7
90
140
8
80
125
9
70
110
10
60
100
11
55
90
12
45
85
13
40
75
14
35
65
15
30
60
16
25
55
Table 1: Data for extension spring calculations.
C=
D/d

6.6.References
1. Beardmore, Roy. Springs Index. Roymech. [Online] [Cited: 4 12 2013.]
http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Springs/Springs_index.html.
2. Spiral Spring. About Power Springs. Spiral Spring. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 2013 12 4.] http://spiralspring.com/about_power_springs.html.
3. Lee Springs. Extension Springs. Lee Spring. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 4 12 2013.]
http://www.leespring.com/uk_int_learn_extension.asp.
4. Mubea Disc Spring. Belleville Washer. Mubea Disc SPring. [Online] 2012. [Cited: 4 12 2013.]
http://www.mubea-discsprings.com/belleville-washers.html.
5. Springipedia. Springipedia. [Online] 2011. [Cited: 04 12 2013.] http://springipedia.com/.

Page 42 of 56

7. Belt Drives
Belt drives have 2 main applications; these are to transfer power between 2 shafts which are side by
side and parallel to each other. This is achieved by placing a belt over 2 pulleys which are attached to
each of the shafts. The other application of belt drives are to transport objects between 2 points,
these are commonly referred to as conveyor belts.
Belt drives are commonly used as you are able to transmit power between to shafts over longer
distances, belt drives can account for misalignment in shafts and are relatively quieter than other
mechanical elements like gears as belt drives rely upon friction compared to positive contact.

Page 43 of 56

7.1.Flat Belts

Page 44 of 56

7.2.V-Belts

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7.3.V-T Link Belts

Page 46 of 56

7.4.Appendices

Page 47 of 56

7.5.References

Page 48 of 56

8. Couplings
A coupling is a mechanical element used to connect two drive elements together normally shafts at
their ends for the purpose of transmitting motion and power from one element to another that is
one element driving the system and the other being driven while permitting some degree of
misalignment or end movement or both. It compensates axial movement that is the end movement
of the shafts. It transmits power without losing energy. Couplings also absorbs shock and vibration
exhibit on the shafts. It helps to alter the vibration characteristics of rotating units. The correct
alignment of couplings and shafts helps to ensure that the equipment functions properly.
The table below describes the different types of couplings and their properties and applications.

Page 49 of 56

8.1.Flange Couplings

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8.2.Sleeve Couplings

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8.3.Clamp Couplings

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8.4.Universal Joint

Page 53 of 56

8.5.Appendices
The Effect of Shaft Angle () on Single Universal Joint Performance for Constant Input Speed*

Page 54 of 56

Sample catalogue for choosing flange coupling

Sample catalogue for choosing Sleeve Coupling

8.6.References

http://cscjournals.org/csc/manuscript/Journals/IJE/volume5/Issue5/IJE-315.pdf
www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse.../module-5%20lesson-1.pdf
http://www.lovejoy-inc.com/

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