Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

LINEAR ALGEBRA SOLUTIONS

1.)

Each of the following matrices is an augmented matrix of a linear system that has been row
reduced by row operations to the form shown. In each case, continue the appropriate row
operations and describe the solution set of the original system.

1
0
0
0

7
1
0
0

3 4
1 3
no solution
0 1

1 2

1
0

5
1
0
0

4
0
3
0

0
1
0
2

0
0
0
0

x1 0
x 0
2 =
x3 0

x 4 0

is is a linear homogeneous system (all equations equal zero), and since there is a pivot in every column,
there is a unique solution, namely the trivial solution.

1
0
0
0

3
1
0
0

3R2 + R1 R1

0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0

2 7
1 3 0 2 7

3 6
0
1 0 0 12

0
2 3R4 + R2 R2 0 0
1 0
2 2R4 + R1 R1

1 2
1 2
0 0 0

0
0
0 47 x1 47
1
0
0
12 x 2 12
=

0
1
0
2 x3 2

0
0
1
2 x 4 2

1
0
0
0

3
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

11
12

Fall 2016

2.)

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

Determine the values of h such that each matrix is the augmented matrix of a consistent linear
system.

1 h 4

3 6 8 3R1 +
R2 R2

1
0

4
4

h
6 3h

Consistency requires 6 3h 0 ; i.e., h 2 . In other words, the system will be consistent for any
value of h except 2.

4 12 h

2 6 3 1 R1 +

2 R2 R2

4
0

h
3 + 12 h

12
0

Consistency requires 3 + 12 h = 0 ; i.e., h = 6 .

3.)

Find an equation involving g, h, and k that makes the following augmented matrix correspond
to a consistent linear system.

g
1 4 7

0 3 5 h

2R1 + R3 R3
2 5 9 k

1
4

0
3
R2 + R3 R3

0
0

4
3
3

1
0
0
7
5
0

7
5
5

g
h
k + 2g

k + 2g + h

e system will be consistent as long as k + 2g + h = 0 . It will be consistent for any choice of g, h,

and k that satisfies this relationship.

Fall 2016

4.)

5.)
False

False

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

Determine whether the following matrices are in Row Echelon Form (REF) only, Reduced
Row Echelon Form (RREF), or neither.

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1

1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0

0 0 0 1

RREF

RREF

1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0

0 0 1 1

RREF

REF

1
0

0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0

1
0

1
2
0
0

neither

0
1

0
2
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0

1
2
3
0

1
2

1
1
0
0

1
1

REF

0
0

neither

0
0

1
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
REF

Identify the following statements as True or False.

In some cases, a matrix may be row reduced to more than one matrix in row reduced echelon
form, by using dierent sequences of row operations.
If one row in an REF of an augmented matrix is [ 0 0 0 5 0 ] , then the associated
linear system is inconsistent.

True

e reduced row echelon form (RREF) of a matrix is unique.

False

If every column of an augmented matrix contains a pivot, then the corresponding system is
consistent.

False

e pivot positions in a matrix depend on whether row interchanges are used in the row
reduction process.

Fall 2016

6.)

MECH 200

Write the solution set to the following homogeneous linear system in parametric vector form.
x1 + 2x 2 3x3 = 0 1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3

2x1 + 1x 2 3x3 = 0 2 1 3

0 3 3 0 3 3
2R1 + R2 R2
R1 + R3 R3
1 1 0
0 3 3
x1 + x 2 = 0 1 1 0

2 3
1

0
3 3
13 R2
0
0 0

1
0
R2 + R3 R3
0

7.)

R.A. Marks

3
1

0
1
2R2 + R1 R1
0
0

2
1
0

0
1
0

1 x1 1

1 x 2 = 1 x3
0 x3 1

Describe all solutions of Ax = 0 in parametric vector form, where A is row equivalent to the
following matrices.

1
0

3
1

3
4

7
1

5 3R2 + R1 R1 0

0
1

x1 9
8
x 4
5
2 = x + x
x3 1 3 0 4


1
x4 0

9 8
4 5

3 6 6 1 2 2
1
2 4 2 1R1 2 4 2 2R1 +

3
R2 R2 0

2
0

2 1

2 0

x1 2

x2 = 1 x2
x3 0

1
0
0
0

4 2
0 1
0 0
0 0

0
0
0
0

3
0
1
0

5
1

4

0

x1 4
0
5
x 1
0
0
2


x3 0
0
1
= x 2 + x 4 + x6
x4 0
1
0
x5 0
0
4



0
1
x6 0

1
0
0
0

4
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0

5
1

2
0

0
1

Fall 2016

8.)

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

Identify the following statements as True or False.

True

A linear homogeneous system of equations is always consistent.

False

e homogeneous equation Ax = 0 has the trivial solution if and only if the equation has at
least one free variable.

False

e equation x = p + tv describes a line through v parallel to p .

False

If x is a nontrivial solution of Ax = 0 , then every entry in x is nonzero.

True

e equation Ax = b is homogeneous if the zero vector is a solution.

9.)

Determine if the set of vectors is linearly independent.

5 7 9

0 , 2 , 4
0 6 8

5
0

7 9 5 7 9
2 4 0 2 4 Linearly Independent (pivot in every column).
6 8 0 0 4

0 0 1

2 , 0 , 3
3 8 1

0
0

0
2
3

1
8

3 0
R1 R3
0
1

3
2
0

1
3 Linearly Independent.
1

1 3
, Linearly Independent (not a scalar multiple of each other).
3 9
Note: this comparison only works for a set of two vectors. e vectors themselves may have more than two
components, but you can only determine linear independence by checking if they are a multiple of each
other for a set of two vectors.
Let me clarify this a bit. If you see two vectors in any set that are a multiple of each other, then the set is
linearly dependent; however, if there is no pair of vectors in the set such that one is a multiple of the other,
the set can still be linearly dependent if there are more than 2 vectors in the set.

Fall 2016

10.)

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

Determine if the columns of each matrix form a linearly independent set.

0 3 9
2 1 7

1 4 5

1 4 2
1 4 2

2 1 7

R1 R4 1
4 5 2R
1 + R2 R2
R +R R

1 3 3
0 3 9

4
9
0
3

1
0
0
0

3

7 13 R2 + R4 R4

4
9
0
0

1
0
0
0

2
3

7

10

4 2
9 3

0 7

0 0

1
0
0
0

YES, they are linearly independent.

0
4 3
0
1
5

1
5
1

1 10
2
1
0

R1 R3 4

1
1
3
1

4R1 + R3 R3
0 2R
+R R
1 4 4
10

1
0
0
0

1
1
1
1

5

20 RR2 ++RR3 RR3
2 4 4
0

YES, they are linearly independent.

1 2 3
2 4 6

0 1 1

2
2
3

NO (more columns than rows).

1
0
0
0

1
1
0
0

5
5

15

5

1
0
0
0

1
1
0
0

5
5

15

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

1
3
5


11.) Let v1 = 3 , v 2 = 9 , and v3 = 7 .
2
6
h

(a) Determine the value(s) of h such that v3 span{v1 , v 2 } .

(b) Find the value(s) of h for which {v1 , v 2 , v3 } is linearly dependent.

(a) is problem is asking what does h have to be in order for v3 to be a linear combination of v1
1
3
5

and v 2 . In other words, what is the solution to: 3 x1 + 9 x 2 = 7 ?

2
6
h
1 3 5
1
3 9 7 0

3R1 + R2 R2
2 6 h
2

3
0
6

5
8
h

is system is inconsistent regardless of the value of h, and

hence, there are no values of h such that v3 span{v1 , v 2 } .
is ended up being a trick question in a way. I didnt work it out ahead of time, so I didnt know it
turned out like this...sorry, but I wont be this tricky on the final exam. Nonetheless, its a good exercise. Its
often good to prepare for an exam by doing problems that are harder than you would expect on the exam.

(b) Since v1 and v 2 are multiples of each other, the set will be linearly dependent regardless of the
value of h. In other words, h can be anything. If you didnt see that, you can still solve the
problem by row reducing a matrix having columns equal to the three vectors. In part (a), the
matrix was treated as an augmented matrix, but now we can use the same matrix to test for linear
dependence/independence of the three vectors. Continuing the row operations, gives:
3
5 1 3 5
1 3 5 1
3 9 7 0
0
8 0 0 8 .

2 6 h 0
0
h 10 0 0 0
We see that there will not be a pivot in the second column (indicating linear dependence), and
the value of h is insignificant.

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

12.) Identify the following statements as True or False.

False

e columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if the equation Ax = 0 has the trivial
solution.

False

If S is a linear dependent set, then each vector in S is a linear combination of the other
vectors in S.

True

e columns of any 4 5 matrix are linearly dependent.

True

If x and y are linearly independent, and if { x , y , z } is linearly dependent, then

z span{ x , y } .

True

If x and y are linearly independent, and if z span{ x , y } , then { x , y , z } is linearly
dependent.

True

If three vectors in 3 lie in the same plane in 3 , then they are linearly dependent.

False

If a set contains fewer vectors than there are entries in the vectors, then the set is linearly
independent.

False

If a set in n is linearly dependent, then the set contains more than n vectors.

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

1
4
5
1
3
4
3


7

13.) Given v1 =
, v2 =
, v3 =
, and u =
, determine if u span{v1 , v 2 , v3 } .
2
5
6
1




3
7
5
2

is problem is similar to #3(a).

5
1 1 4
5
1
1
1 4 5 1
1 4
5
3
0
3 4 3 7
0 8 12 10 0 1
4
2

1
3R1 + R2 R2 0
3R2 + R3 R3 0
3 4
1 8 R2 0 3 4
1 5R
2 5 6 1 2R
+R R
+R R

3R11 + R43 R34

2 4 4
3
7
5
2
0
5
10
5
0
5
10
5

4 5
1 32
0 12
0 52

e system is inconsistent, so u span{v1 , v 2 , v3 }

2
3
4

14.) Let v1 = 8 , v 2 = 8 , v3 = 6 , and A = v1

6
7
7

(a) How many vectors are in {v1 , v 2 , v3 } ? 3

(b) How many vectors are in span{v1 , v 2 , v3 } ? Infinity

v2

v3 .

1
1
5
0
4

11 5R + R R
4 3 4 4 0

54
0

4 5 1
1 32 54

0 12 114

0 0 504

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

1 2 0 1 3
1 3 1 4 7

18.) Let S = , , , , . Find a basis of span(S ) and state dim(span(S )) .

2 1 3 7 6
3 4 2 7 9
1 2 0 1 3 1 2 0 1 3
1 3 1 4 7 0 1 1 3 4

2 1 3 7 6 0 0 0 4 10

0
3 4 2 7 9 0 0 0 0

1 2 1
1 3 4

,
,

2
1

3 4 7

dim(span(S )) = 3

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

5 1 3
21.) Compute A 5I 3 and (5I 3 )A , where A = 4 3 6 .
3 1 2
0 1 3
A 5I 3 = 4 2 6
3 1 3

25
(5I 3 )A = 20
15

5
15
5

15
30
10

22.) If A is a 5 3 matrix and the product AB is a 5 7 matrix, what is the size of B? 3 7

23.) How many rows does B have if BC is a 5 4 matrix? 5

1 2 3
5 0 0

24.) Let A = 2 4 5 and B = 0 3 0 . Compute AB and BA to prove that in general, that

3 5 6
0 0 2
AB BA .
1 2 3 5 0 0 5 6 6
AB = 2 4 5 0 3 0 = 10 12 10
3 5 6 0 0 2 15 15 12
5 0 0 1 2 3 5 10 15
AB = 0 3 0 2 4 5 = 6 12 15
0 0 2 3 5 6 6 10 12

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

3 6
0 0
25.) Let A =
. Construct a 2 2 matrix B, such that AB =

. Note, you may not

2 4
0 0
0 0
choose B =
, and both columns of B must also be nonzero and dierent. e point is
0 0
0 0
0 0
to illustrate that if AB =
, it is not necessarily true that A =

and/or
0 0
0 0
0 0
B=
. Also, compute the product BA and see what you get?
0 0

2 4
B=

1 2
3 6 2 4 0
AB =

=
2 4 1 2 0
2 4 3 6 2
BA =

=
1 2 2 4 1

0
0
4
2

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

26.) Suppose P is invertible and A = PBP 1 . Solve for B in terms of A and P. B = P 1 AP

27.) Identify the following statements as True or False.

True

In order for a matrix B to be the inverse of A, the equations AB = I and BA = I must both
be true.

False

If A and B are n n and invertible, then A 1B 1 is the inverse of AB.

True

If A is an invertible n n matrix, then the equation Ax = b is consistent for each b in n .

True

Each elementary matrix is invertible.

True

If A is invertible, then the inverse of A 1 is A itself.

True

If A can be row reduced to the identity matrix, then A must be invertible.

28.)

If A, B, and C are n n invertible matrices, does the equation C 1( A + X )B 1 = I n have a

solution X? If so, find it.

C 1( A + X )B 1 = I n
CC 1( A + X )B 1 = CI n
( A + X )B 1B = CB
A + X = CB
X = CB A

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

29.) Find the inverse of the following matrices if it exists. If not, state that the matrix is not
invertible.

3 6
4 7

1
1 2
3 6 1 0 1 2 13 0
3

4 7 0 1 1 R1 4 7 0 1 4R1 + R2 R2 0 1 4

3
3

73
3 6
=
4
4 7

1 2
4 7

2 6

0
1 0 73

1 2R2 + R1 R1 0 1 34

2 1 0 73

1 R2 0 1 34

1
3
4

1 2 1 1 0 0
1 2 1 1 0 0
1 2 1 1 0 0
4 7 3 0 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 0

4R1 + R2 R2
2R2 + R3 R3

2 6 4 0 0 1 2R1 + R3 R3 0 2 2 2 0 1
0 0 0 10 2 1
1 2
4 7

2 6

1
3 is NOT invertible.
4

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

30.) Invert the following matrices. (Try guessing a solution and then verifying that it is the inverse by
showing that the product of the matrix and your guess is the identity matrix. If you cannot come up
with a good guess, find the inverse of the first matrix using the inverse algorithm, and see if the result
helps you come up with a good guess for the inverse of the second matrix.)

1 0 0
1 1 0

1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1

1 0 0
1 0
1 1 0 = 1 1

1 1 1
0 1
1
1

0
1
1
1

0
0
1
1

1
1
Guess?
1

0
0
1

0
0

1
0
1
1
1

0
0
1
1

0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0
=
0
0 1 1

1
0 0 1

0
0
Check it; it works!
0

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

31.) Determine whether or not the following matrices are invertible. (Try to use as few calculations as
possible.)

5 7
3 6 YES, columns are linearly independent (only 2 columns and not a multiple of each other).

4 2
6 3 NO, columns are linearly dependent (1st is -2 times the 2nd).

5
0

1
0
4

4
0
9

3
2

0
0
0

3
4 NO, column of zeros means RREF is not the identity matrix.
7

1 3
3 5

2 6

0 1

0
8
3
2

NO, row of zeros means RREF is not the identity matrix.

1 1 3
3 0 4

2 0 0

1 0 0

0
8
3
0

1
0
0
1

YES, columns are linearly independent (pivot in every column).

3
0

4
1
0
0

7
4
2
0

4
6
YES, columns are linearly independent (pivot in every column).
8

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

32.) Identify the following statements as True or False. All matrices referred to in these statements
are n n .

If the equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution, then A is row equivalent to the n n

True

identity matrix.
True

If the columns of A span n , then the columns are linearly independent.

False

If A is an n n matrix, then the equation Ax = b has at least one solution for each b in
n .

True

If the equation Ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution, then A has fewer than n pivot positions.

True

If the columns of A are linearly independent, then the columns of A span n .

33.) Evaluate the following determinants.

6
1
det
2

0
7
0
3

det

3 2
0 4
5 6
0 0
2 3

6
9
8
3
4

0
2
0
1

5
0 0 5
5
7 2
= (2)det 7 2 5 = (2)(5)det
= (2)(5)(1) = 10

0
3 1

3 1 8

4
1
7
0
2

0
0
1
0
0

3 2 4 0

3 2 4
0 4 1 0

= (3)(1)det 0 4 1
= (3)det

5 6 7 1

2
3
2

2 3 2 0

4 1
2 4
= (3)(1) (3)det
+ (2)det

3 2
4 1
= (3)(1) ((3)(11) + (2)(18)) = 9

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

34.) Explore the eect of an elementary row operation on the determinant of a matrix. In each case,
state the row operation and describe how it aects the determinant.

3 4 3
5 6 5 + 3k

4
Replacement ( kR1 + R2 R2 ). Has no eect on the determinant.
6 + 4k

a b c 3 2 2
3 2 2 a b c Interchanging ( R R ). Changes the sign of the determinant.
1
2

6 5 6 6 5 6

a
35.) Given that det d
g
a
det d
5g

b
e
5h

g
det a
d

h
b
e

a
det 2d + a
g

b
e
h

c
f
i

= 7 , what are the following determinants.

c
f = 35
5i
i
c
f

= 7 (Required 2 interchanging operations)

b
2e + b
h

2 f + c = 14 (Row 2 was scaled by 2 before the replacement: R1 + R2 R2 )

i
c

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

36.) Evaluate the following determinants.

3 3 4
3 4
1
1 3
1 3 3 4
0

0
1 2 5
0
1
2 5
1 2 5

=0
det
= det
= det
5 4 3
2
0 1 2 5
0 0 0 0

3 7 5 2
3 7 5 2
3 7 5 2

1 1 3
0 1 5
det
1 2 8

3 1 2

0
4
5
3

= det

1
0
0
3

1
0
= det
0

1 3
1 5
1 5
1 2

0
4
5
3

0
= det

1 3 0

1 5 4
= det
0 0 1

0 3 5

1
0
0
0

1 3
1 5
1 5
2 7

0
4
5
3

0
= det

1 3 0

1 5 4
= det
0 3 4

0 3 5

1
0
0
0

1 3
1 5
0 0
2 7

0
4
1
3

1 3 0
1 5 4
=3
0 3 4

0 0 1

37.) Identify the following statements as True or False.

True

A row replacement operation does not aect the determinant of a matrix.

False

e determinant of A is the product of the pivots in any echelon form U of A, multiplied by

(1)r , where r is the number of row interchanges made during row reduction from A to U.

True

If the columns of A are linearly dependent, then det A = 0 .

False

det( A + B) = det A + det B .

False

e determinant of A is the product of the diagonal entries in A.

False

If det A = 0 , then two rows or two columns are the same, or a row or a column is zero.

Fall 2016

38.)

1
6

MECH 200

1
1
Is an eigenvector of
3
6

1
? If so, find the corresponding eigenvalue.
4

1 1 2
1
= = 2 = 2

4 3 6
3

1
39.) Is 2 an eigenvector of
2

3 6 7
3 2 7 ? If so, find the corresponding eigenvalue.

5 6 4

3 6 7 1 5
3 2 7 2 = 13

5 6 4 2
0
40.) What are the eigenvalues of 0
0

0
3
0

0
4 ? = 2,0,3
2

1 2 3
41.) Without direct calculation, find one eigenvalue of 1 2 3 . Justify your answer.
1 2 3
1
I suspect 1 is an eigenvector, in which case the corresponding eigenvalue is 6.
1

R.A. Marks

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

42.) Without direct calculation, find one eigenvalue and two linearly independent eigenvectors of
2 2 2
2 2 2 . Justify your answer.

2 2 2

1
Again, 1 is an eigenvector with a corresponding eigenvalue of 6.
1
1
1

Also, 1 and 0 are linearly independent eigenvectors with a corresponding eigenvalue of 0.

0
1
1 1 1

NOTE: 1 , 0 , 1 is linearly independent. Check it if you dont believe me!!!

0 1 1

43.) Find a basis for the eigenspace corresponding to each given eigenvalue of A.

3 0
A=
, = 1,3 .
2 1
0
2 0 1 0 x1 0
= 1: A I =

= x 2 Basis of =1( A) :

2 0 0 0 x 2 1
1
0
= 3 : A 3I =
2
4
A=
3

2
1

0 1

2 0

1 x1 1
1
= x 2 Basis of =3 ( A) :

0 x 2 1
1

, = 5 .

2
1 2 1 2 x1 2
= 5 : A + 5I =

= x 2 Basis of = 5 ( A) :

3 6 0 0 x2 1
1

Fall 2016

4
A = 2
2

MECH 200

0
1
0

R.A. Marks

, = 1,2,3 .

1
0

0
3 0 1 1 0 0 x1 0

= 1 : A I = 2 0 0 0 0 1 x 2 = 1 x 2 Basis of =1( A) : 1
0
2 0 0 0 0 0 x3 0

1
2 0 1 1 0 12 x1 12

= 2 : A 2I = 2 1 0 0 1 1 x 2 = 1 x3 Basis of = 2 ( A) : 2
2
2 0 1 0 0 0 x3 1

1
1 0 1 1 0 1 x1 1

= 3 : A 3I = 2 2 0 0 1 1 x 2 = 1 x3 Basis of =3 ( A) : 1
1
2 0 2 0 0 0 x3 1

A=

5
1
2
4

A 4I =

0 1
3 0
1 3
2 2
1
1
2
4

, = 4 .

0
0
0
4

0 1
1 0
1 1
2 2

0
0
0
0

1 0
1 0

Basis of = 4 ( A) : ,
1 0
0 1

1
0

0

0

0
1
0
0

1
1
0
0

0 x1 1
0

0
0
x
1
2 = x3 + x 4
0 x3 1
0


0 x 4 0
1

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

44.) Identify the following statements as True or False. You may assume A is an n n matrix in each
statement.
False

If Ax = x for some vector x , then is an eigenvalue of A.

False

If Ax = x for some scalar , then x is an eigenvector of A.

True

A number c is an eigenvalue of A if and only if the equation ( A cI )x = 0 has a nontrivial
solution.

False

e eigenvalues of a matrix are on its main diagonal.

False

To find the eigenvalues of A, reduce A to echelon form.

True

A matrix A is not invertible if and only if 0 is an eigenvalue of A.

False

If v1 and v 2 are linearly independent eigenvectors, then they correspond to distinct

eigenvalues.

45.) Construct an example of a 2 2 matrix with only one distinct eigenvalue.

1 0 0 0 743 0 2
ere are numerous possibilities. Some examples are:
,
,
,
0 1 0 0 0 743 1

1
.
4

46.) Let be an eigenvalue of an invertible matrix A. Show that 1 is an eigenvalue of A 1 .

(Hint: suppose a nonzero x satisfies Ax = x .)

Ax = x

A 1 Ax = A 1 x

x = A 1 x
1

x = A 1 x (Note: 0 since A is invertible, see True and False above)

Fall 2016

MECH 200

R.A. Marks

47.) It can be shown that the algebraic multiplicity of an eigenvalue is always greater than or
equal to the dimension of the eigenspace corresponding to . Find h in the matrix A below
such that the eigenspace for = 4 is two-dimensional.

4
0
A=
0

2
2
0
0

3
h
4
0

3
3

14

0 2 3 3 0
0 2 h 3 0

A 4I =
0 0 0 14 0

0 0 0 2 0

2
3
3
0 h+3 6

0
0
14

0
0
0

Need two free variables (i.e., in order for the eigenspace to be two dimensional, and thus have two
linearly independent eigenvectors), hence h must be 3.