HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

A CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF GRAMMATICAL COHESIVE DEVICES IN

ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

Instructor :

Bui Nguyen Khanh

Student:

Nguyen Thi Hoa

Class:

4B

HCMC, 31/12/2011

Contents

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Abstract..............................................................................................................................3
Literature Review...............................................................................................................4
A Contrastive Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English and Vietnamese...5
I.
Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English................................................5
1.

Referential cohesion...............................................................................5

2.

Substitution...........................................................................................10

3.

Ellipsis...................................................................................................11

4.

Conjunction...........................................................................................12

II.

Grammatical Cohesive Devices In Vietnamese.......................................13

1.

Referential cohesion (Quy chiu).........................................................13

2.

Substitution (Php th).........................................................................15

3.

Ellipsis (Php tnh lc)........................................................................16

4.

Conjunction (Php ni).........................................................................17

III.

A Contrastive Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English and

Vietnamese..................................................................................................................17
1.

Referential cohesion.............................................................................18

2.

Substitution...........................................................................................21

3.

Conjunction...........................................................................................21

Implication........................................................................................................................23
References.......................................................................................................................24

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Abstract
Grammatical cohesion is one of crucial factors in text organization plays an
important part in text translation. It makes the text smooth and easy to be followed and
understood by its readers. However, grammatical cohesive devices are not exactly the
same among languages. Due to the indispensible role of grammatical cohesion in
creating texture and contributing to text construction, I do this research in order to point
out similarities and differences in grammatical cohesive devices in English and
Vietnamese. Firstly, I will present what grammatical cohesive devices in English and
Vietnamese are. Secondly, I will contrast them to see whether there are corresponded
grammatical cohesive devices in Vietnamese to those in English and how these
grammatical cohesive devices differ from each other. Finally, I will come into how we
can apply this knowledge to our learning and teaching. I hope that it will make my
readers clear about all the similarities and differences of grammatical cohesive devices
in English and Vietnamese so that they can avoid making mistakes in using
grammatical cohesive devices and translating between these two languages.
Literature Review
According to Yule (1996), a text is usually considered to have a certain structure
which depends on factors quite different from those required in the structure of a single
sentence. Some among those factors are described in terms of cohesion, or the ties
and connections which exist within a text. Halliday & Hasan (1976), classified cohesive
devices into grammatical cohesive devices and lexical ones. In this paper I just focus on

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

grammatical cohesive devices. There are four types of grammatical cohesive devices:
reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.
A Contrastive Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English and
Vietnamese
I.

Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English

1. Referential cohesion
There is referential cohesion in every language, they are ce in their own right,
they make reference to something else for their interpretations (Haliday and Hasan,
1976). There are three types of reference in English. They are personal, demonstrative
and comparative items which have the property of reference (), instead of being
interpreted semantically.
Haliday and Hasan (1976) make a clear distinction between situational and
textual reference by contrasting Exophora, or Exophoric reference with Endophora or
Endophoric reference as a general name for reference within the text.
Reference:

[ situational]
exophora

[textual]
endophora

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

[to preceding text]

[to following text]

anaphora

cataphora

Figure 2. 1: Types of reference

(Source: Haliday and Hasan, 1976: 33)
Exophoric reference looks outside the text to the situation in which the text
occurs for the item which is being refer to (Paltridge and Burton, 2000).
Ex: We are at the supermarket and well be here for about another hour.
In this example, The and here are only instances of exphoric reference if the
name of the restaurant has not already been referred to earlier in the text (Paltridge and
Burton, 2000).
Endophoric reference is textual reference referring to an item which is identified
in the text.
Ex: "If a man has talent and can't use it, he's failed."
"If a man has talent and can't use it, he's failed."
(Tom Wolfe)
In this example, he a man; it talent.

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

A reference item may be either exophoric or endophoric. If it is endophoric, it may
be anaphoric or cataphoric.
Anaphoric reference signifies a word or phrase that refers to another or phrase
used earlier in a text (Paltridge and Burton, 2000).
Ex: "No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether
she will or will not be a mother."
(Margaret Sanger)
In this example, herself & she woman.
Cataphoric reference describes the use of a word or phrase that refers to
another word or phrase which is used later in a text (Paltridge and Burton, 2000).
Ex: When I told them I got the first prize, my parents smiled happily.
In this example, them refers to my parents.
Haliday and Hasan (1976) divide referential cohesion into three sub-types:
personal, demonstrative and comparative.
Personal references are reference by means of function in the speech situation,
through category of person in form of personal pronouns and determiners. Here is the
table showing the system of personal reference.
Table 2. 3 : Personal reference

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Semantic

Existential

Possessive

category
Grammatical

Head

Modifier

function
Class

noun (pronoun)

Determiner

I me

mine

my

you

yours

your

we us

ours

our

he him

his

his

she her

hers

her

they them

theirs

their

it

[its]

its

one

ones

(Source: Haliday and Hasan, 1976: 38)

Demonstrative references are references by means of location, on a scale of
proximity, through determiners and adverbs. The following table shows the system of
demonstrative reference:
Table 2. 4: Demonstrative reference
Semantic
category
Grammatical

Selective
Modifier/Head

NonAdjunct

selective
Modifier
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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

function
Class

Determiner
this these

Adverb
Here

that those

[now]
There

determiner

The

then
(Source: Haliday and Hasan, 1976: 38)
Comparative references are indirect references by means of identity or
similarity. They are expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serve to compare
items within a text.
Table 2. 5 : Comparative reference
Grammatical
Function
Class

Modifier:

Sub modifier/Adjunct

Deictic/Epithet
Adjective
same
identical

Adverb
identically

equal

similarly likewise

similar additional

so such
differently otherwise

other else
better, more etc.

so more less equally

[comparative
adjectives and
quantifiers]
(Source: Haliday and Hasan, 1976: 39)

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

2. Substitution
Substitution is when a substitution form replace a noun (phrase), verb (phrase) or
a clause.
Three types of substitution are nominal substitution, verbal substitution and
clausal substitution. Haliday and Hasan (1976) give out a list of the items that occur as
substitutes:
Nominal:

one, ones; same

Verbal:

do

Clausal:

so, not

Ex:
- My music player has been broken. I need a new one.
Nominal substitution
A: Have the children gone to sleep?
B: They must have done
(Halliday 1994:321)
. Verbal substitution
A: Teenagers behavior is getting worse and worse.
B: I think so.
Clausal substitution

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis occurs when an element which can be recovered by referring a preceding
element in the text is omitted (Paltridge and Burton, 2000). Haliday and Hasan (1976)
claim that Ellipsis can be interpreted as that form of substitution in which the item is
replaced by nothing.
Ex:
A: Why didnt you lend him some money?
B: I didnt have any
It is impossible to tell from the utterance what Mary prefers: the green dress, hat,
or bag if what is said before is not known (for example: Sylvia: I like the blue hat).
Therefore, the green is an elliptical nominal group
As with substitution, there are three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal.
In the following examples, the ellipsis, which have been left out and marked by
Ex:
A: Did you get the first prize
B: No, I got a third .
Nominal ellipsis
A: Have you been swimming?
B: Yes, I have
Verbal ellipsis
A: Would you like some coffee?
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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

B: No, thanks
Clausal ellipsis
4. Conjunction
Conjunction is not a device for reminding the reader of previously mentioned
entities, actions and states of affairs like reference, substitution and ellipsis. It is called a
cohesive device since it signals relationships that can only be understood through
reference to other parts of the text. According to Paltridge and Burton (2000),
conjunctions are words joining phrases, clauses, or sections of the text in ways that
express their logical-semantic relationship. Haliday and Hasan (1976) classify them into
four main types of conjunction: additive conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, causal
conjunctions, and temporal conjunctions. Extending Haliday and Hasans work in this
area, Martin (1992) categorizes them as addictive, comparative, consequential and
temporal. Martins work on conjunctions or its adaptations is most frequently referred to
in current systematic analyses of patterns of cohesion (Paltridge and Burton, 2000)
Additive conjunctions draw on the notion of addition in both a positive and a
contrastive sense. Some additive conjunctions are and, or, moreover, in addition to,
alternative.
Comparative conjunctions include however, on, the other hand, likewise,
equally, whereas, but etc. They also draw on the notion of comparison in both a positive
and a contrastive sense.

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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Consequential conjunctions interpret the relationship between the cause and
consequence such as because, because of, for, since, so that, thus, if, therefore, in
conclusion etc.
Temporal conjunctions such as first, then, after that, at the same time, when,
while, meanwhile etc. express the relationships which exit when the events in a text are
related in terms of the timing of their occurrence.
II.

Grammatical Cohesive Devices In Vietnamese

Dip, Q. B. (1998) divides grammatical cohesive devices into these following

types:
1

Referential cohesion (Quy chiu)

Exphoric Reference (Quy chiu ngoi hng_Ngoi chiu)
Ex: Lan Anh i H Ni hm qua ri
Ex: Xe p b mt ri
In this example, Lan Anh and Xe p are only instances of exphoric

reference if they have not already been referred to earlier in the text.
Endophoric Reference (Quy chiu hng_Ni chiu)
Ex 3: Hm qua lo Hc sang nh ti. Va thy ti lo bo ngay:
Cu Vng i i ri ng gio !

12

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

C bn ri?
Bn ri! H va bt xong.
(Nam Cao, Lo Hc)
In this example, c and lo refer to lo Hc
Personal Reference (Quy chiu ch ngi)
Ex: [] Th trm ngm bng ci v quen thuc ca y. San khe kh ci v c.
H rt s t ra mnh l nhng ngi kh tnh. []
(Nam Cao, Sng mn)
In this example, h is a personal reference which does not have a specific
meaning. Thanks to two previous sentences we know h here is Th and San.
Ex: Hm nay Lan khng phi i hc. N i Vng Tu chi ri.
In this example, n is a personal reference which does not have a specific
meaning. Thanks to the previous sentence we know n here is Lan.
Demonstrative Reference (Quy chiu ch nh)
Ex: Mt con b cc ku ln. Ci con ny bao gi cng va bay va ku c nh
b ai ui nh.
In this example, Ci con ny refers to con b cc.
(Duy Khn, Tui th im lng)
13

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Ex: Lan l hc sinh xut sc nht trng. iu ny khin ba m Lan rt t ho.
In this example, iu ny refers to Lan l hc sinh xut sc nht trng.
Comparative Reference (Quy chiu so snh)
Ex: Mt ton lnh vc xoong cho va ly c ca ng bo ko i lnh
nghnh. Mt ton khc c chng mt trung i l lt ko ra pha sui.
(Anh c, Hn t)
In this example, Mt ton khc does not have a specific meaning. It must be
prefer to the previous element Mt ton lnh in order to be identified.
Ex: Ci o mu vng khng p. Ci mu khc p hn.
In this example, mu khc does not have a specific meaning. It must be prefer to
the previous element mu vng in order to be identified.
Ex: Ti cao 1,7m. Ch ti cn cao hn.
In this example, cao hn does not have a specific meaning. It must be prefer to
the previous element 1,7m in order to be identified.

5. Substitution (Php th)

Nominal Substitution (Php th (cm) danh t): , vy, th,
Ex: Thng sau ti v tr v Nam nh thm ng b. Ti s mt tun.
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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Ex: Th v San phi hi ci xung chui qua cng. Mi bc vo mt ci
nh ngang, mt trc trng hc hc nh qun ch. l ci nh bp.
(Nam Cao, Sng mn)
In this example, d refers to Nam nh
Verbal Substitution (Php th (cm) ng t): vy, th,
Ex: ng l vn phi c trnh by r rng gy gn th anh ni mt
cch p m, l m v chng c qua ci g gi l bng c. chnh anh anh cng cm
thy th.
(V Th Thng)
Clausal Substitution(Php th mnh ): vy, th,
Ex: Nc ta l mt nc vn hin. Ai cng bo th.
In this example, th refers to Nc ta l mt nc vn hin
6. Ellipsis (Php tnh lc)
In the following examples, the ellipsis have been left out and marked by .
Nominal Ellipsis (Php tnh lc (cm) danh t)
Ex: [] Nhng ti sao mi n by gi hn mi nm mi cho?
Hn t hi ri t tr li: V c ai nu cho n u? M cn ai nu cho m n
na? i hn cha bao gi c chm sc bi bn tay n b []
(Nam Cao, Ch Pho)
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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Verbal Ellipsis (Php tnh lc (cm) ng t)
Ex: Anh y mi ti i n ti. Ti ng ri.
Clausal Ellipsis (Php tnh lc mnh )
Ex:
Hoa : Lan i du hc cha?
Hng: Ri.
7. Conjunction (Php ni)
Additive conjuntions (Quan h b sung): v, cn, v li
Adversative conjuntions (Quan h nhng b - Tng phn): nhng, tuy vy, mc
d,
Consequential conjuntions (Quan h nguyn nhn - H qu): bi v, bi vy, v, v
vy, nn, cho nn, nh vy
Temporal conjuntions (Quan h thi gian): Trc ht, tip theo, cui cng, ng
thi
III.

A Contrastive Analysis of Grammatical Cohesive Devices In English and

Vietnamese

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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Although both English and Vietnamese have almost the same types of
grammatical cohesive devices, differences exist in each type. Now I would like to point
out some main differences of each one.
1 Referential cohesion
a Personal references
In Vietnamese, we can express possession with the word ca and possessors
are placed after things they possess (o ca ti r hn o ca bn) and sometimes we
can omit ca (o ti r hn o bn).
In English, there are four ways to express the notion with the use of: possessive
adjectives, possessive pronoun, -s and of. -s is favored by the classes of animated
nouns: persons and animals with personal gender characteristics (Lans shirt), of is
favored by the classes of inanimate nouns (The cover of the book).
Due to these differences, students make errors by bringing their habit in their
mother tongue into English with the thought that the word ca is equivalent to the word
of. In the following sentences, the students simply translated word-by-word from
Vietnamese into English without being aware of the English rules in expressing
possession. (Trn, T.B., 2005)
Ex:
- .She lived alone. The cat was the dearest one of her.
- ..It resulted in a runaway of them.
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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

- He knew all information of us
(Extracts from students writing)
The correct versions of the above errors can be: her dearest one, their runaway
and our information. (Trn, T.B., 2005)
According to Quirk (1987), s is used with the class of animated nouns, not with a
possessive adjective; instead of yours, there must be yours.
Ex: o ca ti r hn o ca bn.
My shirt is cheaper than yours.(not My shirt is cheaper than yours)
Demonstrative references
Demonstrative reference the
The definite article the exists in English but not in Vietnamese so students may
forget it when producing noun phrases in English. (Trn, T.B., 2005)
Ex: We are at the supermarket and well be here for about another hour.
Some errors may occur with the use of omitting homophoric and cataphoric:
- . First thing I should do is that. (cataphoric is omitted here)
- He came from United Kingdom. (homophoric is omitted here)
- I tried last time to unlock the door. (cataphoric is omitted here)

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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

- She was best in the class. (cataphoric is omitted here)
(Trn, T.B., 2005)
Demonstrative reference there
According to Haliday and Hasan (1976:74) Demonstrative there is to be
distinguished from the pronoun there as in there is a man at the door. When there
functions as a place adverb, it cannot be a subject in an English sentence. However,
students might think that there is equivalent to in Vietnamese. (Trn, T.B., 2005)
Ex: -Hy cng ra nh sch Nguyn Vn C i. c bn cun sch ny.
- Lets go to Nguyn Vn C. This book is sold there. (not there sells this book)
Demonstrative references this
Vietnamese equivalent of this is n. In Vietnamese n can be used as a
human reference but in English we cannot use this as a human reference.
Ex:
A: Hoa i u ri?(Wheres Hoa?)
B: N i Vng Tu t hm qua ri.(Shes gone to Vung Tau since yesterday.)
Comparative references
In English, comparative sentences are formulated quite complicatedly. With short
adjectives or adverbs, we have the structure short Adj/Adv + ER). With long adjectives
or adverbs, we have the structure MORE long Adj/Adv). In Vietnamese, comparative
sentences are formulated with the functional words hn which is thought to be equal to
the English than or more.

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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

8. Substitution
Substitute forms one, ones in English must be used according to nouns they
substitute. one replaces a singular noun while ones replaces a plural noun. Students
may misuse them because the concepts singular noun and plural noun do not exist
in Vietnamese.
9. Conjunction
Additive conjunctions
Additive conjunction and in English is equivalent to v in Vietnamese.
However, in some situation, cn is more suitable thanv.
Ex: My sister cooks and I wash the dishes.
Ch ti nu n cn ti ra chn.
Comparative conjunctions
According to Diep, Q.B. (1999), in some popular Vietnamese-English
dictionaries, however and on the other hand are equivalent to mt khc or v li, which
can be used as cohesive devices to inform an addition in meaning in Vietnamese.
In English sentences, there should be an additive conjunction like in addition or
furthermore instead of however and on the other hand in the following sentence:
Ex: Hng l mt doanh nhn thnh t. V li anh y cng l mt ngi chng
tt.
20

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

(Hung is a successful businessman. Furthermore, he is a kind husband too.)
Adversative conjuntions
Vietnamese equivalent of both despite and although are mc du/mc d.
However, the sentence structures formed by them are different. despite can be
followed by a noun phrase, clause or even an adjective and adverb while although can
only be followed by a clause.
Ex: Despite the bad weather, I still enjoyed the holiday.
Although the weather was bad, I still enjoyed the holiday.
Consequential conjunctions
Because of/ due to/ owing to and because/ since/ as mean bi v. Because of/
due to/ owing to can be followed by a noun phrase while because/ since/ as are
followed by a clause.
Ex: Because of the bad weather, we didnt go to the beach.
Because the weather was bad, we didnt go to the beach.

Implication
After working on Vietnamese and English grammatical cohesive devices , I would
like to discuss some implications that can be applied for English and Vietnamese
teaching at Vietnamese high schools.
21

Grammatical Cohesive Devices

There are differences in using cohesive devices which seem to be the same like
although and despite. It is common that students tend to transfer their mother tongue
into the target language, which may lead to misunderstanding due to differences
between two languages. In order to make students avoid mistakes, teacher should bear
in mind that they have to show their students the differences clearly. By showing some
typical errors that students may have when they learn English, I hope that teachers will
draw students attention on those when teaching grammatical cohesive devices. Teacher
can make a contrast between them. Contrasting students mother tongue and the target
language grammatical cohesive devices also helps students to develop linguistic skills
in both languages.
In conclusion, grammatical cohesive devices are very important in creating a text.
A contrastive analysis in this area between English and Vietnamese is necessary as it
show differences in forms and uses of grammatical cohesive devices in the two
languages. I hope that this paper will help much for further findings in this area and
provide language teachers some ideas for their teaching.
References
Anaphora (grammar) (n.d) .Retrieved December 30, 2011, from
http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/anaphterm.htm
Dip, Q. B. (1998). Vn Bn v Lin kt trong Ting Vit. Ha noi: Nh xut Bn Gio
dc.

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Grammatical Cohesive Devices

Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction in functional Grammar. London: Edward
Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Paltridge, B., Burton, J. (2000). Patterns of Cohesion, Thematic Progression. Making
sense of discourse analysis (pp.130-148). Gold Coast, Qld.: Antipodean
Educational Enterprises.
Trn, T.B (2005). An error analysis on the use of cohesive devices in writing by
freshmen majoring in English at thang long university. Unpublished Course work.
Vietnam national university, Hanoi College of foreign languages, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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