I 164 Riddle Hymn

The Ritual Pragmatics of a Vedic Hymn: The "Riddle Hymn" and the Pravargya Ritual
Author(s): Jan E. M. Houben

Source: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 120, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 2000), pp.
499-536
Published by: American Oriental Society
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THE RITUAL PRAGMATICS OF A VEDIC HYMN:

THE "RIDDLE HYMN" AND THE PRAVARGYA RITUAL
JAN E. M. HOUBEN
LEIDEN UNIVERSITY
The present paper explores the relation of the "riddle hymn," Rgveda 1.164, with the Pravargya ritual, one of the few rituals that are explicitly referred to in the Rgveda. Starting from a few verses which
have a well-established and generally acknowledged relation with specific episodes in the Pravargya
ritual (about which we have detailed information only from later texts), this paper shows that several
other enigmatic verses yield a convincing interpretation when placed in the context of the Pravargya.
The ritual interpretations can, moreover, serve to clarify and harmonize some of the traditional, more
philosophical interpretations of the verses. Thus, the findings have important implications for our understanding of the early development of Vedic ritual and also of Indian thought and philosophical speculation.
The mind of man is framed even like the breath
And harmony of music.
1.1 IT IS NOW one hundred twenty-five years since MarImportant attempts to understand this hymn stem from
tin Haug presented his paper on "Vedic riddle-questions

Rgveda translators, such as Ludwig, Geldner, Renou, and
and riddle-aphorisms" to the scholars of the Academy
Doniger,3 and, indirectly, from those working on two
of Sciences in Munich. Ever since, Rgveda 1.164 hasparallel hymns in the ninth book of the Atharvaveda, AV
been a continuous challenge to students of the Veda.2
(S) 9.9 and 10-Henry and Whitney.4 Deussen, Thieme,
My acquaintance with the so-called riddle-hymn Rgveda

characterized it as difficult, or obscure, or [as] a series of riddles
1.164 dates from 1984-85. I would like to thank Henk W. Bode-
loosely connected or disconnected, or in other terms expressed a
witz for discussing in detail problems in the verses and interpregreater or less[er] degree of frustration" (1968: 199 [53]).
tations proposed by numerous scholars, both in 1984-85 and

3 A. Ludwig (1876-88, 2: 579-84; 5: 445-57); K. F Geldwhen I started to write the present paper. An abbreviated version
ner (1951, 1: 227-37); L. Renou (1967: 88-93); W. Doniger
was presented at the 208th meeting of the American Oriental

O'Flaherty (1981: 71-83). The most recent complete transSociety, New Orleans, April 5-8, 1998. I am grateful to Alexlation of the Rgveda is that of T. Elizarenkova (into Russian),
ander Lubotsky and Arlo Griffiths for their detailed comments.
of which I have so far seen only the first two parts, covering
I also profited from discussions with Jan C. Heesterman as well
as
mandalas
I-IV [1989] and V-VIII [1995]. In her translation of
Thomas Oberlies. Some excellent suggestions for improvement

1.164 she mostly follows Geldner and Renou. Mention may
further be made of R. T. H. Griffiths' rather free translations of
were made by two anonymous referees of JAOS. I am very much
indebted to Mr. Selukar Maharaj and Mr. Nana Kale, whothe

al-Rgveda and Atharvaveda (1892, 1896). Hillebrandt (1913:
lowed me to be present at and to film and photograph their per103-5) translated part of 1.164 (cf. also Hillebrandt 1927, 1929,
formances of Vedic rituals; this clarified much of their dynamic
as referenced in the "Verzeichnis wichtigerer Stellen" in both
structure, which would have remained largely obscure if textual
volumes). Two quite divergent earlier Indian commentaries on
sources only had been taken into account. The investigations

theon
hymn, of Sayana and of Atmananda, have been published by
which this article is based were supported by the NetherlandsKunhan
OrRaja (1956), together with an annotated translation of
the
ganization for Scientific Research (NWO) from 1996 to 1999.
1 Wordsworth, "The Prelude" (1805 version), 1.351-52.
verses.
4 V. Henry (1894: 107-14, 143-57; Oldenberg's review
2 Cf. W. N. Brown: "Translators and commentators who have

[1896: 180ff.; 1939ff.] contains valuable critical remarks);
dealt with the asya vamasya hymn (Rgveda 1.164) have generally
W. Whitney (1905, 2: 552-61).
499
500
Journal of the American Oriental Society 120.4 (2000)
Kunhan Raja, Janert, Agrawala, Brown, Johnson, and Renou,l? Edgerton,1 and Thieme12-even if these verses
Singh also wrote special studies on 1.164 or parts of it.5
were formulated in the same kind of enigmatic language.13

A quite loose interconnection between the verses was
1.2 Haug was not only the first to translate the verses of
apparently also assumed by Roth in 1892, when he considered 1.164 to be a collection of riddles, two of which-
Rgveda 1.164-traditionally attributed to the seer Dirgha-
ual context of the verses. His suggestion was that the
viz., 30 and 3814-deal with the universal problem of the

relation between body and soul.15 As is well known,
Roth's position, according to which the Rgveda is a col-
whole hymn is a collection of riddles once employed at

the ritualized discussion (brahmodya) in the Asvamedha
lection of "natural" lyrical poetry having little or nothing

to do with later Indian literature, including the ritual
tamas-and study them in detail, he was also the first to
address the problem of the original employment and rit-
or similar ritual contexts; for the brahmodya in the Agva- texts,16 was not accepted in its extreme form by later
medha the Srauta sources indeed prescribe verses 34 and
35 (or very similar ones).6 The verses of our hymn, according to Haug, do not form a coherent whole, but he
admitted occasional relatedness between small sets of
verses (Haug 1875: 457; 460-66).
10 "... the hymn (1.164) which is but a string of enigmas . . ."
(1960: 35).
1 "This long hymn consists mainly of disconnected riddles,
Some later scholars sought to improve on the interprethe answers to which are mostly unknown or at best conjectural"
(1965: 51).
tation of the verses by trying to discern larger thematic
groupings: Deussen saw the whole hymn as a "song of
12 "Wie wohl auch vielen anderen Vedologen schien es uns
unity,"7 Geldner found that the verses can at least be the- richtig, von der Voraussetzung auszugehen, dass es sich um eine
matically grouped,8 and Brown presented the hymn as

having "three great themes, which are Agni [Fire], the
Sun, and the Sacrifice, all closely interconnected, while
the treatment of them is augmented by statements about
Vac [Speech] as the Absolute."9 Other scholars have
Sammlung von Ratseln oder in Ratselform gekleideten Allegorien handelt, die inhaltlich nur locker miteinander verknupft
sind, die sich aber doch thematisch beriihren-insofern nam-
lich, als sie befasst sind einerseits mit Dingen der kosmischen
Ordnung-dem Jahreslauf, dem Gang der Sonne und den Er-
rather emphasized the unrelatedness of the verses-e.g.,

scheinungsformen des Mondes, dem Himmel bei Tag und bei
Nacht und dergleichen-und andererseits mit Gegenstanden und
Ablaufen des Rituals" (1987: 329).
5 See Deussen 1920: 105-19; Thieme 1949: 55-73 and13 According to Porzig, to whose work Thomas Oberlies kindly
1987; for the others mentioned, see the bibliography. A. Wiinsche
drew my attention, RV 1.164 is a group of riddles, which are
ordered "nicht nach den verratselten, sondern nach den verrat(1896) gave an important place to RV 1.164 in his study of the
"Riddle of the Year" in world literature. Of interest is Thompson

selnden Gegenstinden" (1925: 648). Porzig's "alternative" solu1997, with much attention to RV 1.164.
tions to several of the "riddles" of 1.164 are not very convincing,
6 Cf. AsvSS 10.9.2-3, SankhSS 16.6.5-6 (the hotr asks, the
but some important observations are made on the language of
sacrificer answers); BSS 15.28-29 and ApSS 20.19.6-7 (here the
riddles (or one could say, enigmas) as "Sondersprache" which pre-
hotr asks, the brahmdn answers; cf. also TB 3.9.5.5 and Dumont
supposes certain social facts (the existence of a group of "know-
1948: 482); KSS 20.7.14-15 (here the sacrificer asks, the adhvaryu ers") and an attitude (paying attention to underlying connections
answers; cf. also SB 13.5.2.21 and Dumont 1927: 189 [?550]).
7 Deussen (1920: 105-19) had few followers in strongly em-
between things rather than to their phenomenal appearances).

14 This separation of two thematically parallel verses by others
phasizing a pervasive thematic unity in RV 1.164-as an "Ein-
that in Roth's view apparently deal with something else, is in har-
heitslied" dealing with the "unity in diversity" of phenomena.
mony with his assumption that the hymn is a "collection of riddles."
8 Geldner: "Die Str[ophen] lassen sich z.T gruppenweise

ordnen, ohne feste Dispositionen des Ganzen" (1951, 1: 227).
15 "Mit solchen Ratseln hat sich auch die alte Spruchdichtung

beschaftigt, von welcher wir da und dort in vedischen Biichern
9 Brown 1968: 199 [53]. Brown approached the hymn prima- Proben finden, namentlich aber eine ganze Sammlung von Versen
rily as a literary product and tried to solve its problems with in Rv. 1.164" (Roth 1892: 759).
methods of literary criticism. RV 1.164, according to him, deals
16 Cf. "Vorwort" to the Sanskrit-Worterbuch (St. Petersburg,
with notions which seem to give it "consistency and purpose and 1855), 1: v, according to which the vedic hymns are not "Schop-
explain why it was composed" (1968: 200 [54]). He also tried fungen einer theologischen Speculation, auch nicht aus dem
to explain the "argument" of the hymn (1968: 207ff. [61ff.]),
Boden jener fest umschriebenen minutiosen liturgischen Praxis

though one may doubt whether there really is one. A "literary erwachsen, sondern sie sind ihrem grossten Theile nach Erzeugapproach" was also adopted by Doniger O'Flaherty (1981); and nisse der altesten religi6sen Lyrik, deren Ausiibung eben so
further by Johnson (1980), who made use of a modern text-
wenig an Familien oder Kasten gebunden war als die Darbringanalytical terminology when addressing a few verses of 1.164. ung des taglichen Opfers und Gebets . . ."
HOUBEN: The Ritual Pragmatics of a Vedic Hymn
scholars, who highlighted numerous continuities.17 In the
501
brahmodya. Johnson spoke of a "symposium," and de-
1892 article, Roth argues especially against construing
scribed its nature, function, and aim with much imagina-
words in meanings known only from later ritual sources,
tion, but with few philological data to support his view.21
but he does not explicitly reject Haug's suggestion that
Thus, scholars after Haug have proposed numerous al-
the occasion for which the riddle-verses were intended
ternative interpretations for problematic verses, but with

regard
to the problem of the original context, if it was
was that of a sacrificial session-thus leaving open
the
taken into account at all, no one ever seriously challenged
possibility that the hymn and its verses were intended
to be recited in a sacrificial context (whether or not
cor-suggestions.22
Haug's
responding with descriptions in later ritual texts).18

Johnson, in 1980, made a useful distinction between
a
2.1 After
more than a century of research on the
Rgveda aand vedic ritual it is time to take a fresh look

riddle proper and an enigma-the former expressing
at thistoproblem. We start with a consideration of the

"question or verbal puzzle," the latter being "designed
which the vedic ritual tradition recognizes
express a meaning intrinsically enigmatic" and applications
"using
for not
RV 1.164 or parts of it. Although these became solspecial means to suggest understandings of reality
ordinarily perceived or experienced"19-and discussed
idly established
a
only in a post-rgvedic age, they may very
well
continue some older tradition. Under these circumfew of the verses of 1.164 (20-22) as enigmas rather
than
riddles.20 But as context for these verses he maintained the
stances, the strongest possible confirmation that this is the
one proposed by Haug: that of the ritual discussion or case
would be a direct reference in the verses to an actual
performance of the ritual acts for which the later sources

indeed prescribe the verse. Next, a verse may be suitable to
17 Oldenberg speaks of Roth's idea of the Rgveda as "Natur- but not necessarily connected with a specific rite. Finally,
wtichsige Poesie," and observes that Roth did not know much about a verse may be entirely unsuitable. In the latter case, its
the texts on the sacrificial ritual, with which in that time only
contents may point to another ritual context, or to no
Weber and Haug had some familiarity (Oldenberg 1905: 5, 7). On
specific context at all.23
the reactions of later vedic scholars, cf. also Gonda 1975: 56ff.
The verses with a strong ritual connection enable us
18 Note that the very first verse suggests that its author is to search for the ritual context that is best suited to the
standing in front of a fire and that it has usually been interpreted
hymn as a whole.24 This, in turn, may lead to new or
as such, already in the time when Roth wrote his article; cf. additional insights regarding other verses of the hymn.
Ludwig's translation of the verse (we will modify this usual in- Just as in the case of the direct indications in a verse of
terpretation later on). This suggests a general sacrificial context, a particular ritual context, there is no contemporaneous
and Roth made no explicit objection to this. Roth also accepted source that can confirm or disprove alternative interprethat the rgvedic people were engaged in daily sacrifice and tations of verses (apart from other, usually multi-interprayer (cf. citation in note 16).
19 "The enigma originally stated a mystery, being so designed
pretable rgvedic verses). The best confirmation we can

aspire to regarding such new interpretations is that they
to express a meaning intrinsically enigmatic. Brahman verses lead to mutually reinforcing positive probabilities.
were intentionally allusive, deliberately obscure language sets
using special means to suggest understandings of reality not
ordinarily perceived or experienced. The enigma conceals its farthest limit of the earth" and "this Brahman(-priest) is the ulmeaning in or by its own formulation, and must be contemplated timate heaven of speech."
to have its full effect." And further, "[t]hough riddle implies
21 Cf. esp. pp. 3-25 on the "Sacrificial symposium as context
something dark or puzzling, it is formally distinct from enigma of Rg Vedic speculative images," and pp. 42-65 on "The enigma
and paradox. The riddle expresses a question or verbal puzzle. It of the two birds in the fig tree."
usually contains its own answer in a series of clues that, when 22 Without referring to Haug's suggestions, Porzig regarded
correctly perceived, often in terms of an underlying image, will the hymn as consisting of riddles similar to those asked in dis-
give its solution" (Johnson 1980: 32-33).
cussions between vedic student and father or teacher, or between
20 Cf. the distinction, in French, between "enigme" and "devi- brahmin and king (1925: 646f.).
nette." Henry discussed the two atharvanic hymns AV 9.9 and 10
23 For discussions on the problem of the relation between the
as collections of devinettes, while Renou, more appropriately, Rgveda and vedic ritual, cf. Bergaigne 1889; Renou 1962; Gonda
speaks of RV 1.164 as I'hymne aux enigmes (cf. also Renou and 1975: 83ff.; Witzel 1997: 288ff.
Silburn 1949 on 1.152 as a "hymne a enigmes"). The two no-
24 The hymn as collection of verses may, of course, turn out to
tions are of course not mutually exclusive. RV 1.164.34 can be be divisible into smaller units at a later stage (it does, as we will
regarded as a set of riddles, but their corresponding answers in see below); but it did become a whole at a certain moment, and
35 are couched in enigmatic statements such as: "this altar is the apparently has remained a whole since its inclusion in the Rgveda.
502
It is here assumed that the presence of ritual forms,

which we know must have been involved in certain
the hotr priest when the Pravargya pot is fully heated and
has been worshiped, and the adhvaryu sets out to milk
the cow.29 Placed in this context, the statement presents

ways, can provide important directions in the precarious
neither
project of interpreting rgvedic hymns. But even the
besta riddle nor an enigma. It is just plain language.
Verse 26 continues with a prayer to god Savitr for "the
solutions to problems of understanding the symbolic
best
(srestham savdm) and concludes with
language of the hymns that can be thus arrived
at stimulation"
are
anotherisstatement
that suits the context in the ritual situ"intermediary," to the extent that the ritual itself
a
ation in which it is employed: [a]bhiddho gharmds tad u
symbolic form. We do not arrive at ultimate referents.
prd vocam "the Gharma (pot) is heated: this I hereby
The problem pointed out long ago by Derridasti
(1978)
announce."30
With this last pada it has become clear that
that there is no safe point where the structures of
interthe verse
pretation are anchored in "real presences" remains.
Thedoes not refer to just any milking of a cow, but
toof
theritmilking of a cow in connection with a Gharma
"intermediary" anchoring in the symbolic forms
ual seems nevertheless one of the few directions in
offering. This makes the verse exclusively suitable for the
which scientific progress in Rgveda interpretation
Pravargya
is still ceremony (from among the rituals known to us
from the srautasutras).31
possible.25
Two subsequent verses, 27-28, and moreover vs. 49 (see
2.2 With Haug (1875: 460) we can neglect those applications of verses that are clearly secondary, such as that
of the first forty-one verses as Vaisvadevasastra in the
Mahavrata ceremony (AiA 5.3.2), and the recitation of

the whole sikta as expiation by a brahmin who has stolen gold (Rgvidhdna 1.14;26 Manusmrti 11.250).27
Appendix for translations), present no major problem

either, if they are placed in the context for which they
are prescribed in the grautasitras: the milking of the
Gharma cow, to which first a male calf is brought near to
trigger the flow of the cow's milk.32 The milking is done
by the adhvaryu, to whom reference is made by the
2.3 It is true that the srautasutras prescribe verses 34 and
35 in a brahmodya in the Agvamedha (see n. 6), as Haug
29 Cf. AsvSS 4.7.4; SatikhSS 5.10.1; van Buitenen 1968: 96.
observed. We may even add that the content of the

verses-in which one of the four questions is: "what is
30 Hoffmann cites this verse and especially the last pada as a
clear case of the use of the injunctive in a "Koinzidenzfall":
the seed of the stallion?" and the answer: "this soma is
"Beim Koinzidenzfall besteht die bezeichnete Handlung im
Aussprechen
des Satzes (z.B., ich danke)" (1967: 251); in other
the seed of the stallion"-suits quite well the context
of
a horse sacrifice, which in its classical form includes the

words, it corresponds to what is now usually called a performapressing and offering of soma.28
tive or speech act. The form vocam is not only injunctive but also
aorist, the "punctual" aspect of which suits the occasion of a

2.4 But we find in RV 1.164 also several other verses
"Koinzidenzfall" quite well (cf. Gonda 1971: 129).
with a well-established ritual application. In 26ab it 31

is A similar idea was expressed by Oldenberg in his review of Henry 1894. About RV 1.164.26-29 Oldenberg writes:
said: upa hvaye sudugham dhenum etam suhdsto godhug
"Handelt es sich aber wirklich um Ratsel, welche von uns
utd dohad enam "I call hither this cow easy to milk; and
a dexterous milker shall milk her." In the Pravargya,geldst
ac- sein wollen? Ich mochte glauben, dass die Verse ... zucording to the srautasutras, this verse is pronouncednachst
by ihren deutlichen Mittelpunkt im Ritual der Gharmafeier
haben...; dass dabei Parallelisierungen der rituellen Kategorien
des grossen Weltlebens mit unterlaufen, wie die Yajustexte von der-
25 Even here, the present paper does not provide "safe results";
artigem voll sind, soll nicht geleugnet werden, aber diese Paral-
it would be methodologically naive to claim definiteness and

lelisierungen kommen doch ganz in zweiter Linie" (Oldenberg
safety for any interpretation. Rather, the paper is the report of 1896:
an
182). Here, and on his more general point that the ritual is
interpretational experiment in the ritual direction sketched above.

more important in RV 1.164 = AV 9.9, 10 than was recognized by
26 Corresponding to Rgvidhana 1.26.2 in Gonda 1951: 32.Henry, I fully agree with Oldenberg.
27 AV 9.9.1, which corresponds to RV 1.164.1, is referred to in
32 More precisely, the verses are recited just before the actual
KausikaS 18.25 with the pratika asya vamasya, in a sectionmilking

on
for the Gharma offering (which is anticipated in 26): Afceremonies for prosperity (pustikarma). Darila and KeSava ter
ex-27 (recited by the hotr; when the cow comes), 49 is recited
plain that both 9.9 and 9.10 are to be recited in full. The pratika
(by both the hotr and the adhvaryu) when the calf is brought near
asya vamasya is also found in AVPar 32.22.
to the cow, and 28 (by the hotr) when the calf is led away by the
28 See Appendix for a translation of these and other imporadhvaryu: AsvSS 4.7.4; SarikhSS 5.10.2, 5, 6; van Buitenen
tant verses, which are here not discussed in detail.
1968: 96ff.
503
word suhdsta in 26b.33 (See figure 3: the adhvaryu milk-
panies the heating and fanning of the pot by the adhvaryu
ing the Gharma cow.) Also vs. 40, prescribed in connection with the cow used in the Pravargya, has no direct
riddle or enigma character.34
watching and worshiping of the pot. Apart from the ap-
and his helpers; this episode immediately precedes the
plication in these two related and contiguous episodes

(below, these two episodes will be called A2 and A3), I
2.5 Apart from the verses strongly related to the cow and
milking in the Pravargya, there is another verse with a well-
established relation with the Pravargya, namely verse 31.
All yajurvedic sources (MS 4.9.6; KathA 2.101i-115;

TA 4.7; VS 37.14-20) make this stanza part of the avakasa
mantras, that is, mantras 'accompanying the watching
(avakasa)' [viz., of the heated pot].35 These are to be re-
cited by all priests and the sacrificer as they reverently

watch the fully heated Pravargya pot.
According to its first word, the verse gives expression to a certain vision (dpasyam), and as such it suits
the occasion of watching the heated pot.36 Its language is
rich in imagery (instead of a direct reference to the pot as
the object of seeing, a gopa 'herdsman' is mentioned), but
there is no indication that the srauta application in the

Pravargya would be secondary. Below we will see that it
suits the occasion even better than so far realized. While
am not aware of any alternative application in the srauta

ritual.38
2.6 Going by the number of verses with a strong, and gen-
erally accepted, ritual connection, we may at this stage re-
gard a further investigation of the relation of the hymn

with the Pravargya as most promising.
The Pravargya is to be performed on behalf of the

sacrificer by six priests, the adhvaryu and his assistant
the pratiprasthatr (belonging to the Yajurveda), the hotr
(belonging to the Rgveda), the prastotr (belonging to the
Samaveda), the brahman (belonging to the Atharvaveda
or to any Veda) and the agnidh. The classical form, as
described in the srautasutras, occurs only in the context
of a Soma sacrifice. Table 1 provides an overview of the
classical ritual. Episodes A-D constitute the regular

Pravargya performance on three or more days preceding
all relevant yajurvedic sources place it in the contextthe day on which the actual pressing of the soma juice
of "watching the heated pot," the rgvedic srauta sourcesbegins. Figures 1-5 provide further representations of
make this verse, or rather RV 10.177.3, which is identical,37 episodes A-D. In ??2.4-5 above, we have already found
part of the long recitation of the hotr priest that accom-references to episode B, the milking, and episode A,
the heating and fanning (with sub-episodes A2 and A3).
In addition, an episode P may be distinguished: the preparatory procedure, preceding the regular performances
as sujihvd (e.g., 1.13.8) and suvac (10.110.7) refer to the hotr (cf. (A-D). In P the clay pot and other implements are pre33 In the RV, suhdsta commonly refers to the adhvaryu or an
officiant performing an ddhvaryava duty (5.43.4, 9.97.37), just
Hillebrandt 1897: 12).
pared. Episode R is the solemn disposal of the pot and
shifted from its original place.
radiksa, a year-long "initiation," which is to accompany

the study of the Pravargya mantras by an advanced vedic
34 Henry, on the equivalent AV 9.10.20, has to admit: "aussiimplements after the last regular performance.
It should be briefly mentioned that the classical sources
est-ce une benediction, et a peine une 6nigme." As I will argue
below (?5.2), in the srauta ritual the recitation of 1.164.40 hasalso know of a special procedure, the so-called Avfnta35 The term was wrongly rendered as "litany of the occasions"
by van Buitenen (1968: 92, ?23 n. 3), and, strangely enough, also student (brahmacarin).39 This takes place in an entirely
by Gonda (1979: 266). A correct explanation is found at Gondadifferent context, between teacher and pupil. There will
be some occasion to refer to it later.
1969: 22, where the term is said to refer to "certain mantras dur-
ing the recitation of which the eyes must be fixed on a particular3.1 If we think through the well-established connection
object" (cf. also Caland, who speaks of "verses 'destined for gaz- with ritual episodes of the verses mentioned in ??2.4-5,
ing at'," in his translation of SadkhSS 5.9.27). The word avakaga
apparently contains a nominal form of 'Ikas in the meaning "to
there arises an important problem: the sequence of the
look, watch" (cf. avacakasat 'seeing', e.g., RV 8.32.22). Avakasa
38 Cf. also Gonda 1979: 261 and 270, n. 105.

djyavakdse, BSS 15.28 end. See, further, Houben 1991: 118, 39 For a more comprehensive overview of the Pravargya and
'looking' (rather than 'opening, occasion') also, e.g., in prsadn. 70 and 120, n. 79.
36 Cf. Gonda 1969: 22.
the Avantaradiksa the reader may be referred to van Buitenen

1968. In a forthcoming paper, I argue that the Avantaradiksa of
37 As a whole, hymn RV 10.177, consisting of three verses, has the Pravargya is a "rudimentary initiation" brought to completion
an intimate relation with the Pravargya. An investigation andby a performance of the Pravargya; usual translations of Avantadiscussion of this relation, and the relation between the identicalradiksa as "intermediate" or "intermediary" initiation are beside
10.177.3 and 1.164.31, must be postponed to another occasion.the point in the case of the Avantaradiksa of the Pravargya.
504
TABLE 1
Major episodes of the Pravargya according to the srautasutras
A. Installing, heating and worshiping the pot. This episode may be subdivided into three:
Al: The Pravargya pot is placed on a special mound (pravirnjaniya-khara), north of the Garhapatya, where
it is filled and anointed with ghee, and surrounded with burning coals and fuel sticks. The adhvaryu
and two acolytes (the pratiprasthatr and agnidh) circumambulate and fan the fire, and sit down
beside it.
A2: They sit around the fire and fan it while the hotr recites the verses, which include RV 10.177.3 = RV
1.164.31 (the adhvaryu and his acolytes join in the om which concludes each verse).
A3: When the pot is fully heated, all priests and the sacrificer stand up and reverently watch the pot,
reciting the avakdsa mantras. These mantras include RV 1.164.31.
B. The adhvaryu and pratiprasthatr set out to milk the cow and the goat. The adhvaryu goes to the door
and calls the cow. The hotr recites RV 1.164.26, and, when the cow comes, RV 1.164.27. The adhvaryu
and hotr together recite RV 1.164.49. When the cow's calf is led away the hotr recites RV 1.164.28.
The adhvaryu milks the cow to the accompaniment of recitations by the hotr. The goat is milked
without mantras.
C. Some cow's and goat's milk is poured into the heated pot full of boiling ghee, from which a pillar of fire
flames arises. Formulas and recitations accompany this.
D. When the pot is somewhat cooled down, it is brought to the Ahavaniya, where an offering to Indra and to th
Asvins is made into the fire from the (still quite hot) pot. Next, the pot is filled with curds, and this is offered
into the Ahavaniya fire. After an Agnihotra offering, the priests and the sacrificer partake of the remnants.
*
P.
Preparatory procedures, preceding the fir

PI: clay and other ingredients are fetche
P2: the Gharma/Pravargya pot and two s
P3: the implements are fumigated in sm
suspended in a special place till the firs
*
R.
Procedure of removal, taking place immed

the implements are brought from the sacri
(pracinavamsa) to the place of disposal, us
no way be
right:
sequence and
is c
the
pot the
is watched
of actions
as prescribed
the
sr
mantras
(episodein
A3).
Alte
more, the sequence
suggested10.177.3
by the
of its equivalent
verses can in
the sequence
What is
1.164 seems
structurally-not
to say the
physical
ning just before
mom
sible, even on the basis
of the actions
directly
i
(episode
A2). But
the m
the verses (i.e., independent of the ritual as de
the srautasutras).40
from
vari
Verse 31 presupposes correspond-apart
that the pot is at
its hott
atharvavedic
and yajurvedic
this is the case when the
pot has been
heated an
for
some
40
Often,
the
verses
time
no
of
by
the
showed that
the
verses
of t
adhvaryu
and
his
helpers.
lowed the sequence of an an
which follow may be regar

identifiable
ritual
stages
are i
pothesis that
such
correspo
hymn, but
if of
they
are,
the sequence
spite
the
discrepancies
p
clearly
a
505
FIG. 1. Adhvaryu and helpers fanning and heating the

Pravargya pot. Delhi, March 1994. Pravargya, episode A2.
The hotr and his helpers recite, among other verses, RV

10.177.3 = 1.164.31.
FIG. 2. Priests and sacrificer watch and worship the

heated Pravargya pot. Barsi (Maharashtra, India), March
FIG. 3. Adhvaryu milking the cow. Delhi, March 1994.
1995. Episode A3. They all recite the avakasa mantras,
Episode B. The hotr has just recited RV 1.164.26. one of which is RV 1.164.31.
with, e.g., RV 1.164.26) takes place only after the worship-More likely, however, gauh is here used in a frequent
rgvedic metaphor for "milk" or "ghee (clarified butter)."43
ing with the avakasa mantras (which include RV 1.164.31).
In that case, the hapax dhvasani in 29b can be associated
3.2 The impossibility of the sequence becomes even

with the participle dhvasdyat, which occurs twice44 in
more pronounced if vs. 29-even though it is not prescribed in the s'rauta ritual-is also taken as a verse di-
rectly related to the Pravargya. Already Haug took it this 43 Cf. RV 9.32.3 dtyo nd g6bhir ajyate, and similar combinaway, and other scholars followed him.41 There are indeed tions between go and anj in 5.1.3, 5.3.2; further, Grassmann
good reasons to do so, as the wording of vs. 28 (a: gaur 1875: s.v. g6, meanings 11, 16, 17, and 18.
amimed;42 b: mdtava u; d: mifmti mayaum) clearly con- 44 RV 1.140.3 and 5, where dhvasdyat probably means 'sparktinues in vs. 29, padas ab, with gau'r and mimati mdyutm. ling'. The basic meaning of Idhvams/dhvas seems to be 'to
Sayana took the continuance quite literally, and explained scatter, sprinkle, turn into dust' (cf. Mayrhofer 1996: s.v. dhvams
29ab as a further remark on the Gharma cow (gaiuh) and "zerstieben, zerstauben, zerbr6cklen"). This solution is more
the male calf (vatsdm in 28, sd in 29a).
natural than that of H.-P. Schmidt (1963: 16f., on 1.164.29)
which dissociates dhvasdnav from the immediately following
41 Cf., e.g., ad loc.: Ludwig, Oldenberg, Geldner, Liiders, Renou. ddhi srita and at the same time has to supply a noun expressing
42 Cf. Schaefer 1994: 164f.
where the "cow" is placed.
506
FIG. 4a: "Lightning"-like pillar of flames arises from pot to which fresh milk has been added; young participants
shrink back. Barsi (Maharashtra, India), March 1995. Episode C. Cf. RV 1.164.29.
another hymn of Dirghatamas, in both cases in connection

with fire. The first padas,
aydm sd sihkte yena gaur abhti-vrt
mimati mdyum dhvasdnav ddhi Sritd,
can then be rendered as:
This one is humming, by which the cow (the milk)
is enveloped.
She (the milk) lows a lowing (when she is) placed
on the sparkling (fire).
Anyone familiar with the Pravargya ritual will recognize

here the episode that immediately follows the milking of
the heated pot that is still enveloped in flames. (See table
FIG. 4b: "Lightning"-like pillar of flames arises from

pot to which fresh milk has been added. Delhi, Decem-
1, episode C.) "This one" (aydm) in 29a then refers to
ber 1996 (video-still). Episode C. Cf. RV 1.164.29.
the cow, viz., the adding of some freshly milked milk to
507
the heated pot rather than to the calf.45 The boiling ghee
(clarified butter) in the pot makes a humming sound.

When the milk is added to the heated pot, the boiling and
burning ghee "explodes," just as any boiling and burning
oil "explodes" when water is thrown on it-hence the

household wisdom not to try to extinguish burning oil
with water. This produces a sound which is here compared to the lowing of a cow. Something else happens: a
fiery pillar of flames and steam arises from the pot.46
(The shape of the latter directs the force of the "explosion" upwards, hence the pillar-shape; see figures 4a, b.)
A precise reference-so far generally overlooked-to

this is found in the last pada of 29:
vidyud bhdvanti prdti vavrim auhata
Transforming herself to lightning (vidyut), she pushed

back her covering.
FIG. 5. Boiling ghee in pot (close-up during fanning).

Delhi, March 1994 (video-still). Applies to episodes
A2-A3. Cf., esp., RV 1.164.30, 31 and 38.
Here, the milk (i.e., the "cow" of pada a) added to the

heated pot and the boiling ghee in it, produces in an instant a lightning-like phenomenon, which pushes back
sa cittibhir ni hi cakara mdrtyam
(rises up from) the pot, her covering.47 Also pada c is perfectly suited to this occasion:
45 The pot and the calf are parallel in that they are both receiv-
She, with her cracklings, has indeed put down the

mortal.
One may compare figure 4a for the spectators' natural
ers of milk from the cow. As we will see, the calf in 1.164.5 and
reaction to the sudden appearance of a pillar of fire. One
9 may metaphorically refer to the heated pot.
may stay even closer to the ritual event and interpret "the
46 The grautas0tras speak only of steam arising from the pot

(e.g., udyantam iisminam anumantrayate inApSS 15.10.2). Steam
mortal" as a reference to the clay pot which is pushed

down. Previous interpreters, from Sayana to Liiders, took
arises when the pot is less hot and contains less boiling ghee. The
padas c and d of this verse only as a reference to cos-
accompanying formulas in the Taittiriya tradition, TA 4.8.4 (16)
mic (adhidaiva) events.48 These interpretations are not en-
svaha tvd suryasya rasmdye vrstivdnaye juhomi and (18) sur-
tirely excluded by the adhiyajna interpretation arrived at
yasya tdpas tapa, however, do suggest a more fiery phenomenon
here (with either of the two variants for c, depending on
than steam.
whether mdrtya refers to the mortal participant at the rite
47 The latest comprehensive interpretation in which an attempt
was made to place the verse in a larger context of vedic (recon-
structed) cosmologies is that of Liiders (1959: 362-68-cf. van

Buitenen 1968: 32-33 for criticism of Liiders' misunderstand-
or to the pot), but the adhiyajna interpretation suits more
directly and precisely, and would, moreover, have been

basic to any adhidaiva interpretation when it was indeed
intended.
ings regarding ritual details of the Pravargya). According to

Liiders (1959: 368) the last pada refers to "das grosse Mysterium" that the milk throws off her covering, her earthly appearStadium der Zeremonie zu denken...." (1963: 16f.). In sup-
ance, and transforms herself into lightning which makes the

port, he referred to the later ritual of the srautasuitras (p. 16, n. 2),
people hide away: this would indicate the thunderstorm which
without, however, mentioning the difficulty pointed out in the
follows the Pravargya; Haug, following one of the suggestions

preceding footnote, viz., that these speak of steam rather than
of Sayana, connects the pushing back of the covering unconflames or a lightning-like phenomenon arising from the pot.
vincingly with the sky becoming clear after a thunder storm.
48 The validity of three different categories of viewpoints in
After this paper was largely finished, I found that Schmidt the interpretation of vedic verses has been recognized from
had correctly interpreted this verse as a reference to this stage in
early times onwards. The brahmanas contain the earliest explicit
the ritual: "Nun wird aber der Topf mit Milch gar nicht ans Feuer
references to adhyatma interpretations, relating to the person;
gesetzt, sondern die Milch in den gliihend gemachten Topf

adhidaiva or adhidaivata interpretations, applying to the deities
gegossen, wodurch der herausschiessende Blitz erzeugt wird ...
and the cosmos; and adhiyajna interpretations, applying to the
Die Worte vidyud bhdvanti schliessen es aus etwa an das spatereritual. Cf. Oldenberg 1919: 57f.; Houben 1997: 69.
508
3.3 This new, improved interpretation of vs. 29 perfectly
2.101 i-104: [adityd] . . . es ... imam llokams tejasavr-
suits the wording of the verse, and it is also fully in

harmony with the preceding verses from 26 onwards.
But the conflict with vs. 31 has become sharper: in the
noty;50 and SB 14.1.4.14: esd vai gopa yd esd tdpati).51

The interpretation that "the herdsman, never taking
rest, wandering hither and thither on his pathways" refers
adding milk to the heated pot (episodes B and C),

whereas the episode to which 31 applies (episode A)
should precede. There would be no point in cooling
to the sun seems generally acceptable,52 even if we take

into account that the rgvedic poets could have had various cosmologies in mind.53 More problematic are "enveloping himself in those that converge, in those that spread
down the pot before adoring it as equal to the sun. Nor

would the adding of milk to the pot produce a phenom-
out," and "he moves around and around in all beings."

What would this mean in reference to the sun? Haug
enon-a sudden pillar of steam or fire-as referred to

in the srauta texts and yajurvedic sources (and appar-
(1875) took the converging and spreading things in which

the herdsman clothes himself as the rays of the sun (as
ently also in padas cd of vs. 29) if the heat of the pot is
gavas, fem. pl.), but did not address the problem of

"moves around and around in all beings"-he even ne-
hymn this verse follows those referring to milking and
not at its peak.
With this we have discovered an important "fault

line" in the heart of the hymn-somewhere between 29
and 31.
glected to render this phrase in his translation. Ludwig

(1888) supplies rays ("strahlen") to "those that converge,
those that spread out," and translates the final phrase
as ". .. wandelt er einher innerhalb der welten"; he ap-
4.1 Before turning to vs. 30 to investigate this fault line, parently did not perceive the problem this poses for
the sun-interpretation. Henry (1894) interprets the herds-
and in order to decide whether this verse suits the Pra-
man likewise as the sun and translates the final phrase

vargya episodes B and C (hence vss. 26-29), or rather epias "il roule a travers les mondes," thus suggesting an
sode A and, more specifically, A2 and A3 (hence vs. 31),
interpretation of the phrase-which is
we have to discuss another problem: how well is verse "astronomical"
31
unconvincing in the light of the other rgvedic occursuited to the occasion for which it is generally prescribed,
rences of bhuvanesv antdh: RV 1.157.5 (in another hymn
namely the heating of the pot, which culminates in watching and worshiping it?
The verse is as follows:
dpasyam gopdm dnipadyamanam

a ca pdra ca pathibhis cdrantam |
sd sadhrtcih sd visucir vdsana
a varivarti bhuvanesv antdh hI
of Dirghatamas), 8.101.14, 10.183.3 (and 10.177.3 =

1.164.31).
Geldner (1951), like Haug aware of the application of
the verse in the Pravargya and the accompanying suninterpretation, proposed that vs. 31 nevertheless refers
originally to prdna 'life-breath', just as do vss. 30 and 38.
The term prdna is not found in these verses (cf. Bodewitz 1992: 51), but this can still be justified by referring
Remaining close to the direct meanings of the terms, one

may translate:
I saw the herdsman, never taking rest, wandering hither
and thither on his pathways. Enveloping himself in

those that converge, in those that spread out, he moves
around and around49 in all beings.
The verse has frequently been taken as a reference to the

sun, ever since Haug (1875), who was aware of its ritual
application in the Pravargya. This corresponds well with
the yajurvedic sources, which discuss the verse as the

first of the avakdaa mantras: they all interpret it as refer-
ring to the sun (TA 5.6.4: asau va ddityo gopdh; KathA
to the "riddle"-character of the hymn. As a term it is
50 That Witzel's conjecture adityd for a damaged text-part in
KathA 2.104 must be correct is apparent from the following

sentences, up to imam llokams tejasdvrnoti "covers these worlds
with light" (Witzel 1972: 40-42).

51 AiA 2.1.6, quoting and explaining 1.164.31 (or the identical 10.177.3?), does not give an explicit identification of gopa,
but probably the sun was thought of (the cardinal points are
mentioned in the interpretation: sa sadhricih sa visucir vasdna
iti sadhricis ca visacis ca vasta imd eva disah).
52 According to Liders (1959: 613) the identical verse

10.177.3 definitely refers to the sun, and the same interpreta-
tion would be possible in 1.164.31, as well, in spite of Geldner.
53 A difference in cosmological standpoint is directly re49 Cf. Schaefer 1994: 192f.
ferred to in this hymn in vs. 12; different ways of representing
a single object are referred to in vs. 46.
anyhow quite rare in the Rgveda.54 Nevertheless, in vs. 4
509
While the final phrase of vs. 31 remained problematic
of 1.164 some terms occur which conceptually overlap
in the sun-interpretations, here it is the preceding "envel-
with prana, namely dsu 'life, spirit',55 and atmdn, probably
oping himself in those that converge, in those that spread
in an older meaning 'life-breath'.56 The herdsman as sun,
out" that is puzzling. On the basis of the atharvavedic

parallel (AV 10.2.7cd), one may supply apdh 'waters'. For
the prdina this would refer, according to Geldner, to the
"in diesem Sinne schon friihzeitig umgedeutet" (Geldner

1951, I: 233), would be an early reinterpretation, and the
application of the verse in the Pravargya would be sec-
"bodily waters of life" ("Lebenswasser des Leibes"); in
ondary. His strongest argument in the wording of the verse
the case of the wind, it would apply to the rain water. Is
is the last pada, which remained problematic in the inter-
the latter part of the interpretation satisfactory? Do the

rain waters converge and spread out with reference to the
pretation of his predecessors. The Atharvaveda has the

same phrase in 10.2.7cd (with a riddle character), where it
wind? In 164.47 we also find the expression ap6 vdsanaih,
certainly does not refer to the sun, but probably to a

prdna-like concept (the word is again not used).57 Ac-
but here the rays of the sun seem to be intended. This

would rather point in the direction of a "cosmic" interpretation of vs. 31 as a reference to the sun. But can we
cording to Geldner a double sense is intended in 1.164.31:

it would refer not only to prdna but also to its cosmic (or
then maintain the prana-interpretation at least on an
adhidaiva) equivalent, the wind. Not mentioned by Geldner is the fact that already TA 5.6.4 refers not only to
the sun-interpretation of the verse, but also to a pranainterpretation: prano vai gopah "the herdsman is actually
prana." In the rgvedic Kausitaki Brahmana, in the section
adhyatma level, where it seems rather reasonable, both in
dealing with the Pravargya (KB 8.4), the whole hymn RV

10.177 (including 10.177.3 = 1.164.31), to be recited during the fanning and heating of the pot (episode A2), is said
to deal with prdna or wind (as a bird, patangd).58 Also in
JUB 3.37.1-5, verse RV 10.177.3 = 1.164.31 is interpreted

as a reference to prdna (though not in the context of the
Pravargya ritual).
54 Five occurrences in total, three in book 10: 59.6, 90.13, and
the light of AV 10.2.7 and because of its suitability to the

final phrase in 31?59
4.2 Confronted with these contradictions and partly unconvincing implications of the suggested cosmic and personal (adhidaiva and adhyatma) interpretations, I propose
now to take a closer look at the ritual interpretation

(adhiyajiia). Soon after the heating and fanning have begun, the ghee in the pot60 has started to boil (see figure 5).
The boiling which starts during the heating (episode A2)

continues also during the watching and worshiping of
the fully heated pot (episode A3), as the latter remains
surrounded by flames.
189.2; two elsewhere: 1.66.1 and 3.53.21. In 1.164 it is absent.
55 Mayrhofer's "Existenz" (apart from "Leben" and "indivi-
duelle Existenz [auch nach dem Tode]" [1992, s.v. dsu]) is se-
59 Liiders, speaking of RV 10.177.3, thinks it definitely refers
mantically not convincing for the RV (cf. this verse in 1.164,
to the sun in the light of the context of the small hymn 10.177,
and the compound dsu-niti, where dsu is clearly something
"[w]ie immer man sich hinsichtlich der Strophe in 1.164 entscheidet" (Liiders 1959: 613). Renou (1967) thinks even vs. 31 in
more concrete).
56 Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. dtmdn: "Hauch, Seele, Selbst." The
reflexive use is already attested in RV 9.113.1. There is no
hymn 164 refers primarily to the sun ("qui se cache dans les eaux
celestes"), but leaves open a secondary prana-interpretation. Eli-
connection with the roots an 'to breathe' or av/va 'to blow', as
zarenkova (1989: 648) considers both a sun-interpretation, and a
supposed earlier (e.g., Grassmann 1875, s.v. dtmdn), cf. Mayrhofer; Bodewitz 1991: 48. Nevertheless, on account of its co-
prdna/wind-interpretation possible.
occurrence with vdta 'wind', e.g., RV 1.34.7; 7.87.2; 10.168.4, it is
at the "heating mound" (pravrnjaniya khara); cf. van Buitenen
likely that rgvedic dtmdn was associated with the meaning 'breath'.
57 sd i varlvarti bhuvanesv antdr apo vdsdnah kd u tdc ciketa.
Whitney's translation: "he rolls greatly on among existences,

clothing himself in the waters; who indeed understands that?"
(1905: 568).
60 Ghee was poured both in it and over it when it was installed
1968: 71 ?10, 72; ?12, 74 ?14. According to Baudhayana, probably the oldest srautasutra of the Taittiriya tradition, and Bharadvdja and Vaikhdnasa, the pot is filled with ghee already when
verse TA 4.5.2(8) ("whom the priests anoint ... ") is pronounced
by the adhvaryu (ApSS 15.7.5 and Caland's n. 2); according to

58 The corresponding place in the rgvedic Aitareya Brdhmana, ApSS the adhvaryu anoints or fills the pot at this moment. Ac1.19, says only that 10.177.1-2 and some other verses are "ap- cording to Mdnava, ghee is poured into the pot at an earlier mopropriate." The recitation of 10.177.3 = 1.164.31 is, in the Aita- ment (van Buitenen 1968: 72 ?12 n. 3). According to Kdtydyana
reya tradition, postponed (but still applied within episode A2; AiB the pot is already filled with ghee when it is placed on the mound
1.19 end, and AsvSS 4.6.3). Cf. also Gonda 1979: 238-40.
(van Buitenen 1968: 74 ?14 n. 1).
510
We now see that within the heated pot that is being

watched and worshiped, there is "something" that envelops itself in a fluid, viz., in the boiling ghee, and the
envelopings (nir-nij, f.) or streams or currents (dhara, f.)
of ghee are constantly converging and spreading out in all
directions (within the confines of the pot). The enigmacharacter of this verse is enhanced by leaving the "some-
thing" which thus envelops itself undesignated. If the

poet could have been persuaded to designate it, we do not
know whether he would have spoken of prana, or rather
of, for instance, dsu (the term actually used in vs. 4). In
any case, the concept must have been largely overlapping
with that of prdna in later texts (from the Atharvaveda-
e.g., AV 11.4-onwards, cf. Bodewitz 1992; 1986: 343).

This interpretation perfectly suits the well-established
ritual context of the verse, the watching and the heating
of the pot. As well, a ritualistic (adhiyajna) interpretation does not exclude a microcosmic (adhyitma) or macrocosmic (adhidaiva) one. On the contrary, it can clarify
and in a way harmonize the prana/wind-interpretation
and the sun-interpretation, and support both with the
A literal translation is now probably enough to decide the

issue:
Breathing, life is resting (yet) quickly moving, trembling
(yet) stable, in the midst of its watery abode.63
Even more clearly than vs. 31 this must refer to the

"breathing life" (the "something" of vs. 31) that brings to
"life" the boiling ghee (fig. 5). The streams or currents of
the boiling ghee are here referred to as pastyaindm; in

vs. 31 as "those that converge and those that spread out."
With this, Ltiders' macrocosmic (adhidaiva) interpretation of pastya'nam as a reference to "Himmelsfluten" (1959:
705) is not necessarily invalidated: rather it has received

anchorage in the ritualistic context and the corresponding
adhiyajia interpretation.
We still have the second half to interpret:
jivd mrtdsya carati svadhdbhir
dmartyo mdrtyend sayonih ||
This may be translated as:
single ritual symbol of the heated pot with boiling ghee.
The living one moves about according to the specific ca-
Also the "spiritual" interpretation as suggested by

Gonda (1963: 28) may be part of the intended (adhyatma) meaning.61 But the verse does not exclusively refer to a "mystical, supranormal beholding or visionary
experiencing," as Gonda thought, but also to a concrete
perception in a well-defined ritual context.62
4.3 Having seen that vs. 31 suits its occasion-heating

and watching the pot-even better than has been so far realized, we now turn to the next problem: what is the place
of vs. 30? Is it more closely associated with vs. 31 and the

heating and watching of the pot, or with the group 26-29
and the milking of the cow and eventually the pouring of
some milk into the pot?
The text of the first half of this verse is:
andc chaye turdgdtu jivdm
ejad dhruvdm mddhya a pastyanam I
pacities of the dead; [he is] immortal, having a common

birthplace with the mortal.
The statement is (intentionally) enigmatic, yet on the basis of our insights so far it should not be overly difficult
to uncover its purport. The "living one" must again be the
"something" of vs. 31, where it is personified as a "herdsman." Here, jlvd is masculine; in the first pada it was neu-
ter. With regard to the distinction between these two,

Geldner's proposal-the neuter is life or the force of life,
the masculine is the soul-is more convincing than Renou's attempt to associate jivdm with collective neuters
likejadtam, bhutdm, and bhuvanam. In the first pada there
seems no place for such a collective interpretation of

jivdm. However, instead of Geldner's "soul" for the masculine form, one may also think of prdnd, dsu, or atmdn
in its older (associated?) meaning "life-breath." Moreover, jlvd (m.) 'the living one' may be seen as an anticipation of the gopa (m.) of vs. 31.
61 Gonda apparently applied Geldner's interpretation of 10.177
(as referring to "das innere Licht der seherischen Erkenntnis und
Erleuchtung im Herzen") at 1.164.31.
63 I hope to give my reasons for translating pastya as "(watery)

62 Thus, the gazing on the pot accompanied by mantras may be
abode" elsewhere, but I note already that here it seems unlikely
considered one of those situations where the spectator was bethat the difference in gender in the cases of pastya f.-pastya n.
lieved "to derive some advantage from looking on a mighty being
and a few other Vedic word-pairs (cf. Brereton 1981:94f note 45)
or event, to participate in its essences..." (Gonda 1969: 55),does not imply some difference in meaning or connotation (cf.
even though Gonda did not mention it as such. Also, the gazingvarsa 'rainy season' and varsd 'rain'), even if we do not succeed
while formulas are being pronounced may have been consideredin appreciating and translating the difference in each case. Cf.,
effective in transmitting some potency to the pot, and conducive
further, Geldner ad loc. and his references to earlier discussions.
to receiving the favor of that potency in return (cf. Gonda 1969:
Note that it is not necessary to make any emendation in the
52, on "reciprocity" in "man's relation to the divine powers"). transmitted text (as earlier scholars were wont to do).
The "dead" or "dead one" must then be the pot-dead
511
ritual as prescribed in the srautasutras has correctly pre-
if without life-breath. Whatever the further implications
served this context in the case of vs. 31 only, while 30
may be of the statement that the living one, life-breath,

"moves about according to the specific capacities64 of the
dead one," in the ritual context it refers to the limitations
and 38 were at some point ousted by alternative verses.

Of the intervening verses, 32 has been interpreted as a
set by the dimensions of the pot to the peculiar move-
Verse 33 deals with an embryo and birth: it is hence relevant to the "initiation" implied in the Pravargya66 and
ments of that "something" which makes the heated ghee
boil and bubble. Also the final pada, "[he is] immortal,
having a common birthplace with the mortal," is suggestive of wider implications regarding the "life-breath." But
in the ritual it must refer to the lifeless clay pot, which is
born as a "life-containing" though "mortal" pot when it

is heated,65 and the "immortal" "life-breath" which mani-
fests itself in the pot. This happens on the fire, the common birthplace or womb (y6ni) of both.
4.4 In the same vein we may interpret verse 38, which

is usually taken together with vs. 30. It runs as follows:
dpan prdah eti svadhdya grbhit6
'martyo mdrtyend sdyonih \
td sasvanti visgucfn viydnti

ny anyatm cikyur nd ni cikyur anydam |I
It will suffice to give a literal translation with interpretative
reference to prdna (Geldner) or the sun (e.g., Brown).
especially to the period of special study devoted to the

Pravargya mantras, the year-long initiation called Avantaradiksa (see section 2.6). Verse 36 seems to be a continuation of 33, as observed by Geldner. The intervening
vss. 34-35 (cf. n. 5 and ?2.2), contain four questions and

answers, dealing among other things with speech,67 a
theme also in the Pravargya.68 Verse 37 deals with obtaining "a share in speech," and like 36 it seems related
66 The classical Pravargya ritual has an "intiatory" character in

the sense that its (yajurvedic) mantras give and deal with, but also
hide and protect, knowledge of man (prana and speech) and the
cosmos (sun, rain, also cosmic prana or wind). Cf., e.g., the introductory "peace-invocation": "Adoration to speech, the spoken
and the unspoken . .," and the prayer in the avakasa mantras:
"confer on us speech, born of tapas and devoted to the gods." The
"initiatory" character of the Pravargya is further evident from,
explanations inserted:
among other things, restrictions on teaching and performing the
He [the living one, jivd, prand in the boiling ghee] re-
Pravargya (e.g., SB 14.1.1.26, 14.2.2.46), its place in aranyaka
cedes and goes forward, held fast by [his or the pot's]
sections (so with the Kathas and Taittiriyakas and in the SB), the
own capacity, immortal, having a common birthplace [the
reference to an unidentified doctrine called mddhu in relation
fire] with the mortal [the "enlivened" clay pot]. These
with the Pravargya (KathA 3.226; SB 14.1.1.18ff., 14.1.4.13).
two [the mortal, the clay pot; and the immortal, the life-
The "dramatic" fiery pillar which arises when the milk is added
breath] are always going apart, in separate directions.
to the heated pot perfectly suits the "initiatory" character of the
Although people see the one [the clay pot], they do not
Pravargya (cf. Kaelber 1978).
[normally] see the other [the living one, jivd, prand].
4.5 Verses 30-31 and 38 are thus to be regarded as intimately related to the Pravargya, especially to episodes A2
and A3. Not only do they refer to a central element in
these episodes-the pot with boiling ghee-they also

seem to have these episodes as their most natural ritual
context. If this context is accepted as most probably original for all three verses, one may infer that the classical
67 Speech, one of the major themes of 1.164 according to

Brown (1968), is explicitly referred to (as vdk) in vss. 10, 37, and
45. In addition, there are numerous references to speech-related
concepts: seven voices (vs. 24), metres, metrical speech and

chant (vss. 23-25), the verse, the verse-"quarter" (pada) and the
syllable (vss. 38, 41, 45), etc. In the light of 39 and 41, it could
be argued that also 40 and 42 participate in the "speech as a

cow" metaphor.
68 Thus, the introductory "peace invocation" (the purva-sdnti)
of the Taittiriya Pravargya mantras (TA 4.1) starts with: "Ado-
64 For svadhabhih, cf. Mayrhofer: "etwa Eigenheit, Eigenkraft, gewohnte Art, Wohnsitz" (1996, s.v. svadhd). To be re-
ration to speech, the spoken and the unspoken, to this speech be
jected is an interpretation in which the word is associated with

the svadha exclamation in funeral ceremonies and with these
also relevant to the theme of "speech." When the freshly baked
adoration." Much of what follows in this "peace invocation" is

pot is cooled down by pouring milk over it, two of the formulas
ceremonies themselves (cf. Haug 1875-criticized on this point pronounced are "let speech flow over on you," and "flow over on
by Roth 1892-and Renou's cautious proposal in this direction). speech" (TA 4.3.3[11]). "Speech Sarasvati" is further the sev65 In our second variant of the adhiyajna interpretation of vs. enth in a mixed list of breaths and vital powers to which ghee
29c (above, ?3.2) the word mdrtya also stood for the pot; but oblations are offered when the Pravargya pot is being put in
there its complement was a "cow" which transformed itself to place to be heated. Later on, in the avakdsa mantras (episode B),
lightning, and the episode in the ritual was quite different.
the heated pot is addressed in terms such as: "lord of all speech,"
512
to the theme of "initiation." Verse 39 deals again with

speech and with aspects of speech which are generally
hidden, but known to those who "are sitting here together" (ime sam asate).
I will here merely make a few observations on these
verses. First, it can be argued that their subject matter
as briefly explained above is suitable, in a general way, to
a recitation accompanying the heating and fanning and,
consecration or initiation.70 Oldenberg's suggestion was

not picked up by any of the later scholars dealing with
RV 1.164. But once we have seen the strong connection
between several other verses in RV 1.164 and the Pra-
vargya, it is natural to think of a relation of 37, not with

the well-known Diksa for the Soma sacrifice, but with the
Avantaradiksf of the Pravargya.71 As mentioned earlier

(?2.6), the Avantaradiksa has to accompany the study of
subsequently, the watching of the pot; to the extent that
the Pravargya mantras. It is to take place outside the
more specific references are made (esp. in vss. 30-31,
gether" (yd ime sdm asate) in 39d seems to indicate A2
village72 and entails several restrictions on speaking. At

the beginning of the Avantaradiksa, fire, wind, and the
sun are worshiped. The student is then blindfolded and
has to spend the night in complete silence, without lying
rather than A3 as the context, since in the former both the
down (he may stand or sit). The next morning, the teacher
hotr and (most of the time) the adhvaryu and his helpers
takes away the blindfold and obliges the student to observe several objects (including a fire and the sun) and
38), these seem to point to A2-A3 as the original context.

Second, the expression "those who are sitting here to-
are sitting down. During the worshiping with the avakasa

mantras the priests and the sacrificer are standing.69 The
act of fanning is moreover consonant with the theme of
prana, which is prominent in a number of verses in our
group (in any case in 30-31 and 38, perhaps also in 32).
Finally, there is, apart from 30-31 and 38, one more
has him recite a mantra of praise to the sun.73 After the

dark and silent period, the student can be regarded as ob-
taining a "share in speech"; he may also be expected to

have an experience of "new life."74
An important additional level of interpretation suggests
verse with a very clear and convincing connection with the
itself when we place this verse-evoking critical mo-
Pravargya that has been so far entirely overlooked, vs. 37:
ments in the Avantaradiksa-in the context of the Pra-
vargya: it is not only the student who was blindfolded and

nd vi janami ydd iveddm dsmi
ninydah sidmnaddho mdnasd carami |
yadd magan prathamaja rtdsya

ad id vac6 asnuve bhdgdm asydh |I
70 Oldenberg (1896: 180) merely expresses his doubts about

Henry's naturalistic interpretation and suggests that the solution
should be more "sakrifikal," but gives no hint as to the direction
This may be rendered as:
such a ritualistic interpretation might take.
71 I will speak here of an "Avantaradiksa" also with regard to

I do not know just what (what kind of thing) it is that I
the time of the Rgveda, although this term, as reference to the
am; concealed, bound (blindfolded), I wander in my
specific procedures connected with the study of the Pravargya
mind. When the firstborn of the rtd has come to me, I im-
mantras, seems to have come into use only much later, after the
mediately obtain a share of this speech.
time of the Satapatha Brahmana. The idea (and heuristic hypothesis) is that something very similar to the Avantaradiksa is
Already Oldenberg (1909: 159-60) hesitatingly proposed

a connection between this verse (together with the preceding one) and the Diksa: first being concealed and next
receiving a "share of speech" (cf. the vdgvisarga in the
Diksa) clearly evokes the basic structure of a brahminical
apparently hinted at in verse 37 of 1.164.
72 More precisely, "on an uncultivated piece of land from

which the roofs of village houses cannot be seen" (khile 'cchadir-
darse, BSS 9.19, ApSS 15.20.2).

73 The mantra, TA 4.20.3 (pratika) or TB 2.5.8 (3), equivalent
to RV 10.73.11, does not speak of the sun but of birds (seers, the
Priyamedhas) going to Indra for protection, of the removing of
"father of hymns," "thought of the inspired poets." The same set
darkness and the filling of the eye (with light). According to
of mantras also comprises the prayer, "confer on us speech, born
ApSS 15.20.10, however, the verse is recited in praise of the sun.
of tapas and devoted to the gods." In addition to the explicit ref-
erences to "speech," there are references to related concepts,
74 Here I assume that prathamaja rtdasya refers primarily to a

universal form of the god Agni, Agni as "inner light," for which
such as metres and metrical speech, e.g., in a set of formulas to
one may compare the hymn to Agni Vaigvanara RV 6.9, a short
be pronounced when the pot is being heated (episode A), TA
hymn having stylistic and thematic resonances with 1.164. This
4.6.1-2(1).
Agni "belonging to all men" resides in the heart (cf. RV 10.5.1)
69 Cf. yathalokam (comm.: yathdsthdnam) avasthdya in and is intimately related to the faculty of speech (vac), as
ApSS 15.8.16.
pointed out by Luders (1959: 628f.).
513
TABLE 2
Correspondences between the first day-night-day of the Avantaradiksa

and the procedures relating to the Pravargya pot and heating (RV 1.164.37)
verse 37 Avantaradiksa, first day-night-day preparation of pot and heating
ninydh study outside the village prepared out of sight

sdmnaddhah student is blindfolded pot is wrapped in antelope's skin
student should not lie down enveloped pot is hung in sling
firstborn comes student receives "inspiration" pot receives "life"
speech comes student is allowed to speak (recite) ghee in pot makes bubbling sound
hidden, and then obtained a new "share in speech." The

with two subsequent episodes in the Pravargya, B and C.
same can be said of the object which is in the center of the
As a group, verses 30-31 and 38, associated with epi-
actual performance that we accept as context for verses

sodes A2-A3, seem "misplaced" in relation to 26-29. It
30-31, 38: the Pravargya pot. With regard to this pot
can be said that the "milk verses," 26-29, presuppose or
(plus the two spare ones) some peculiar prescriptions are
require-have an expectancy (apeksa) for-something
given. The preparation of the pot from clay is to take
equivalent to verses 30-31, related to the heating (and/
place at a secluded spot. When it has been prepared and
or watching) of the pot. But these verses should precede
baked according to the rules, it is to be wrapped in a black
26-29, in accordance with the ritual sequence. Simiantelope's hide,75 and is hung some place apart.76 There the
larly, verses 30-31 and 38 require or "expect" subse-
pot is to remain until the performance of the Pravargya

quent verses related to the episode of milking. We will
starts. Thereupon, the pot is heated and receives "life"
study the problem of expectancy later (??6.2, 7.1ff.),
when the ghee starts to boil-and starts to produce a soft,
and begin by investigating whether there are any candibubbling (breathing) sound.77 The correspondences bedates for "milk verses" to go with 30-31 and 38.
tween vs. 37, the initiatory procedures of the first two days
5.2 Some good candidates can indeed be found in vss.
of the Avantaradiksa, and the procedures relating to the

40-42. In ?2.3, we have already mentioned that vs. 40
Pravargya pot are given in table 2. While the first half of
is prescribed in connection with the cow used in the Pravs. 37 refers back to the final episode of the preparation
vargya. The text and translation of RV 1.164.40 are as
of the pot-preceding the main performance-the second
follows:
half places us again in the context of the heating and

fanning of the pot (A2). As a whole, verse 37 therefore
perfectly suits the context to which its neighbors, esp.
vss. 30-31 and 38, clearly belong.
5.1 We may now attend to the place of our newly discovered Pravargya-related verses in the hymn as a whole.
As we have seen, verses 26-29 have a solid connection
suyavasad bhdgavati hi bhuyd

dtho vaydm bhdgavantah sydma |
addhi t.nam aghnye visvadnirm

piba suddhdm udakdm acdranti |I
May you, enjoying good pasturage, become happy; and

we too should like to be happy.78 Eat always grass, o [you
cow that are] not for slaughter; drink pure water, coming
75 According to Baudhayana it is placed in a basket (khart)
hither.
and covered with a black antelope's hide and next hung in a sling
in the northern part of the sacrificial hall (BSS 9.4).
76 According to BSS 9.4 it is hung "in such a way that the wife
does not see it" (yathd patni na pasyati tathd; VadhSS 13.3.2324 similarly has asakaSe strindm).
77 The intended advent of the "inner" Agni Vaisvanara in the
The rgvedic srautasutras (AsvSS 4.7.4 end; SadkhSS

5.10.33) prescribe the recitation of 1.164.40 at the end of
the Pravargya performance, after the participants have

partaken of the remnants of the offering (end of episode
D). According to the Taittiriya srautasutras, e.g., ApSS
student is paralleled (confirmed or triggered?) by the fire and sun

which are pointed out to him during the Avantaradiksa, and which
burn or shine on the pot, whose ghee starts bubbling during the
Pravargya.
78 On bhuyah (aorist optative) and syama (present optative) in

a and b, cf. Gonda 1962: 172.
514
9.5.4 (but not Baudhayana79), the adhvaryu should let
cow was not only invited verbally but also was offered
free the Gharma cow at the moment he hears the hotr
food and water.82
recite 1.164.40c, addhi tinam aghnye visvaddnim. The

Katydyanasrautasutra, representing the tradition of5.3
the
That verse 41 is a reference to speech, or the deified
White Yajurveda, connects 1.164.40 with another act:
if is an old and generally accepted idea, expressed
Speech,
it is being recited by the hotr, fodder and water are to
notbeonly by Sayana and modern interpreters. It appargiven to the Gharma cow (KSS 26.6.24: this act is said
to already underlies the quotation of this verse in TB
ently
be prescribed only by some ritual authorities; no reference
2.4.6.11, among other verses dealing with speech. These
is made to a release of the cow). The verse has also found
include a verse corresponding to RV 8.100.11, in which
application in the Agnihotra, where it is prescribed inSpeech
case is quite explicitly identified with a milch cow
the Agnihotra cow bellows with hunger (cf. AsvSS 3.11.4).
(dhenur vdk). Elsewhere in the Rgveda too, the cow seems
A verse identical with 1.164.40 occurs in the Atharto be a symbol of speech or of a speech-related faculty
vaveda, in hymn 7.73 (apart from the occurrence as AV
such as the art of poetry (cf., e.g., 1.139.7, 4.41.5,
9.10.20). The brahman recites the verse corresponding
6.48.13 and Geldner's notes). The somewhat problemto 1.164.40 together with other verses from this so-called
atic word gaurf in vs. 41, often but quite wrongly trans"Gharma-sukta" (including vs. 8, which corresponds lated
to as "Buffelkuh" or "buffalo cow" (e.g., by Geldner),
1.164.27) after the offering to Indra and before the one
may hence be taken as equivalent to the milch cow in RV
to the Asvins (episode D).80
8.100.11, and as a continuation of the dghnya "[cow] not
If we take the classical Pravargya procedure of the
to be killed" or "[cow] not for slaughter" in vs. 40.83 The
referred to here should be the domesticated cowTaittiriyas as a point of reference and place the verseanimal
in
the context of the release of the cow, the "coming hither"
presumably Bos indicus, subfamily Bovinae-rather than
in pfda d could be interpreted as an anticipation of the
its wild relative, Bos gaurus, not to mention the buffalo,
next performance: may the cow then too come and give
which belongs to a different subfamily (Bubalus bubamilk for the Gharma offering. But there is nothing in the
lis). Whatever their etymology and mutual relation, two
content of the verse which would make it exclusively
words gaurd are to be accepted in the Rgveda: a colorword (which characterizes milk in RV 10.100.2), and
suitable to the release of the cow. Although the relation
between the Pravargya and this verse must be considered
one referring to a kind of cattle, Bos gaurus (if this is
old since it occurs both in a rgvedic and an atharvavedic
indeed meant), reddish brown to black, except for its
hymn with strong connections with the Pravargya,81 the
legs.84 We may very well assume the former in the case
of 1.164.41.
tradition with regard to the precise application of this
verse is by no means unanimous (as it was in the case of
1.164.31).
82 A confirmation for locating 1.164.40 earlier in the ritual can
With a more direct and straightforward interpretation
be found in AVPaip 20.11, which contains many verses similar to
of "coming hither," vs. 40 invites a cow to come, rather
AV(S) 7.73, but in a different sequence that often suits the brahthan bidding it good-bye. It would then be more fully
man's recitation better (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 99, note; Gonda
parallel to vs. 26, in which a milch cow and a skillful
1979: 251f.). The verse AVPaip 20.11.3 (corresponding to RV
milker are invited to come. Verse 40 would be equiva-
lent to 26 and suit one and the same ritual situation: the
1.164.40 and AV[S] 7.73.11) appears here immediately after the
calling of the cow to be milked. The encouragement to
verses which in the ritual accompany the calling of the cow and the
eat grass and drink pure water in vs. 40 suggests that the introduction of the calf (vss. 26-28 in RV 1.164), and immediately
before a verse corresponding to RV 1.72.5, which the hotr recites
when the actual milking for the Gharma by the adhvaryu begins.
79 The important Taittiriya Baudhdyana Srautasutra does not Whatever their originally intended sequence in perhaps initially
refer to the hotr's recitation of 1.164.40, and remains silent on separate liturgies (on which more in ?7), if the sequence in the
the setting free of the cow (BSS 9.12). The same applies to existing rgvedic and atharvavedic hymns has anything to do with
Mdnava, another branch of the Black Yajurveda (MSS 4.3).
a sequence in performance, the verses were apparently (within cer-
80 For verses of AV 7.73 recited by the brahmdn during the tain limits) shifted back and forth in different versions of the ritual.
milking and offering, see van Buitenen 1968: 99, 105, 109-10;
83 Cf. Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. dghnyd; Schmidt 1963; Narten
some verses of this hymn are recited by the hotr; cf. van
Buitenen 1968: 100, 113.
1971.
84 Otherwise, the fact that the redactors of the AV were not
81 The association of 1.164.40 with the Agnihotra may hence satisfied with gaurtr and accepted gaur in instead may point to
be considered secondary.
a semantic shift in the animal word gaurdlgauri.
The whole verse is as follows:
gaurtr mimaya salilani tdksaty
ekapadi dvipddi sa cdtuspadi I
astapadi ndvapadi babhuvusi

sahdsraksard parame vyoman II
This may be rendered thus:
515
pretation, since it is normally the padd 'footstep, footing'

rather than the pad 'foot' that is a verse-foot.
When the milk has been added to the boiling ghee in

the heated pot, a fiery column arises, and one can speak
of a "cow" that has two locations, the pot and the atmosphere. From here on we are getting close to the adhi-
daiva interpretation offered by Yaska (Nir 11.40) and
Sayana: the top of the fiery column expands in the next

The cream-colored [cow] has lowed, creating floods
moment,88 and one may speak of a "cow" with four foot(of milk); one-footed, two-footed, she [has become]
ings, namely the four directions (Sayana: dikcatustaya-
four-footed; having become eight- and nine-footed, she is
thousand-syllabled in the final abode.
dhisthana). With the intermediate directions and, finally,

the zenith direction (or the sun), we can explain as.tpadi
andthe
ndvapadi in 41c, which are to be interpreted as "having
The first pada of this verse would suit the milking of
eight,
cow. The speech- and poetry-related terminology in
the nine footings" (or possibly as "having [made] eight,
nineof
footsteps, strides").89 In this interpretation, again, the
last three padas of the verse suggest an identification
culmination is a transcendent "cow" in a final abode
the Gharma cow with speech. The expressions "two-
where it is sahdsraksard, in the sense that it has a limfooted, four-footed" have already occurred in this hymn
itless capacity to create sound (thunder).90 At this point
in a speech-related context, in vs. 24c vdkena vakdm
interpretation converges with the previous "speech"

dvipddd cdtuspadd "with (or according to) the the
two-
interpretation.
footed, the four-footed recitation (he forms) the (larger)
recitation." With "eight-footed and nine-footed" one may

5.4 The identification of vs. 41 (according to both interpretations offered) continues in vs. 42:
"eight-footed, nine-sided speech."85 In this line of reason-
compare RV 8.76.12, where reference is made to an
ing, the "one-footed" speech would refer to the occasional

occurrence of single-footed stanzas (as, e.g., RV 10.20.1).
tdsydh samudra ddhi vi ksaranti
The thousand-syllabled one (f.) in the final abode or highest heaven (parame vybman) suggests some transcendent
aspect of speech.86
tdtah ksaraty aksdram
It is tempting to suggest an additional adhiyajina interpretation of the last three padas. After the milking, the
milk is poured into the heated pot. We already saw the

"cow=milk" metaphor in vs. 29, where the "cow" was in
the pot. On this ritual occasion, one may speak of a "cow"
which is ekapadi "having a single footing or position."

The form eka-padi is then a feminine adjectival compound
from eka with padd 'footstep, footing',87 rather than with
pad 'foot'. This also better suits the speech-related inter-
tena jivanti pradisas cdtasrah I

tdd visvam upa jivati II
From her the oceans flow in all directions, by this the

four quarters of space are living; thereupon flows the syl-
lable [the non-flowing or imperishable]; on it the whole

world subsists.
While the wording allows a "speech" interpretation, it

also allows an interpretation of the transcendent cow as
not convince me (Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. padd). Apart from Liiders'
argument on paddm veh (1951: 303ff., contra Geldner) which

presupposes padd 'footing, position', one may refer to RV 2.35.14
85 Oldenberg (1912) relates these numbers to the structure of
and 3.54.7, where this meaning is definitely to be accepted (at
the hymn 8.76, which consists of triplets in the Gayatri metre, so both places: pade + form of stha). In any case, neither a "Zusam-
3 x 3 x 8 syllables. The eight feet would then, a bit unexpectedly, menfliessen" of IE *pedd 'footstep' and *pedo 'footing' (considcorrespond to eight syllables (rather than metrical "feet," i.e., ered "unwahrscheinlich" by Mayrhofer), nor a semantic shift
lines or padas).
starting from *pedd 'footstep' can be excluded.
86 With van Buitenen (1959), it can be generally accepted that

in the older period the connotation "syllable" was always prom-
88 Cf. figure 4a, where the column is about to expand.
89 Thus, Saiyana explains ndvapadi: uparidigapeksaya suryena
inent in the term aksdra, along with its analytical meaning "non- vd navadigadhisthand.
flowing" or "imperishable."
87 The following interpretation of 41be also stands only if
90 An early exegesis of this verse in the JUB (1.10.1-2; cf.

van Buitenen 1959: 180 [163]) suggests an interpretation of sa-
"footstep" is accepted as meaning of padd. However, Mayr- hdsriksara as "having a thousand imperishable or inexhaustible
hofer's brief rejection of "Statte, Ort" as a meaning of padd does (streams)," as this word is juxtaposed with ayutadhdra.
516
"rain-giver."91 The presence of this verse immediately
verses 26-29 are the milk-verses belonging to the first,
after a verse suitable to the adding of milk and the aris-
and 49 is the milk-verse of a (smaller or more rudimentary)
ing of the fiery column, suggests that the underlying

idea was similar to the one expressed in the yajurvedic
formula that accompanies the same episode in the classical ritual: when the fiery column arises the adhvaryu
says: "Svaha! I offer you (the milk) to the rain-winning
third "liturgy" (comprising vss. 43-52; see below). The

classical ritual has apparently selected a limited number
of stanzas from these formerly distinct "liturgies" belonging to episodes A-B-C of the ancient (late rgvedic)
Pravargya ritual.
beam of light (the beam of light which wins rain for the
worshiper)!" (TA 4.8.4 [16], cited in note 46). Apparently,
the fiery column arising from the heated pot was associated or identified with solar rays, which take up water
from the earth only to give it back later in the form of
rain. According to KathA 2.123, commenting on a very

similar mantra, "the very offering which goes up from
here, that one makes rain fall down from up there; with
a special offering he leads down rain from heaven."92
6.2 We may now return to the group of verses 26-29

(??2.4, 3.2). As a group it has a solid connection with two
subsequent episodes in the Pravargya, B and C. But it is
followed by a self-contained section, vss. 30-42, belong-
ing to Pravargya episodes A-B-C. These "milk verses"

26-29 presuppose or require contextually-have an expectancy (apeksa) for-something equivalent to 30-31:
verses related to the heating of the pot (episode A). Are
there any verses preceding 26-29 in accordance with the
6.1 After vs. 42 comes a verse that has up to now remained unclear, but which may be satisfactorily inter-
ritual sequence, which could refer or apply to the heating

of the pot?
preted as a reference to part of the preparatory episode P,
viz., the fumigation of the Pravargya pot, as I explained

elsewhere (Houben 1991: 30-31). Verse 43 discontinues
the references to the milking and the pouring of milk in
the hot pot of vss. 40-42. It contains, for the third time in
this hymn, the word apasyam; this word occurs also at

31a (dpasyam), and also in id.
This suggests that verses 30-42 form a self-contained
section belonging to the Pravargya episodes A (vss. 30-
39) and B-C (vss. 40-42); it may be regarded as a "liturgy" for these episodes.93 In the structure of the whole
classical ritual (episodes A-D), which is centered around

an offering to the Asvins (episode D, for which suitable
and probably older material is found in the Rgveda: cf.
5.30.15; see Houben 2000), episodes A-B-C seem to be

a later, but apparently still rgvedic, ritual extension; and
for this ritual extension 1.164 provided the necessary

mantras. Thematically, the "milk verses" of the "liturgy"
of verses 30-42 largely overlap with the well-known

verses 26-28 (to which 29 may be added); verses 26-29
must then belong to an originally alternative "liturgy."
Thus, in 1.164 the contours emerge of three distinct "lit-
urgies" of which vss. 30-42 constitute the middle one:
91 The former was emphasized by van Buitenen (1959), the

latter by Luders (1951: 284, 292f.); both are in my view applicable and "underpinned" by the ritual context and corresponding
adhiyajia interpretation of the preceding verses.
92 va itd ahutir uddyate, samuto vfstim cydvayati. svdyaivahutyd divd v.stim ni nayati.
93 To vss. 34-35 we will return below, ?9.2.
7.1 An excellent candidate is found in the very first

verse of the hymn. It is a verse which has been subjected
to much scrutiny and discussion, and several quite diver-
gent interpretations have been proposed. The first three

padas of verse 1 of RV 1.164 are as follows:
asyd vamdsya palitdsya hdtus
tdsya bhrdtd madhyamd asty dgnah I
trtlyo bhrtad ghrtdprstho asya
A literal translation would be:
This dear, aged priest has a ravenous middle brother; his

third brother has ghee on his back.
These padas contain some rather uncommon words that

have an uncertain primary meaning: palitd, dsna. Other
words are clear as to their primary or literal meaning, but
their intended referent is doubtful: hdtr, bhratr, ghrtd-
prstha. It is impossible to discuss here all interpretations

proposed, but I will mention some of the suggested solutions to the most important problem of interpretation:
who are the three brothers? One of the possibilities mentioned by Sayana is that they are sun, wind, and fire; according to Haug (1875) they are the fire in heaven (the
sun), the fire in the clouds (lightning), the fire on earth.
Ludwig (1888) is similar to Haug, but fire on earth is the
Garhapatya; for Geldner (1951) the three are the fires of
the classical ritual, Ahavaniya, Daksinagni, and Garhapatya; for Brown (1968) they are Agni's original form as
"first born of the rta" (?), lightning, the terrestrial Agni.
517
Skipping for the moment the first and middle brother,
It may be considered superior if it leads to better inter-
we turn to the third one, referred to as ghrtdprstho "hav-
pretations of the verse as a whole and of adjoining verses.
ing ghee on his back."94 He was apparently felt to be the

least problematic brother: all interpreters take him as the
It can be shown that, indeed, especially verses 4 and 5
"terrestrial fire"-Ludwig and Geldner more specifically
contain a rather clear reference to the Pravargya pot (see

Appendix). This adhiyajna reference does not necessarily
as one of the three sacrificial fires, the Garhapatya.95 The
contradict understandings at a non-ritualistic level; it may
word ghrtdprstha occurs nine times in the Rgveda, and of-
even support and clarify some of them.

Moreover, I will suggest an interpretation, plausible in
ten applies to Agni (e.g., RV5.37.1, 10.122.4); but also the

barhis grass is said to be "ghee-backed" (RV 1.13.5, 7.2.4),
and, likewise, a wave of water (10.30.8).96 In the case of
the context of the hymn itself, of a group of verses which
1.164.1, no one has ever asked whether ghrtdprstha could
namely verses 20-22. My interpretation further reinforces
refer to a very specific form of the terrestrial Agni. This
the interpretation of verse 1, even though this last does not
seems quite possible: the Pravargya pot which is anointed

with ghee before it is placed on the heating mound, and on
depend on it.
which ghee is poured during the heating and fanning, is

perceptibly and most literally "ghee-backed." Enveloped
in flames it is naturally looked upon as a form of Agni.97
With this small but consequential deviation from the generally accepted interpretation of the third brother as the
"terrestrial fire," the whole hymn would get a strong con-
invited various interpretations already in vedic times,
7.2 The first brother is referred to in the phrase asyd

vdmdsya palitdsya hdtus. Asyd vdmdsya "of this beloved"
occurs at one other place in the hymn, namely in pada b

of verse 7: asyd vdmdsya nihitam paddm veh "the hidden location of this beloved bird." This is an important
lead which should not be neglected. The expression here
nection with the Pravargya ritual from the very beginning.
(see Appendix) is as enigmatic as that in verse 1: the
Is this new interpretation just an alternative possibility, or
intended referent remains unidentified. Still, although

there are several disagreements on details, from Sayana
to Geldner and Luders, all agree that "the beloved bird"
is here the sun (cf. Liiders 1951: 305, 311). The sun as
are there reasons to take it as a better one?
94 Since ghr 'to sprinkle' is a productive root in the RV, an inbird occurs quite frequently in this hymn, cf. 46b: divydh
terpretation "whose back has been ghrtd, 'sprinkled' (with ghee)"

sd
suparn6 garutmdn; 52a: divyd.m suparndm. Also in
must be deemed synchronically feasible. Etymologically, ghrtd

another hymn of Dirghatamas (1.163.3), the sun appears
'ghee' may go back to an older Indo-European root ghr 'to be/
as bird (patamgd).
become warm' (ghrtd 'heated [butter]'). Cf. Mayrhofer 1992, s.v.

ghar and ghrtd; Werba 1997, s.v. ghr.
The idea of (a form of) Agni being intimately related to

the visible sun-as suggested here by the brother-relation
95 The Rgveda is already familiar with three sacrificial fires,
between the sun and the terrestrial fire or Pravargya pot-
but it seems they are not indicated by specific names, as in the
is not uncommon in the RV: cf. the Dirghatamas hymns
srauta ritual, Garhapatya, Daksinagni, and Ahavaniya. The word

1.141.4
garhapatya occurs a few times in the Rgveda, but it is not likely
and 1.143.2; and further 1.95.3, 4.40.5, 5.6.4,
10.45.1, 10.88.10. Also the sun or heavenly Agni as aged
that it anywhere refers specifically to the "domestic fire altar,"

hotr priest is not without rgvedic parallels: cf. the old hotr
as Hillebrandt (1897: 14) suggests (cf., e.g., Grassmann, s.v.

in 2.7.6, 6.62.4, and the immortal hotr in 4.41.1. As for
garhapatya).
palitd, which is usually said to mean, first of all, "grey" and
96 The word ghrtdsnu, which is similar in meaning, applies to
even more objects apart from Agni: to Indra's horses (3.41.9,
4.2.3), to a chariot (5.77.3), to Soma (9.86.45), to heaven and

earth (10.12.4).
97 The association of the heated Pravargya pot and Agni is
quite explicit in the yajurvedic Pravargya mantras, e.g., in the
avakasa mantras: TA 4.7.1(3) sdm agnir agnindgata "Agni (the
"grey-haired" (cf. Mayrhofer 1996: s.v.: "grau, ergraut,

altersgrau, greis"), on the basis of other occurrences one
has to conclude that it may simply mean "old" or "aged"
in contradistinction to yuvan 'young', e.g., in RV 1.144.4,
also a Dirghatamas hymn. The palitd in 10.55.5, also opposed to yuvan, has been interpreted as the sun in Nir
14.18 and BrhadD 7.81.
pot) has come together with Agni (the sun)." Cf. also Krick, on
Agni in the classical system of Vedic sacrifices: ". .. Agni selbst
als Gott-z.B. in seiner Dreigestalt als Agni, Vayu und Surya,

oder als mahavirah (entflammter gharma-Topf) im Pravargya-
Ritual .. ." (1977: 94-95). The phonological similarity between
7.3 It may be assumed that the middle brother is located

between the first and third one. Since we have already de-
cided in favor of the sun-interpretation for the first
gharmd and ghrtd may be considered to strengthen further the
brother (on the basis of, among other things, the parallel
expressions in la and 7b), and since we take the third one
interpretation of ghrtd prstha as referring to the gharmd pot.
as the terrestrial fire, more specifically the Pravargya pot,
518
the middle brother must be situated somewhere in the in-
trasted with the "ravenous" aspect of lightning, which is
termediate space. Two candidates present themselves from

elsewhere-viz., in RV 10.87.5-said to be injurious (himthis perspective: the wind, and lightning. Because of the
srd). 10 The other places (RV 2.14.5, 2.20.5, 6.4.3) do not
"fiery" character of the other two brothers, lightning may
give much help in establishing the meaning of dsna since
be expected to be primarily intended;98 this agrees with

there it seems to be a proper name of a demon.102
the interpretation of many scholars since Haug.99
Thus, we end up with an interpretation of the three
The specific word used to indicate the middle brother is
brothers as (a) the sun, (b) lightning, and (c) the terrestrial
dsnah. At one place in the Rgveda an instrumental plural
fire, specifically the Pravargya pot. The three brothers
from a stem dsna must contextually mean "stone (used for
may all be considered specific forms of Agni. Since one
of the three brothers seems to be a bird (on the basis of
pressing the soma)"; this dsna seems a secondary formation related with daman 'stone', gen. sg. danah. The latterthe paralleled expressions in la-7b), we may expect that
all
also has the meaning "thunderbolt," e.g., RV 1.172.2,
three are birds.
2.30.5.100 At four other places in the RV, excluding 1.164.1,
7.4 We now turn to the final pada of verse 1:

the meaning "stone" seems contextually impossible.
At one of these places (1.173.2), dgna is connected with
dtrapasyam vispdtitm saptdputram II
mrgd, and may be a derivation of as 'to eat': drcad v.rsa
vrsabhih sveduhavyair mrgo nacsno dti ydjjugurydt "May
A literal translation is not all that difficult:
the bull (Indra) sing together with the bulls (the priests)
In this one I saw the lord of the communities with seven
who offer sweat, that he may drown out (or shout down)
sons.
(all others) like a ravenous wild animal" (cf. Geldner 1951:
ad loc.). We note that, although the direct, etymologically

defensible meaning seems here to be "ravenous," the epi-It is, first, apasyam (imperfect) that deserves som
ment. Already Oldenberg drew attention to the occ
thet should highlight the noisy character of Indra, the
"god of thunder" (cf., e.g., RV 1.52.6). This dana in theof this word in another hymn of Dirghatamas, viz
(vss. 5 and 7) and spoke of an "Ausdrucksgewoh

meaning "ravenous" or "voracious" may apply here to
lightning as the middle brother. In that case, the "dear" or

"lovely" (vdmd) aspect of the first brother (the sun) is con-
101 This is the only textual support I can find for assu
characterization of lightning as "ravenous"; cf. the thund
98 Nevertheless, if a relation is accepted between the sun

interpretation of 10.27.22 by Porzig (1925: 651f.). Alth
and prana (cf. Bodewitz 1992) and between the pot and prdna,
otherwise does not occur in the Rgveda, this characterizat

Sayana's wind-interpretation does not seem impossible either, esnot seem improbable for a frightening and dangerous natu
pecially if we take into account that vs. 44 suggests that lightnomenon like lightning. Haug (1875) found it an unlikely
ning forms the "hair" of the wind (as the rays of the sun and the
(and preferred a different interpretation of dana; see nex
flames of fire form the hair of the sun and fire, respectively). In
but Deussen (1920) saw no problem in characterizing ligh
the first part of 1.164 (vss. 1-22), there are, however, no clear
"verzehrend."
references to either prana (but cf. in vs. 4: dsur and atmd). Ref-
102 Rather frequently occurring forms like asnoti, asnute, etc.,
erences to the concept of prana (without using the word) start

are nowadays usually given under the root nas (cf. Mayrhofer
only in vs. 30.
1992-96, Lubotsky 1997, Werba 1997; still under a/arms in
99 Hillebrandt argued against the interpretation of the middle

Whitney 1885). Although this is diachronically quite justifiable it
brother as lightning (1927: 137) and suggested (1913: 104) that

is not convincing from a synchronic, rgvedic perspective: one
the moon was referred to either as second or as first brother. The
other brother would be the sun. In the light of the insertion of
should take into account that there was, at the time, a quite pro-
ductive root as 'to reach, attain' (distinct from as 'to eat'). Hence,
a verse which clearly refers to the moon (AV 9.10.9, cf. RV

one could also think of an dgna derived from this as 'to reach,
10.55.5) in the atharvavedic version of RV 1.164, viz., AV 9.9-
attain', meaning, e.g., "pervasive" (as suggested in Sayana's com10, it is not impossible that a reference to the moon was read into
ments on our verse; interpretation: the wind) or "reaching out."
the first verse also at an early date.
The formation with suffix -na immediately after the root, how-
100 This meaning is most clearly suggested in the formula
ever, does not appear to be very productive in the rgvedic period,
ndmas te astu vidyutte, ndmas te stanayitndve, ndmas te astv

so that dsna in this meaning (preferred by Haug on the basis of
dsmane, which occurs AVS 1.13; AVPaip 19.3.9 and 15.20.8; as
Sayana's suggestion) would seem a somewhat far-fetched forma-
well as khila 4.4 of the RV
tion of the poet.
(habit of expression) of the author. In 1.163 it occurs even

a third time: in vs. 6. In 1.164 we have already seen one
other occurrence: in vs. 31 (here accented at the beginning
of the pada).103 In addition, vs. 43 has ardd apasyam "I

saw from afar." In most of these occurrences (especially
those in 1.163), as in many of the other sixteen occurrences in the RV,104 the context favors the acceptance of
apasyam with the connotation of a visionary experience.
According to Paninian grammar, the imperfect (LAN)
519
with reference to cases where an imperfect is used even

though no expansion in time has been expressed,107 but
even if this criticism is accepted, there are still the cases
where the imperfect is rather clearly used with regard to
actions that are not remote in time, or which directly con-
cern the speaker or the present.108 This is not the place to
pursue this discussion any further. But it is clear that the
issue of the aspectual functions of the rgvedic imperfect

may still be regarded as open.
Hence, no decision can be made at this moment whether
would place the action referred to in the more remote

past, whereas the aorist (LUN) refers to a recent past
(Astadhydyi 3.2.84, 110-11).105 Often, this also applies
the specific use of apasyam with reference to a visionary
to Vedic (Hoffmann 1967: 151-57),106 although the aorist
bered and to some extent repeated at the moment of recit-
experience-and one which seems to be vividly remem-
is found with regard to events of the remote past as
ing the verse-is to be considered an idiomatic exception
well, namely when facts are simply stated (Hoffmann's

"konstatierende Gebrauch des Ind. Aor."). Gonda (1962:
to the general rule,109 or rather an exemplary instance of
112-29) argued, however, that the Vedic system of past

tenses deviates from the system of classical Sanskrit in
another dimension as well: the imperfect is found with
regard to a past which clearly includes a very recent past
or even the present. In such cases, according to Gonda,
the imperfect usually manifests a function which it has
in common with old Greek, viz., the durative, emphasizing an expansion in time (versus the punctual aspectual
function of the aorist). Hoffmann criticizes Gonda's view
that the form occurs thrice in our hymn, and that the first
a durative use of the imperfect.'10 It is striking, in any case,
occurrence favors a context (the heated Pravargya pot, in

a visionary association with the sun) similar to the one for
which vs. 31 is traditionally prescribed: watching the Pravargya pot during heating, and after full heating (episodes
107 More specifically, Hoffmann (1967: 153) attacks one of the
examples given by Gonda, namely 1.116.17 (the daughter of the

sun a atisthat the chariot of the Asvins), which, indeed, was not
well chosen for demonstrating direct relevance of the present.
103 RV 10.177 has not only dpasyam in its last verse (= RV

1.164.31), but also pasyanti in the first verse.
104 E.g., RV 1.18.9, 3.38.6, 8.59.6, 10.114.4; RV 10.183 has
But the rejection of this example does not constitute a refutation
of Gonda's theory of a general durative function for Vedic imperfects (in 1.116.17 the comparative reference to the kdrsman
dpasyam in vss. 1 and 2 (all three verses of this hymn are op-
of a horse race is not entirely clear; in 10.111.2 the addition
tionally employed in the hotr's recitation during the fanning of
tavisena rdvena does indeed suggest a durative connotation of
the pot).
ud atisthat: "mit kraftigen Brullen hat er sich aufgerichtet"

[Geldner]).
105 It could be argued that we need not reflect on the imperfec-
tive aspect of apasyam, since a corresponding aorist form nowhere occurs in the Rgveda. The verb is, of course, defective in
108 Gonda 1962: 120ff.; e.g., RV 1.133.1, 3.29.14, 8.7.1,

8.46.27. Continuity is implied in RV 10.81.4. Other examples,
the classical grammar; from its complement, drs, several aorist
e.g., RV 5.45.2, should rather have been left out. Gonda (1962)
forms do occur in the Rgveda. A closely related root, viz., spas
neglected the value of the injunctive, which was clearly brought
(with an old, Indo-European initial s-: cf. Avestan spasiid, Latin
out for the first time by Hoffmann (1967).
specio), also occurs in the aorist (3d sg. middle, transitive): see
109 The aorist would be expected, according to the standard
RV 1.10.2b: bhury dspasta kdrtvam, translated by Geldner as:

"Als er... vieles, was noch zu tun, ersah .."
view as formulated, e.g., by Delbruck: "Das Imperfectum hat
106 Cf; also Thieme: "Im Hauptsatz ist der Gebrauch augmentierter Formen des Aorists in den weitaus meisten Fallen mit
Sicherheit von solchen des Imperfekts zu scheiden [with note:
also nie eine Beziehung zur Gegenwart, wie sie bei dem Aorist
vorhanden ist" (1888: 279).
110 It would then be parallel to a case like asgravam in RV
vergl. hauptsachlich Delbriick 'Altindische Tempuslehre' S. 1-
10.88.15 where the poet has "heard" of two paths of fathers,

gods and men (Gonda 1962: 122f.; Geldner's translation, "horte
100. Renou, Valeur du parfait S. 29ff.]: der Aorist driickt aus,
ich von den Vatern" is not likely). In 1.164, especially vs. 31, ac-
dass die Verbalhandlung soeben vollzogen oder eingetreten ist.
cording to the proposed interpretation, the connection with the
Das Imperfekt, dass die Verbalhandlung der ferneren Vergan-
present would be even stronger and more direct if the visionary
genheit angehort. (Ohne Riicksicht auf Aktion oder Aspekt.)"

(1929: 6f.).
experience with regard to the heated pot recurs or is expected to

recur during the fanning and the watching and worshiping.
520
Al and A2), in the latter case to the accompaniment of
who are "seven sons" of the vispdti of lc. Verse 2 then re-
yajurvedic mantras that give expression to the relation between the heated Pravargya pot and the sun.
fers to the sun as regulator of the cosmic time, verse 3 to
The next word to be discussed is vispdtim 'the lord

of the communities'. Interpretations of this "lord" vary:
Sayana thinks of the sun; Haug (1875) mentions Agni,

Indra, and Agni as kavi or hotr as possibilities; Ludwig
(1888) translates "stammesfiirst"; Geldner (1951) translates
a sacrificial cycle that derives from the former.

A slightly different possibility, which I do not want to
leave unmentioned here, is to take the "lord of the communities," in the light of verse 31 and its ritual context, as
"life-principle (of sun and all creatures)" or "(cosmic)

prana"; or at least to accept a close connection between
"Stammherr" and remarks that the Garhapatya "aus dem

die anderen [viz., Feuer] entnommen werden" is "der
the solar "lord of the communities" and a notion which is
eigentliche Stammvater"; Brown (1968) holds "the lord of

the tribes" to be a reference to Agni.
The word vispdti occurs several times in the RV, and,
seven sons could still be the priests-seers, who perhaps, in
indeed, it often refers to Agni "lord of the communities"
(e.g., RV 1.12.2, 8.23.13). But in 8.25.16ab aydm eka

ittha puriu-uru caste vi vispdtih the word clearly refers to
the sun (Sayana: to Mitra). The ritualistic context which

we suggest for this verse, namely the heating and watching of the pot, does not give a direct and definite clue to
the interpretation of this vispdti. It is the subject of a vi-
sion catalyzed or occasioned by the heated Pravargya pot,
in later vedic texts commonly expressed as prana. The

the light of some vedic texts " and of some aspects in the
classical Pravargya,l2 may be associated with the seven

pranas (i.e., a sevenfold notion later on crystallizing in
the concept of the "seven pranas" or "seven vital airs").
7.5 As announced in section 7.1, I will now sketch an interpretation of verses 20-22, plausible in the context of the
hymn, which reinforces the interpretation of verse 1. For
reasons of space, I cannot go into an evaluation of a number of earlier contributions to the interpretation of these
poet's vision was directed in that situation. Still, if we
verses (esp. Geldner and Renou in their annotated translations, Thieme [1949], and Johnson [1980]), nor into a con-
assume that the later Pravargya ritual-as it finds expres-
sideration of its connections with other vedic passages (apart
but, of course, one cannot tell for sure where the priest-
sion in the yajurvedic avakasa-mantras (among them

1.164.31)-reflects some of the earlier insights expressed
in the first verse, one expects the vispdti to be some universal aspect of the sun or Agni which unifies the heavenly
form, the terrestrial form, and the intermediary one. The
gopa 'herdsman', who was discerned in verse 31 (though

belonging to a different "liturgy"), would then be parallel
to the vispdti of verse 1.
Finally, saptdputram in association with vispdtim is not
from making brief references to resonating passages in

the Rgveda). The verses are as follows:
dva suparna saytja sdkhdyi
samdndm vrksdm pdri sasvajdte I
tdyor anydh pippalam svddv dtty
dnasnann anyo abhi cikasiti |1 20

ydtra suparna amrtasya bhagdm
dnimesam viddthibhisvdranti |
immediately clear. The next two verses (see Appendix),

however, contain several references to "groups of seven."
111 Cf., in connection with the Agnicayana: SB 6.1.1.1, "The
It is likely that these verses elaborate in some way the
Rishis, doubtless, were the vital airs"; 8.6.1.5, "the Rishis, the
vision of the "lord of the communities with seven sons."
first-born, doubtless, are the vital airs, for they are the first-born
According to Geldner's translation and explanation, verse
Brahman" (Eggeling); also SB 7.2.3.5, 8.4.1.5, 9.2.1.13 (all in
2 deals with "the solar chariot as visible symbol of the connection with the Agnicayana). In SB 8.4.3.6 "singing praise
year or of time"; verse 3 with "the sacrificial chariot." In with seven" is associated with seven vital airs, and with the cre2a there could be a reference to seven rays (rasmi, masc.)
ation of seven seers (rsi). SB 8.6.3.22 speaks of "that thread (of
of the sun, but these rays are usually not active in yoking the sacrifice) which has been spun out by the Rishis"; cf. with this
it (cf. AV 7.107 and, with regard to time, 19.53.1). The
RV 1.164.5cd where the kavis stretch out seven threads. The rsis
seven in 2a are therefore rather the seven priests (or the were the first to construct the Agnicayana: SB 9.1.2.21, 9.2.1.13.
seven primordial seers as priests), employing the sun or RV 10.62.4, speaking of seers who are sons of gods (devaputra
the year as regulator of the sacrificial cycle. The seven rsayah, voc.), may be compared with .sayo devajah in 1.164.15b.
horses of the sun, mentioned elsewhere in the RV (1.50.8
For the seasons as forefathers and "Ur-Rsis," see Krick 1982: 40;
and 9; 4.13.3), are, as far as I can see, always mares, and for pitarah and seven rsis, Krick 1982: 93.
as such not directly applicable to "the lord of the com- 112 Cf. the offerings to the seven pranas (van Buitenen 1968:
munities with seven sons." In 3a the group of seven per- 71, and TA 5.4.4), prdnahutir juhoti . . saptd juhoti, saptd vai
sons therefore rather refers to the priests-seers as well, sirsanyah prdanah.
in6 visvasya bhuvanasya gopdh

sd ma dhtrah pdkam dtrd vivesa I| 21
ydsmin vrkse madhvddah suparna

nivisdnte suvate cddhi visve I
tdsydd ahuh pippalam svddv dgre
521
the herdsman, the sage, entered me, the immature

one.
The tree in which birds eating honey all nest
breed-in its top, they say, is the sweet fig; h

does not know the father does not reach it.
tan ndn nasad ydah pitdram nd veda 11 22
The first crucial question is: who are the birds? The birds
A literal translation is not extremely difficult:
Two birds, companions and friends, embrace a common
tree. One of the two eats the sweet fig. The other one
looks on without eating.

Here, where birds, in congregation,113 vigilantly sing of
their share in immortality, the lord of the entire world,
113 According to the principle that in a determination of the

meaning of a rgvedic word the semantic value appearing from its
employment in the hymns should carry more weight than the

meaning arrived at through linguistic reconstruction (since, in any
linguistic community, words acquire specialized meanings which

overrule the etymological one), one may profitably start a discus-
sion of the meaning of viddtha with the mature reflections of
Geldner (1898)-unduly neglected since Oldenberg (1900) and

Thieme (1949)-who could refer to earlier discussions of various
scholars (Roth, Oldenberg, Ludwig, Bloomfield, Weber). Geldner, on the basis of a balanced consideration of a great number of
places and the earlier scholarly views, observes that viddtha is a
are here called suparnd 'well-winged'. Elsewhere in our

hymn, either the sun (vss. 46, 52) or the sun's rays (vs. 47)
are called suparna. Moreover, in 7b vi refers to the sun as
a bird, and the parallelism in expression with la (asyd

vamdsya) suggests that verse 1 deals with three birds, one
of which is the sun. Referring to Thieme 1949, Geldner
1951, Renou 1967, Brown 1968, Johnson 1980 for some
alternative interpretations, I submit that the two birds in
vs. 20 are the two more immediately perceptible of the

three birds of verse 1, viz., the sun and the Gharma pot;
lightning, the elusive middle one, is left out.14
Suparna may be taken primarily as one of the synonyms for bird, such as vi, garutmat. The oriole-rather
than Thieme's eagle (1949: 59), who does not eat fruitmay have been at the basis of the specific image of birds
eating a sweet fig in a tree (cf. Johnson 1980: 48-52,

who refers further to Dave 1951).
Initially, that is, when taking into account only verse

20, one will probably tend to identify the bird that is look-
ing on without eating as the sun,15 and the other bird as
the Gharma pot (which "eats""6 the ghee that is poured
"social notion"; it is the "guild" and especially the "learned society" or "association of the learned," and also the assembly of
priests that have come together for the sake of the sacrifice; it may
lowing the wrong lead of Bartholomae 1890: 41), to viddtha takes
also be used for the assembly of gods (Maruts) and occasion-
place only within a root, not between root and suffix, cf. prothd-
ally-apparently secondarily, on the basis of the "social no-
tha. According to Kuiper viddtha would derive from vi-dayate. In
tion"-for groups of things or notions. After this it is to be
both Thieme's and Kuiper's proposals the accent is on the wrong
realized that all these meanings can be associated quite naturally
place-Kuiper (1979) tries to give an unconvincing ad hoc solu-
with a viddtha derived from either of the two frequent roots vid:
tion to this problem which would not arise in the first place in the
vid 'to know' and vid 'to find'. In case of the former root, the as-
natural and regular derivation of viddtha from either of the two
sociation of the specialized semantic complex to viddtha can be
common roots vid.
understood on the analogy of German "Rat" which is both a 'piece
114 Cf. 10.114, where the first verse speaks of "two neigh-
of advice' and an 'assembly of people giving advice' (cf. also
boring hot ones" (gharmd sdmanta), and verse 3 of two birds
Greek boule, Latin "consilium" and English "counsel"; the se-
(suparnd) sitting down on a young woman with flour plaits
mantic history of the latter two is complicated by the existence of
(generally taken as a reference to the Vedi with its four corners
"concilium" and "council"). In case of the latter root, vid 'to find,
bent outwards; also the ritual connects this verse with the Vedi).
meet', the derivative viddtha would basically mean "meet-ing." It
The two gharmds may here be the fire and the sun (the latter
will then be clear that in either case there is no semantic discrep-
neighboring the former when it shines on it).
ancy between attested and etymological meaning (taking into ac-
115 Cf. the expression sura- visvacdksas- in 1.50.2; and further
count that the latter specialized in a natural way) which would
1.50.7, 4.1.17, 4.13.3, 7.60.2-3, 7.61.1; the sun as seer: 5.44.7,
justify a far-fetched analysis of the word such as the one proposed
1.160.1; shining or radiating over everything: 5.54.15; seeing

widely, the whole world: 10.37.8, 10.114.4.
by Thieme (1949: 35ff.) or Kuiper (1974). According to the

former it would derive from vi-dha; but the "Hauchdissimilation"
through which vi-dh-atha should lead, according to Thieme (fol-
116 Iad 'to eat' is also said of fire "eating" or consuming the
offering (havis, which often consists of ghee).
522
into it during the heating and fanning). The ghee is then

what is referred to as the "sweet fig.""7 In this interpretation, for the first time (cf. Thieme, Geldner, Johnson on
this verse), the verb pdri sasvajate can retain its primary
meaning quite naturally: it means "embrace" and this is

what the Gharma pot, at its root or lowest branches, and
the sun, at the top, do with the tree; merely sitting on a
tree is not "embracing" it.
This leads us to some further questions: what is this
tree in which the birds are sitting, and what is the sweet
fig in it? As Thieme (1949) and more recently Vasil'kov
(1995) have pointed out, the idea of the universe or cosmos as a tree is an old one, and it is widespread in Indo-
(whose rasmdyah 'rays' are "birds," m. pl.), and all are situated in a single sacrificial cosmos (the tree of vs. 20).119
In this contextually quite likely interpretation of the basic
enigmatic items in the verse, it becomes closely parallel

to verse 37cd (?4.5). There, it was prathamaja rtdsya, that
is, Agni, who brought life (prana) to the pot and gave it
a "share in speech" (ghee starts making a bubbling sound).
Here, it is "the lord of the entire world, the herdsman, the
sage" who enters the pot. As in 37, vs. 21 contains an

"autobiographic" reference through the first person pronoun ma. This can again be taken as a reference back to
an initiatory experience in the Avantaradiksa, when the

student is allowed to see the fire and sun after having been
European mythology. Vasil'kov rightly separates the image
blindfolded for a night. The herdsman (gopd) of vs. 21 and
of the "normal" world-tree and that of the inverted tree (for
the father of 22 correspond to him who is "seen" as herds-
the latter cf. Katha Upanisad 6.1): "The motif of honey
man (gopa) in vs. 31, and as lord of the communities
(or the water of life) at the top, as well as the motif of a
(vispdti) in vs. 1.
man hanging on a branch, are never connected with the

'inverted' tree: they are always associated with a 'normal'
world-tree, a tree of this world" (1995: 261). The "honey"
or "water of life" appears in 1.164.20-22 as the sweet fig
and the honey. The tree top is the vault of heaven; according to a verse in another rgvedic hymn, god Yama
drinks (or has a "symposium") together with the gods in
a tree with beautiful foliage (RV 1.135.1).
Since the sweet fig is said to be at the top in 1.164.22,
it is difficult to maintain our initial interpretation, "ghee";
rather, the sweet fig is the light of life, inspiration, knowl-
edge, immortality (cf. Thieme 1949: 63ff.). It is the sun

which already partakes of this "life" and "inspiration,"
and the Gharma pot becomes the bird which is "looking
on without partaking" of it. 18 The absence of a statement
that also the first bird is looking does not exclude that it
is the sun (it is not said the bird is not looking).
7.6 Having shown the aptness of verses 1 and 20-22 to

an adhiyajia interpretation in terms of the Pravargya and
Avantaradiksa, and having briefly indicated their parallelism with vss. 30-39, as well as their suitability for reci-
tation during the heating and fanning of the Pravargya

pot, our "first liturgy" for episodes A-C of the Pravargya
(parallel to vss. 30-42, the "middle liturgy") is almost

complete. The verses between 1 and 20, some of which
have already been referred to, are mainly devoted to the
Sun or to its temporal correlate, the Year, and as such they
are suitable for recitation at the heating of the pot until it
"shines together with the Sun," as the Taittiriya mantra

TA 4.7.1(3) has it. Current translations differ in details of
interpretation, which are generally of no consequence

for the ritual application of the verses. Verses 26-29, as
Gharma pot. It is being heated on the fire (whose arcdyah
we have seen, belong to the milking of the cow and to the

pouring of the milk in the heated pot. In between these
two groups are verses 23-25, which contain statements
'flames' are "birds," m. pl.) and is standing in the sun
on metres and melodies and their relation, application,
117 For the "sweetness" of ghee, cf. 8.24.20 vdcah ghrtdt

svddlyo mddhunas ca vocata "present the speech which is
primarily to the sound of the flames of fire (as a theme frequently
sweeter than ghee and honey." Also RV 3.1.8, 5.42.3, 9.67.11,
reflected in statements on Agni as priest, poet, or singer, e.g., RV
10.110.10.
1.1.1, 5.4.3, 6.3.6); perhaps the flames of the sun were also
In vs. 21 the "immature" or "raw" one (pdkam) is the
119 If the "singing" (abhi-svar) is taken literally, it will refer
118 While one of the two birds is in vs. 20 emphatically saidthought

to
to make sound-even though we do not hear it-on the
be "not eating" (dnasnan), we had a middle brother (bird) that

analogy of the terrestrial fire (in ChandU 1.5.1, the sun prowas dgna in verse 1. Without taking verses 20-22 into account
ceeds while making an om sound). The fact that words such as
we arrived at the conclusion that dsna might mean there "voraarkd (in RV) and vdrna (from the brahmanas on) are used of both
cious" or "ravenous" (taking it as a derivation from las 'to auditory
eat',
and visual experiences suggests that semantic associaand referring to dsna in RV 1.173.2). Also our alternative for tions
/las would have been relatively natural (cf. the discussion in
'to eat' as the root underlying dsna in 1, viz., as//nas 'to attain',
Roesler [1997: 253ff.] on the close connection between light and
occurs in 20-22 (22d: nasat), where "reaching the top" isspeech/thought).

reFor the existence of a separate root svdr 'to
quired for "eating the sweet fig."
shine', there is no basis (Mayrhofer 1996, s.v. svar and ref.).
and capacities. I am not aware of an identifiable episode

or sub-episode in the classical Pravargya which would
correspond to these verses. But it may be noted that also
in the "middle liturgy" attention is paid to "sacred" and
"sacrificial" speech just before the "milking mantras"

(namely in vs. 39, which deals with the verse, the syllable,
their cosmic importance, and the importance of knowing

it). In the yajurvedic mantras associated with the heating
and fanning there are a number of verses dealing with the
523
Pravargya implements for the fumigation of the pot at

the Garhapatya, just before it is baked (cf. van Buitenen
1968: 60). In the classical ritual, the preparation of the pot
is part of the duty of the adhvaryu; the participation of the
hotr is nowhere explicitly prescribed. Yet, he must have

been "around," since the preparation of the pot is done
after the priests for the sacrifice have been chosen and
installed. Though there have been shifts in priestly functions since the Rgveda, it may be assumed that its verses
metres (TA 4.6.1-2[1]). It is part of the adhvaryu's reci-
were also in older times recited mainly by the hotr; verse
tation which starts after a long recitation of the hotr, when
43 could then give expression of the hotr's perception
the fire enveloping the Pravargya pot is blazing up high

(cf. van Buitenen 1968: 88).
(less likely the yajamana's) of the fumigation.121
8.1 Having identified a first and a second liturgy, we are

left with ten verses, 43-52. The occurrence of apasyam "I
saw" in verse 43 has already been pointed out (??6.1, 7.4).
As we saw, the expression occurs at two other places in
If the one perceiving the smoke of stallion dung stands

at the eastern door of the sacrificial shed,'22 he sees the
fumigation "in the middle, on the farther side of this
nearer (fire, sc. the Ahavaniya)." Otherwise, visivdtd pard
enavarena may mean "in the middle, above this lower
the hymn, vss. 1 and 31, towards the beginning of the first
one," i.e., it says that the heavy smoke of stallion's dung

is just above the Garhapatya.'23
and second "liturgies," and refers there to a visionary experience, as it does also elsewhere in the RV The entire
roes (the priests) may very well be interpreted as the milk-
verse 43 is as follows:
The uksa'nam prs'nim "spotted bull" cooked by the he-
and-ghee mixture (with spotted appearance) to be heated
sakamdyam dhumdm drad apasyam
visiivdt pard enavarena I

uksanam pfrnim apacanta viras
tani dhdrmani prathamdny asan I\
It may be translated as:
and offered in the Pravargya. The words uksdn and prsni
occur together also in RV 9.83.3; although this hymn

forms part of the book of Soma hymns and is also employed at some occasions in the classical Soma sacrifice,
it was at an early date apparently also deemed suitable
for recitation at the Pravargya (cf. Gonda 1979: 254f.).
Brhaddevata 6.134 considers this to be a hymn in praise
of the Gharma representing the sun and the soul (sarya

From afar I saw the smoke of dung, in the middle, on
and atman).124
the farther side of this nearer one. The heroes cooked
the spotted bull. These were the first regulations.
The "smoke of dung" has usually been interpreted as the
121 The word apasyam here expresses a "real"-rather than a

visionary-perception, if the verse is recited at the beginning of
smoke of cow-dung (in accordance with Sayana's parathe regular performance, just as verses Iff. and 30ff. are, accordphrase of sakamdyam dhumdm as sakrnmayam suskagoing to the structures found so far. Still, the reference to a performayasambhitam). The implications of the verse remained
obscure.120 As already briefly indicated in an earlier publication (Houben 1991: 30f.), this enigmatic verse starts to
make much more sense if the "smoke of dung" is understood as the smoke of the dung of a horse or stallion. Stallion's dung is actually used in the ritual preparation of the
mance of the ritual in a primeval age in the last pada may imply
a visionary element.
122 The hotr will have to enter through this door at the begin-
ning of the regular performance, according to SadkhSS 5.9.4;

also the prastotr enters here (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 45 n. 150).
123 Cf. verses 17 and 18 where pard enavarena is used in connection with the sun at dawn and seems to imply "just above the
horizon."
120 Cf. Haug (1875: 504ff.), according to whom "der richtige
124 Also in 5.47.3 the words uksdn and prsni occur together;
Sinn dieses etwas dunkeln Verses" is to be found in a comparison
there they apparently refer to the sun, as arusdh suparndh 'ruddy
with verse 50 of our hymn, which, however, repeats only its
bird' (in a hymn to the Visve Devas). P.rni is here, however, ad-
fourth pada (as 50b); on p. 504 he thinks the dung is that of the
jective with dsman 'stone', and hence refers to a "spotted stone"
bull that is cooked in pfda c, on p. 506 he speaks of "Kuhmist";
(i.e., the sun as a crystal or diamond, cf. Geldner, ad loc.). Still,
further, Bloomfield 1897: 533; Geldner 1951, ad loc.; Renou

1967: 88; Brown 1968 [1978], ad loc.
a cosmic interpretation of the verse in terms of gods (heroes) who
bring to maturity (pac) the young sun (uksdn, which means, esp.,
524
In the light of this interpretation, recitation of vs. 43 at
the beginning of the heating and fanning, or else during

the preparation of the pot, would be very suitable. It thus
forms the beginning of the third liturgy.
8.2 The next verse, 44, presents the three forms of Agni
in a riddle-like formulation:
trdyah kesina rtutha vi caksate
samvatsare vapata eka esdm I

visvam eko abhi caste sdcibhir
dhrajir ekasya dadrse nd rupdm II
(vss. 43-48) is relatively short compared to the sections

in the other two liturgies (cf. below, ?9.1).
8.4 In vs. 49, which maintained its role as "milking

verse" in the classical Pravargya (in episode B), the cow
named Sarasvati is invoked to make its teat ready for
suckling. In the ritual the male calf is allowed to suck its
mother's teat when this verse has been recited; the milking
for the sacrifice takes place immediately afterwards. As

we have seen, the first two liturgies contained references
also to the subsequent events (episode C): the pouring of
milk in the heated pot, and the fiery pillar and cloud which
rise to heaven (vss. 29, 41). The rain-giving capacities
Three long-haired ones show themselves in due season;

during the year one of them shaves;
one surveys everything by means of his powers;

of one the rushing is seen but not his form.
of this cloud (and/or its macrocosmic parallel, the raincloud) were especially indicated in the second liturgy, vs.
42. Is anything corresponding to this found in the third lit-
urgy? References to capacities to produce rain are, indeed,
prominent in the two concluding verses of the hymn, 51-
The classical solution (Nir 12.27, Sayana, Haug 1875,

52. The last one mentions Sarasvat, a heavenly, rain-
Geldner 1951) is: the terrestrial fire burns the earth (cf.
giving male counterpart to the earthly, milk-giving cow
RV 1.65.8, 6.6.4, 10.142.4),'25 the sun sees everything,

Sarasvati of vs. 49. Verse 51-52-verse 51 in a different
and only the wind's rushing is perceived; the threemetre,
are
anustubh-are thus quite suitable as continualong-haired through flames, rays, and lightnings, respections of vs. 49 and as accompaniment to episode C. They
tively. Verse 44 thus parallels the first three pfdasmay
of be taken as parallel to vs. 42, which also made a
verse 1, and together with 43 it makes a suitable startgeneral
of
statement on "something" (contextually: the trana recitation accompanying the heating and fanning ofscendent
the
cow of vs. 41) from which oceans flow and on
Pravargya pot (episode A).
which the four directions live. Still missing is a reference
to the arising of a fiery pillar-the ritual event so dra8.3 We have already identified (??2.4, 6.1) verse 49 as the
matically expressed in vss. 29 and 41-to link the milk"milking verse" of the third liturgy (episode B). Where do
ing in 49 with the rain in 51-52.
the preceding verses (45-48) fit in? The first two contain
The verse that is left, 50, is mainly a general statement
reflections on speech, while the other two deal with the
on the primordiality of the sacrifice:
sun and the year. As such they appear most suitable to epi-
sode A. The whole section associated with this episode yajnena yajn~m ayajanta devas
tdni dhdrmani prathamany asan I
te ha ndkam mahimanah sacanta
a young bull; cf. Mayrhofer: "Jungstier ... der seine Zeugungsfahigkeit noch nicht unter Beweis gestellt hat" [1992, s.v.])-and
a parallel interpretation in which the student-initiate is brought to
maturity by his teacher and the gods-cannot be excluded. The

smoke of stallion's dung is then a dark rain cloud (at the advent
of the rainy season, when the Pravargya was performed). The
ydtra purve sddhyah santi devah II

With the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice:
these were the first regulations.
These greatnesses reached up to the vault of heaven,

where the ancient Sadhyas reside as gods.
closest "fit" seems to obtain in the ritual interpretation.
125 Some uneasiness arises from the use of ftmanepada vapate,

The second pada, "these were the first regulations," is
while in 6.6.4, as one expects, the parasmaipada form is used:

identical with the last pada of vs. 43 (beginning of third
(the flames of Agni) ksdm vdpanti. Does one of the long-haired
liturgy). The whole verse also occurs as concluding verse
ones "shave (the earth) for himself," or does he rather "shave
in 10.90, the famous Purusasukta. The second pada places
himself" or is he shaved? The classical solution can be roughly
the events referred to in a primeval age. The drama of vss.
maintained by interpreting vapate as "shaves himself" and as-
29 and 41 is still missing. The third pada could neverthe-
suming that Agni's act of shaving involves a strewing (in Vedic
less apply to the rising of the fiery pillar and fiery cloud
from the heated pot in which milk has been poured. The
recursive application of the sacrifice in the first pfda is
perhaps reflected in the offering (pouring) of milk in the
also /Ivap!) around of hair, i.e., flames. Cf. Mayrhofer's remarks

and references (1996, s.v. vap2) regarding the semantics of "shav-
ing" < "strewing or scattering away hair."
pot for the sake of the Gharma offering which is to take

place later on in the Ahavaniya fire: this is an offering to
an offering.126 Still, the "fit" between verse and ritual

event seems not as close here as in previous cases, and the
ritual application here suggested on the basis of the context (which need not exclude interpretations of the verse
with which we are familiar, beginning with Sayana) could
be a secondary one.127 By contrast, this highlights the
closeness of "fit" in other crucial verses.
525
has been pointed out by Oldenberg that such a variation

need not be significant.129 It is still noteworthy that the
final verse of our first liturgy (vs. 29) is in the jagati
metre rather than the dominant tristubh. Also the shift
from the verses dealing with the birds in the tree, 20-22
(which in our interpretation continue and round off a

theme started in vs. 1), to the three verses dealing with
the sacred speech and melodies employed in the ritual is
marked by the jagati metre in vs. 23.130
The second liturgy ends (vs. 42) with a quite excep-
9.1 We have thus found that a clear pattern of three "littional metre, the prastdrapadd, which is employed nourgies" emerges from 1.164 if we take seriously its conwhere else in the entire Rgveda. As in the first liturgy, at
nection with the Pravargya, a connection which is already
the end of the A section attention is drawn to sacred
generally accepted and well established for some verses.

speech employed in the ritual. In the second liturgy, this
The three liturgies belong to three episodes in the Prahappens in a single verse, 39, with the deviant scheme
vargya, namely A-B-C (see table 1). As pointed out (?6.1),
of two tristubh padas, two jagati (1 1 1 / 12 12).
it may be surmised that the liturgies in 164 were intendedIn the third liturgy all verses are in tristubh (with ir-
to accompany newly developed parts of a more ancient,

regularities) except one, the penultimate, which is in anurgvedic Gharma offering, which was in some respects
stubh (which is also in another respect exceptional or at
quite different from the Gharma offering in the classical
least remarkable, see below). While the A sections in
Pravargya (for instance, in the older form the pot couldthe
be first two liturgies ended with one or more verses
of metal, RV 5.30.15). The three liturgies formed the
(metrically partly marked) dealing with sacred speech
source of 1.164 which, with its 52 verses, is an excepemployed in the ritual, the A section of the third liturgy
tionally long hymn in a collection in which numerical
deals with sacred speech employed in the ritual in the
regularity rules supreme (cf. Oldenberg 1888: 222; Witmiddle (vss. 45-46, preceded and followed by twice
zel 1995: 311). The proposed tripartition leads to three
two verses dealing with other subjects, without metrical
liturgies in decreasing order of number of verses-justdistinction).
as
in groups of hymns addressed to a particular deity, theseA further comparative remark on the three liturgies of
are usually in decreasing order of the number of verses.
1.164 is in place here. As we have seen, in the third lit-
The tripartition has been arrived at on the basis urgy

of the section associated with episode A (vss. 43-48)
the meaning and (especially ritual) implications of the
is relatively short compared to the A sections of the secverses. We may now also have a look at the distribution
ond liturgy (vss. 30-39) and the first liturgy (vss. 1-25).
of metres. Here we find that the main divisions arrived
The whole procedure of sufficiently heating and fanning
at are further accentuated. The hymn's main metrethe

is pot is a lengthy one. In the classical Pravargya the
tristubh (4 x 11), several verses are in jagati (4 x 12)
hotr's recitation is even considerably longer than the one
(both often with a number of irregularities), one is of
inour first liturgy. It may therefore be suggested that the
prastarapadd (11 11 / 8 8), and one in anustubh (4 x 8).128

A section of our third liturgy is only a group of superWhile several jagatis and verses in which tristubh and
erogatory verses, which may be added to the A section of
jagati padas are combined occur in the first liturgy, either

it
of the two other liturgies.
There are also some differences in the focus and

structure of the three A sections. In the A section of the
126 Although a sacrifice (yajina) is frequently a bigger event

than a single offering, the offering to the Asvins (and the most
typical offering to the Agvins is the simple Gharma offering) is
129 Oldenberg regards the combination of tristubh and jagati
also called yajiid, e.g., 5.77.1.
padas as significative of a certain sloppiness in the practice of

127 The identity of 50b and 43d suggests some connectionlater
or authors. He further thinks that it would be wrong to try to
link between the two. There is no reason to assume that the versediscover underlying rules or a striving for symmetry in the vari-
is more at its place in 10.90. Bloomfield (1916: 151) considers

it between entire jagati and tristubh verses, apart from the
ation
secondary there.
variations that mark the beginning or end of a hymn (Oldenberg
128 Cf. van Nooten and Holland (1994: 577, 593f.) for the
1888: 148-50).
general metrical properties of mandala I and for metrical notes
130 Cf., further, the metrical notes in van Nooten and Holland
on 1.164.
1994: 594.
526
first liturgy the sun-interpretation of the Pravargya is

dominant (with much attention to the sun as year). The
theme of prdna is rarely hinted at (perhaps in vss. 1, 4,
yana, yet another problem appears in a different light: that
and 21). The A section of the second liturgy seems
sutra descriptions of the preparation of the Pravargya pot
mostly focused on prana (though this term is not used).

In the brief A section of the third liturgy speculations
on speech are striking (vss. 45-46, in the middle rather
than at the end). After a verse on the ritual and its primordial performance (43), the enigmatically formulated
reference to three forms of Agni (vs. 44) corresponds
and the Ukha pot (cf. Ikari 1983). In such a ritual complex the preparation of these two pots would be adjacent
(as in the classical horse sacrifice) or overlap.132
If the situation as suggested above is acceptable, verses
34-35, which also according to their content would suit
a horse sacrifice (in some pre-classical form), may have
entered the speculative section of the recitation of section
A of the second liturgy easily and naturally.
with the first verse of the first liturgy; the last two verses
of the A section of liturgy three link up with verses in
the A section of liturgy one (47 -+ 7; 48 - 11).
fice of a horse,131 already including a form of the Agnica-
of the close similarity and partial overlap of the srauta-
9.3 All three liturgies and especially their A sections
9.2 We have seen that the association with the Pravargya

works out quite well throughout the hymn. Still, there are
testify to an intensive reflection on fundamental realities.
the two verses 34-35 that in the classical sources form
"special language" to formulate their thoughts. The words
The authors avail themselves of what may be called a
part of a ritual discussion (brahmodya) in the Asvameand syntax of this "special language" are similar to those
dha, the elaborate royal horse sacrifice. In the classical
of the "common language" of Vedic Sanskrit, but the
sources, the Asvamedha comprises a number of smaller
special language is nevertheless characterized by some
rituals which can also occur independently. These include
systematic differences, especially with regard to the semantic function of the words.
the Agnicayana, which in turn comprises Soma sacrifices,
Istis and ... Pravargyas. It may hence be surmised that

The significance of this special enigmatic language
the elaborate form of the Pravargya reflected in 1.164
ofhad
1.164 and its relation to later developments in Indian
a special relation with the extensive ritual of the royal
thought deserve to be highlighted. We may start by parahorse sacrifice. The occurrence of 1.164 immediately
afphrasing
some observations of Porzig (1925: 654ff.) with
ter two hymns in praise of the sacrificial horse (1.162
and to the special language ("Sondersprache") of ridregard
163) could lend further support to this hypothesis.dles

Also
and enigmas (according to Porzig, applying also to
some of the formulations in these hymns-e.g., 163.5-6
those of other cultures). While linguistic meanings otheraccording to which the horse's body or head is flying
wisetopertain basically to a single fact, riddles or enigheaven as a bird-suggest intimate connections with
164 expressions always refer to all facts of a similar
matic
(apart from the fact that they are attributed to a single
sort-where similarity is found in the place which a
author-which in itself suggests an intimate connection
certain fact occupies in the totality of the world. The
between horse sacrifice and Pravargya, at least theideas
spe- and "meanings" underlying enigmatic expressions
cific Pravargya of 1.164).
presuppose that an understanding of the totality of the
Or, if we adopt a different perspective, the classical
world is available. The cow should occupy a certain place
Pravargya ritual, which appears to be structurally close
to life of the community when clouds and dawns are
in the
the one presupposed in 1.164, contains several elements

meaningfully to be called "cows." Both the special and
that point to a special connection with horses: apart the
from
common language constitute a "world": the "world" of
the horse dung used for fumigating the pot, a horse also
plays a role in fetching the clay; and use is made of pe131 Just as authors of the srautasutras have "abstracted" the
culiar horse-shaped plates; the so-called Rauhina cakes
of the simple animal sacrifice (niri.dha-pasubandha)
are placed on these before they are offered in the description
fire.
These interconnections lead to another supposition:from
thatthe complex Soma sacrifice which comprises some animal
cf. Weber 1868: 346f.
the post-rgvedic organizers of the ritual formed andsacrifices;
described the classical Pravargya ritual after the model132
ofThe association of the classical Pravargya with stories
about
the elaborate form of the Pravargya connected with
thesevered heads of gods, seers, and horses would also become understandable in the light of the heads to be placed in the
royal horse sacrifice, and allowed this form to accompany
even a simple Soma sacrifice (where the elements confirst layer of the fire altar; cf. the Pravargya brahmana told in
different
nected with the horse seem mostly and originally out
of versions in SB 14.1.1, KathA, TA 5.1; and the legend of
Dadhyafc and the Asvins (see ?9.3); cf. also Heesterman 1985;
place). If the classical Pravargya is indeed "abstracted"
1993: 71-75.
from a larger ritual complex centering around the sacri-
527
its linguistic community. But while the common language

seeks to represent things directly, as such, without ambi-
a hymn such as 10.177; hymns such as 10.114 and 10.135

contain strong resonances, but their authors seem to have
guity, the special language gives the "meaning" of things

in their inner relatedness; hence this special language of
dealt with similar mythologemes in divergent ways.

Against this background, the intensity but also diver-
riddles and enigmas becomes as polysemic as the world

when "seen from inside," i.e., from the point of view of
gence of the reflections given in the Pravargya liturgies of
these inner relationships. The structure of the world view
usually for the Rgveda-reference is made to two alterna-
of the common language becomes accessible only if it is

studied thoroughly, the speakers have their "world" but
do not know it. The "world" of the special language, on
the upper half of heaven, according to others in the lower
the contrary, shows its framework first. So much emphasis is placed on this framework of structural relationships
that single facts fade away behind them. The special language posits the world as a system. This was a conscious
act which created a dividing line between the knowers

and the ignorant, and which made initiation necessary.
The sociological dimension of this special language is,
therefore, that its knowledge provides access to a certain
community, the cohesion of which is formed precisely by
that language and the world view incorporated in it.133
As we have seen, a "world system," in which the lifeprinciple, breath, and inspiration (or all three in one) of
1.164 come to the fore in verse 12, in which-quite untive views: according to some the sun as year resides in
half. Both views are formulated in the "special language"
of enigmas. Even more remarkably, in two verses of the
third liturgy, 46 and 51, the author goes beyond the images
and symbols of the hymn, steps beyond its "special language," outside its language game. In vs. 46 he observes
that a single reality underlies the numerous mythologi-
cal notions-Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, the heavenly

bird'34-to which the inspired priests address themselves:
a reflective, "philosophical" statement is juxtaposed to

the mythology pervading 1.164 and most of the Rgveda.
In vs. 51 the author gives in simple and direct terms the
rain theory135 that is formulated elsewhere (vss. 7, 47,
partly in 52) in the otherwise dominant enigmatic lan-
the individual (microcosm) are intimately connected with
guage of the hymn. It is not difficult to see connections
those of Agni, whose highest manifestation is the sun

(macrocosm), is much more prominent in RV 1.164 than
reality that becomes diverse with different names (e.g.,
Porzig could suspect when he formulated the views paraphrased above. Porzig also did not realize how much and
how systematically the world view expressed in the hymn
is paralleled and "illustrated" in the ritual. Although we
between vs. 46 and upanisadic reflections on a single
ChandU 6.1.3-6), and between vs. 51 and upanisadic

doctrines of fire and the cycle of water (ChandU 5.3-10,
BAU 6.2, KausU 1).136
We see, moreover, that the hymn and ritual, if their
have given only a few hints, it may further be noted that

the "special language" of 1.164 is continuous with that of
intimate interconnections are highlighted, turn out to be
many other rgvedic hymns and their enigmatic and mytho-
ritual), the initiate (microcosmos), and the sun (macrocosmos), and especially the life-principle, prdna, and in-
logical statements, even if the specific system expressed

in 1.164 (and in the classical Pravargya) seems to be relatively unique. A direct correspondence may be found in
strongly focused on associating the Gharma pot (world of
spiration in all three. It is not difficult to see a connection
with upanisadic reflections on the intimate relation and

ultimate identity of individual soul and universal soul.
133 On this view, the difficulty and obscurity of the hymn is
not so much a matter of our lack of background informationinformation on account of which the early authors and public
would have regarded the statements as rather transparent (Brown
1968: 199 [1978: 53]), nor of a conscious effort directly aiming

at obscurity (Thompson 1997: 35). Rather, the attempt to express
If RV 1.164 is placed back where it apparently belonged, in the heart of the Pravargya ritual, fresh light
falls also on a more specific problem in the early history
of Indian thought. The Brhaddranyaka Upanisad, which
forms the last six adhyayas of the fourteenth book of the
Satapatha Brdhmana, contains a section on a so-called
the inner connection of things forced the poets and thinkers to
use a special language, which unavoidably created a distinction

between those who understand it and those who do not. In the
134 To these terms mentioned in 46ab, pada c adds Agni (second

time), Yama, and Matarigvan.
words of Porzig: "Seit es Sprache gibt, gibt es auch die beiden

Strebungen des Geistes: eine Welt zu haben rein als Tatsich-
from a moder point of view is, of course, irrelevant to our ap-
lichkeit und eine Welt zu wissen als durchsichtiges System. Die

Welt als System zu setzen war stets bewusste Tat, sie schuf eine
Schranke zwischen Wissenden und Nichtwissenden, sie brachte
die Notwendigkeit der Einweihung" (1925: 656).
135 Whether we regard it as fully or partly correct or incorrect
preciation of the theoretical attitude apparently underlying the

statement.
136 Cf. Frauwallner (1953: 48ff.) on this doctrine, as basically

a doctrine of the cycle of water.
528
"honey doctrine" (BAU 2.5 = SB 14.5.5). According to the

translator, R. E. Hume, this section deals with "the co-
2.5.16), these earlier places in the SB already hint at the

very upanisadic "honey doctrine" explained in BAU 2.5 =
relativity of all things cosmic and personal, and the absoluteness of the immanent Soul" (1931: 102).137 The latter
is said concerning the "honey doctrine" as is relevant to the
part of this section refers to Dadhyafc Atharvana and

the Agvins: it is said that this "honey" (i.e., the "honey
doctrine") was disclosed to the Asvins by Dadhyaiic

Atharvana through the head of a horse, and in support of
this statement RV 1.116.12 is quoted:
tad vam nard sandye ddmsa ugrdm
avis krnomi tanyatu'r nd vrstim I
dadhyadh ha ydn mddhv dtharvano vam
dsvasya sirsna prd ydd im uvaca II

That formidable deed of yours (which you did) for gain,138
o heroes, I make known, as thunder (makes known the
coming) rain: that Dadhyaic Atharvana declared to you

two that which is "honey" through the head of a horse.
In an earlier section of the SB (14.1.1.25) devoted to the

Pravargya, the same verse is referred to and connected
with the story that Dadhyaic Atharvana explained the
knowledge of the Pravargya and how the Soma sacrifice
is made complete with it. And in SB 14.1.4.13, in the

explanation of a formula containing the word mddhu
'honey', reference is made to Dadhyafic Atharvana giving
to the Asvins a doctrinal explanation called "honey" (md-
dhu nama brdhmanam). According to Safikara (on BAU

137 Here is Hume's translation of paragraphs 1 and 15 (with mi-
SB 14.5.5. In the early references, however, only that much
Pravargya, while the secret part dealing with knowledge of
the self is not stated there. Thus, Safikara distinguishes

between a "honey doctrine" dealing with the Pravargya
ritual, and a "honey doctrine" concerning knowledge of
the self propounded in the upanisad, but his comments remain unsatisfactory in that he gives no hint how these two
quite diverse doctrines should be linked.'39 With RV 1.164
placed in the Pravargya, however, the focus of this ritual

on associating the initiated and the sun (and the Gharma
pot) becomes apparent. Verses such as 7, 47, and 51 point

to the mutual relation of heaven and earth. We further saw
that "honey" and a sweet fig played a special role in a few

verses, 20-22. RV 1.164 does not contain statements exactly similar to those found in BAU 2.5, but it shows that
there was scope for elaboration of very similar themes in
the heart of the Pravargya. It is no longer difficult to see
connections to the upanisadic Madhu brahmana.
10. While the preceding treatment of RV 1.164 is open to

numerous interpretational elaborations, adjustments, and
variations, the most important conclusion to be drawn is
that the alignment of the symbolic language of the hymn
and the symbolic forms of the Pravargya ritual (together

with the Avantaradiksa) greatly advances the interpretation of both. We saw emerge a complex ritual structure,
with the Pravargya and Avantaradiksa linked in a novel
ing the Madhyandina recension): "1. This earth is honey (mddhu)
and revealing way,'40 and directed to eliciting experiences

and reflections with regard to the fundamental forces of
individual and cosmic life. This ritual structure functioned
for all creatures (bhutanam), and all creatures are honey (mddhu)
as a "laboratory" of early speculative reflection, from
nor adaptations, with some Sanskrit words inserted, and follow-
for this earth. This shining (tejomdya), immortal (amrtamdya)

Person who is in this earth, and, with reference to oneself (adhy-
dtmdm) this shining, immortal Person who is in the body-he,
139 The gap between the two comes out clearly in the formu-
indeed, is just this Soul (atmdn), this Immortal, this Brahma, this
lation of Jog and Hino: "The Asvin-legend was narrated in the
All."
portion of Pravargya (Pravargyakanda), because performance of
"15. Verily, this Soul (dtmdn) is the overlord of all creatures,
the Pravargya rite was needed for the restoration of the head of
the king of all creatures. As all spokes (ard) are held together in the sacrifice and madhu forms a part of this Pravargya rite. In
the hub and felly of a wheel (rathandbhdu ca rathanemdu), just
connection with the Pravargya rite, madhu means a pot of boiled
so in this Soul all breaths (prannd), all worlds, all gods, all crea- milk and ghee. And when it is connected with the Asvin-legend
tures, all these selves are held together."
madhu means 'the sweet doctrine of the Pravargya"' (1988:
Paragraph 18, on the person (purusa) living in citadels, may be xxii). Though this is not clear from Jog's and Hino's remarks,
compared with SB 9.2.3.44, on seven logs (identified as prdnas) Safikara does suggest a basic continuity of the ritual and the
for the fire altar (Agni), seven tongues of fire (identified as seven "philosophical" madhu when he writes: ydvat tu pravargyakar-
persons who are made into one), and seven seers (rsis).
mdigabhutam madhu tdvad eva tatra (i.e., in the Pravargya
138 Geldner takes sandye with avis krnomi ("kiinde ich, um section) abhihitam, na tu kaksyam atmajn~dnkhyam.
belohnt zu werden, an"), but its place would speak in favor of 140 Implications for our understanding of rgvedic initiation
taking it with the Asvin's formidable deed, as also Sankara does will be discussed in "The Avantaradiksa, or Rudimentary Initiin his comments on BAU 2.5.16.
ation of the Pravargya" (Houben, forthcoming a).
529
which connections can be made to upanisadic speculation
vant rules of the Avantaradiksa and the Pravargya. But
and philosophy. Already in the early testimony of Rgveda
the structures that have emerged from our study seem to
1.164 we see that the authors occasionally step beyond

mythology and ritualism, beyond the "limits" of their
have been lost sight of and apparently also had fallen out
of use already at the time of interpreters such as Sayana,
"Sondersprache" and ritual, and juxtapose a "philoso-
whom one can hardly expect to have knowingly remained
pheme" with the mythologemes of their tradition (esp.
entirely silent about them.143
vs. 46). While the ritual seems to have functioned as a sta-
For the earlier period, however, it seems that Paul
bilizing structure, there were open-ended elements which

invited elaboration and speculation, and, hence, unavoid-
Deussen was, after all, not so wrong in emphasizing the

extraordinary importance of 1.164 in the history of Indian
ably also diversification. It is not likely that the whole

complex of ideas and textual and ritual structures I have
philosophy.44 As in ancient Greece, philosophy developed
sketched above in broad outline was entirely homogeneous. Rather the contrary. The variations resulting
from the elaborations and speculations seem to have
tion. But there it was the written transmission of ideas
affected not only theoretical views (expressed in terms of
wind-sun complex underlies the three Pravargya liturgies
ancient India, where writing came into use for transmitting philosophical thought at a later date than in Greece
(cf. Falk 1993; Houben, forthcoming b), it was initially
the ritually stabilized transmission of ideas which en-
of RV 1.164, the Atharvaveda, in hymns 9.9 and 10,
abled successive thinkers to do the same.
the "Sondersprache," cf. 1.164.12) but also the form of the
mythologemes involved. For instance, while a Gharma-
together corresponding to RV 1.164.1-46, brings in also

the moon (AV 9.10.9); in khila 3.22 of RV, the first four
verses of which are recited by the hotr in the classical
Pravargya, verses 5-10 deal with sun and moon.'41
How long did the ritual structure continue to function
in dialogue with the mythologemes of a sacred tradiwhich enabled subsequent thinkers to deal with similar
problems and make progress in certain directions.'45 In
143 While the great epics Mahabharata and Ramayana discuss some of the ritual aspects of the Asvamedha in detail, refer-
as a "laboratory" of early speculative reflection? Yajur-
ences to the Pravargya are very shallow; the duty to perform
vedic influences have apparently standardized the Pravargya to the relatively homogeneous form which we know
now from the various suitras;'42 but the standardization
cance, importance, or secrecy. Cf. the Asvamedhika section of the
Mahabharata (14.90.20, crit. ed.): "the knowers of the law (and)
seems to have choked or blocked the creativity of rgvedic
best of the brahmins properly (yathavat) performed the Pra-
poets. Philosophical reflection continued in situations

as known from the upanisads: in discussions between
students, brahmins, and kings. Did the Avantaradiksa-
the prescriptions (vidhivat), o king, with the pressing (of the
Pravargya complex in that period continue to function at
had performed the Pravargya and the Upasad, according to the
least as an effective context for initiation of the Veda stu-
texts (sastratah), the brahmins proceeded, according to the pre-
dent? The Yajurvedins, in any case, transmitted all rele-
it is heavily emphasized without a hint at its possible signifi-
vargya, and likewise these brahmins proceeded according to

Soma)"; and Ramayana, Balakanda (13.4, crit. ed.): "After they
scriptions (vidhivat), with all additional rites, according to the
texts (sastratah)." Had the Pravargya already become a hollow

construct when these epics were composed?
141 It is difficult to say whether this also affected the interpre-
tation of other verses, e.g., those for which modem interpreters
144 "Dieser gewaltiger Hymnus steht an der Spitze der ganzen
Entwicklung der indischen Philosophie .. ." (Deussen 1920: 105).
have proposed the moon as intended referent: cf. RV 1.164.20,
145 It is well known that Plato and Socrates had a low opinion
which deals with the sun and moon according to Hillebrandt
of writing as a means to transmit philosophical thought (Phae-
(1913: 105), and with the waxing and waning moon according to
drus 274c-275B). According to an anecdote recounted by Al-
Thieme (1949: 60); of the three long-haired ones in RV 1.164.44
beruni, Socrates, when asked why he did not compose books,
the second is the moon, according to Porzig (1925: 649), while
replied: "I do not transfer knowledge from the living hearts of
the first (the "shaving" one) is the moon, according to Hillebrandt
men to the dead hides of sheep" (Sachau 1888: 170). This indi-
(1927: 397 n. 1).

142 Cf. Witzel 1997: 289-92.
cates that topics similar to those which Socrates discussed were

at that time already being dealt with in writing.
530
530 ~~~~~Journal of the American Oriental Society 120.4 (2000)
ABBREVIATIONS
et al. (Poona, 1972); with Kegava's KauSika-Paddhati, ed. V. P.
AiA: Aitareya-Aranyaka, ed. and tr. A. B. Keith (Oxford, 1909).
AiB: Aitareya-Brdhmanta, ed. Th. Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879); tr.
Limaye et al. (Poona, 1982).

Kau~sU: Kau~sitaki-Upanisad, in Eighteen Principal Upani~sads,
A. B. Keith (Cambridge, Mass., 1920).
ApSS: Apastamba-?rauta-SiUtra, ed. Garbe (Bibliotheca Indica,

1882-1902); tr. Caland (Gottingen 1921, Amsterdam 1924-
ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D. Vadekar (Poona, 1958).

KB: Kausitaki-Brdhmana, ed. B. Lindner (Jena, 1887); tr. A. B.
Keith (Cambridge, Mass., 1920).
1928).
A?vgS: A?valdyana-?rauta-Siitra, ed. R. Vidyaratna (Calcutta,
KSS: Kdityiiyana-Srauta-Siatra, with Saraldvrtti of Vidyddharagarman (Kd?i, 1930; second ed., Delhi, 1990).
1864; repr. Calcutta, 1989); tr. K. Mylius (Wichtrach
MS: Maitrayaniya-Satphittd, ed. L. von Schroeder (Leipzig,
[Switz.], 1994).
AV or AV(?): Atharvaveda, Saunakiya version, ed. Roth, Whitney
188 1-86).
and Lindenau (Berlin, 1924); tr. Whitney (Cambridge, Mass., MSS: Manava-Srauta-SiUra, ed. and tr. J. M. van Gelder (New
Delhi, 1961-63).
1905).
AVPaip: Paippaldda-Samhitd of the AV, books 1- 15, ed. D. Bhat-Nir: Nirukta, ed. and tr. L. Sarup (London and Lahore, 1920-27).
tacharya (Calcutta, 1997); books 19-20, ed. Leroy Carr Bar-
RV: R?gveda-Samihita, with Sfiyana's comm. (4 vols.), 2nd ed.

(Poona, 1972-84; incl. khilas in vol. 4); ed. B. van Nooten
ret (New Haven, Conn., 1940).
AVPar: Atharvaveda-PariKista, ed. Bolling and von Negelein;
and G. Holland (Cambridge, Mass., 1994); tr. Geldner (Cambridge, Mass., 1951).
rev. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi, 1976).
BAU: Brhad-Aranyaka-Upanisad, in Eighteen Principal Upani- g?gvidh: R?gvidhana, ed. M. S. Bhat (Delhi, 1987).
sads, ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D. Vadekar (Poona, 1958).
SB: Satapatha-Brdhmanza (Mkidhyandina), ed. Weber (London,
BrhadD: Brhad-Devatd, ed. and tr. A. A. Macdonell (Cambridge,
1855); tr. J. Eggeling (Oxford, 1882-1900).

SdnkhSS: Sdrikhtiyana-Srauta-Siitra, ed. Hillebrandt (Calcutta,
Mass., 1904).
BSS: Baudhiiyana-Srauta-Stitra, ed. W. Caland (Calcutta,
1888); tr. Caland (ed. Raghu Vira) (Nagpur, 1953).
TA: Taittirtya-Aranyaka, ed. Rajendralal Mitra (Calcutta, 1872);
1904-23).
ChandU: Chdndogya-Upanisad, in Eighteen Principal Upanisads, ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D. Vadekar (Poona, 1958).
[book S translated in Houben 1991].
VtidhSS: Vddhiila-Srauta-Satra, ed. B. B. Chaubey (Hoshiar-
JUB: Jaimintya-Upanisad-Brdhmana, ed. and tr. H. Oertel

(JAOS 16 [1896]).
pur, 1993).
VS: Vdjasaneyi-Samnhitd (Madhyandina), ed. A. Weber (London,
KathA: Katha-Aranzyaka, ed. and tr. M. Witzel, 1972.
1852).
Kau?ikaS: Kausgika-SiUtra, with DTfila-Bhfisya, ed. H. R. Diwekar
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APPENDIX: Rgveda 1.164
The translations of the verses offered here are in no way intended to be definitive; nor are the suggested interpretations to be taken as ex
native ones. Rather, the translations and suggestions should point out how the verses can function in a certain ritual context, viz., that of
connected with a horse sacrifice, referring back to the initiatory period called "Avantaradiksa" of the Veda student. (My interpretative sug
inserted in parentheses.)
SUMMARY OF STRUCTURE
(A, B, and C refer to the episodes of the regular Pravargya performance, Table I)
"prana"-life-speech-interpretation
I(A) 1-22: context: fanning/heating of the Pravargya-
(B) 40-41: context: inviting, milking the cow

pot vision at the fanning/heating of the Pravargya-
(C) 41bcd, 42: context: adding milk to the heated pot

pot; reflections and speculations connected with
fiery pillar arises; raingiving cloud is hinted at.
Pravargya in sun-interpretation
23-25: extra speculations on sacred speech: meters
and samans and their cosmic and ritual capacities

III (A) 43-48: context: fanning/heating of the Pravarg
(cf. position and contents of TA 4.6.1-2[1])
pot; vision concerning the heating of the pot; reflec
(B) 26-28: context: inviting, milking the cow
tions and speculations connected with Pravargya in
(C) 29: context: adding milk to the heated pot, fiery

sun-interpretation, and speech.
pillar arises; thunderstorm, lightning are hinted at.

(B) 49: context: inviting, milking the cow (Sarasvat
(C) 50-52: arising of fiery pillar and cloud to heave
(? 50); relation between rain and sacrificial fires; sun

I (A) 30-39: context: fanning/heating of the Pravargya-
pot;vision concerning the heated pot; reflections

(Sarasvat) as giver of rain.
and speculations connected with Pravargya and
TRANSLATION
I (A)
2. Seven (priest-seers) yoke (employ in their sacrifice) the

1. This dear, aged priest (Agni as the sun) has a ravenous
one-wheeled chariot (the sun as the year); one horse (the
sun) with seven names draws it.
middle brother (lightning); his third brother (terrestrial
fire, esp. the Gharma pot) has ghee on his back. Triple-naved,
In this age-less, unstoppable is the wheel (the year)
on orgawhich all creatures stand.
one I saw the lord of the communities (the sun as
nizer of cosmos and ritual) with seven sons (seven

priest-seers).
3. The seven (priests) that are standing on the chariot, as
seven horses they draw it as a seven-wheeled chariot
534
(sacrificial time, deriving from cosmic time; a seven-fold
11. With twelve spokes-for it does not become old-the
ritual cycle?).
wheel of the truthful order (the Sun as year) turns on and
Seven sisters (seven voices, tones), in whom the seven
on around the sky. Sons, in pairs, o Agni, seven hundred
names of the cows are deposited, collectively sing songs

of praise.
and twenty (360 days and 360 nights), are standing on it.
12. The father (sun as year) with five feet and twelve shapes,
the affluent, they say, is in the upper half of heaven. But
Note: Verse 3ab amounts to an apparent paradox
these others say that the wide-seeing one (the sun) is in
which one need not avoid in one's translation (as Geld-
ner and others do): the paradox forces one to reflect on
the lower (half of heaven), fixed in the seven-wheeled,
a different way to understand the statement. The priests
six-spoked chariot.
embark on an elaborate (year-long) sacrifice, they are

carried forth by it but are also the ones who make it
Note: the propounders of various, sometimes quite

divergent, theories are referred to, here (12a, 12d) and in
proceed.
several of the subsequent verses (15a, 16a, 19ab, 22c).
4. Who has seen (i.e.: no mortal can ever have seen it!; or
13. On this five-spoked wheel as it revolves all creatures /
perhaps: only someone with extraordinary vision, cf.
worlds have their support.
18) the first one having bones (man, but also, adhiyajia,
Its axle, carrying a heavy load, does not get heated.
the pot) being born when the bone-less one (the earth,
Never at all does it wear out in its nave.
clay for the pot) bore him? Where, then, was the spirit
14. The wheel and its felly, unaging, has turned around; ten
(dsu), the blood (dsrj), the breath (atmdn) of the earth?
yoked (horses) draw it over the stretched out (heaven?).
Who can approach a knower to ask this?
The eye of Surya (the sun) proceeds covered in a haze.

On it are fixed all creatures / worlds.
5. Immature I ask in my mind, not knowing, about the hidden locations of the gods. Over the grown-up calf (vatsd,
15. The seventh of those born together, they say, is born
also: the pot about to be set aglow) the inspired poets
alone. Six form pairs (3 x 2). They are regarded as seers
(kav) have stretched seven threads, in order to weave
born from the gods. Those desired by these (the days
(on these).
and nights) are arranged in order; to the one who stands
6. Not (yet) perceiving (dcikitvan, also the pot: not yet
(on the chariot) those who are alternating their form
shining) I ask those here who perceive (/ shine); not

knowing (I ask), in order to know it:
(days and nights) are trembling.
16. Though they (the seasons) are (according to their gener-
What is the One in the form of the unborn who propped
ative nature?) females they tell me they are males (as
apart these six regions? (Cf. 10 and 14).
their names are masculine?). The one having eyes will

see, the blind one will not perceive it. The poet who is
7. He should tell it here who knows it properly: the hidden

location of this beloved bird (the sun). From the head of
a son has perceived him. He who will know these (fe-
him (the sun) the cows (clouds) milk (rain); enveloping
males) will be his father's father.
themselves in clothing (water vapor) they drunk the water
17. Below the higher one and above the lower one (i.e., just
through the foot (through the sun beams on the earth).
above the horizon), the cow (dawn) has stood up, bring-
8. The mother (dawn, mother of the young sun; earth,
ing a calf (the young sun) with her foot. (Or: cow = jet
mother of the pot) gave the father (heaven) a share, in
of milk, foot is lower part which enters the Gharma pot/
accordance with the truthful order; for in the beginning
calf.) Where, to what side did she go away? Where did
she united with him through her insight and thought. Re-
she give birth? For she is not in the herd. (Just as the
coiling, she was pierced and got the sap (or seed) in her
cow set apart for the Pravargya-the cow not for
womb. Reverent (worshipers) approached to bring praise.
slaughter-is not in the herd.)
9. The mother (also: the cow employed in the Pravargya
18. "Below the higher one," he who knows accordingly its
ritual) was yoked to the chariot pole of the Daksina

(sacrificial fee, hence: sacrifice; cf. RV 1.123.1, 5); its
(the calf's) father; "above the lower one," showing him-
child (also: the Pravargya pot) was standing in the
who) can declare here whence the divine mind (in the
enclosures.
Gharma pot brought to life, in the participant receiving
The calf lowed after the cow-and noticed the glittering
inspiration) has sprung forth?
self to be a true inspired poet (kavi)-who (is that one
(fem.) (viz., cow; also: ghee) among the three teams (of
19. They say that those (the seasons) that are directed hitherpriests / songs-recitations-formulas).
10. The One, carrying three mothers and three fathers, is
wards (that are coming) are the same as those directed

thitherwards (that are going), and that those that are di-
standing upright; in no way do they weary him. At the
rected thitherwards are the same as those directed hither-
back of yonder heaven they (the knowing/perceiving
wards (cf. SB 8.5.2.10).
ones?) pronounce the speech which possesses all but
The things (days and nights) which Indra and you, o
does not inspire all.
Soma, have created, (these things) are drawing (the atmo-
535
sphere, from light to darkness to light etc.?) as if yoked to

*
the chariot pole of the atmosphere.
20. Two birds (sun and Gharma pot), companions and
II
(A)
30. Breathing, life is res

bling (yet) stable, in th
(adhiyajiia: in the boilin
about according to the
(material body-adhiyajnia: the pot-which is dead
friends, embrace a common tree. One of the two eats the
sweet fig (the "light of life and inspiration"). The other
one looks on without eating.
21. Here, where birds, in congregation, vigilantly sing of

their share in immortalimty, the lord of the entire world,
without the life-principle); (he, life, prana, is) immortal,
the herdsman, the sage, entered me (Gharma pot / Veda-
having a common birthplace with the mortal (the pot

having now "life" in it but which will again become
student in Avantaradiksa), the immature one.
22. The tree in which birds eating honey all nestle and
breed-in its top, they say, is the sweet fig; he who does
life-less after the ceremony).
31. I saw the herdsman (Sun / prana), never taking rest,

wandering hither and thither on his pathways. Envelop-
not know the father does not reach it.
ing himself in those (waters, currents of boiling ghee)
23. That the Gayatri (line) is based on the Gayatri (hymn)
that converge, in those that spread out, he moves around
and around in the worlds / creatures.

[smaller on the larger unit, rather than the other way
round], and that the Tristubh (line) is fashioned out of 32. He who made it (breath, a single breathing) does not
the Tristubh (hymn), and that the Jagati (line) is based on
the Jagati (hymn): only those who know this have attained immortality.
24. According to the Gayatri line (/ hymn?) one makes the

song of praise (from smaller to larger unit); according to
the song of praise a chant, according to the Tristubh line
the recitation.
know it; he who perceived it, from him it has disappeared; enveloped in its mother's womb, it entered
destruction, while being rich in progeny.
33. Heaven is my father, the genitor; here is my kinship.

My relative and mother is this wide earth. My womb is
in between the two outstretched receptacles (heaven

and earth). Here the father placed his daughter's embryo (in her).
According to the two- and four-lined recitation (one

makes again a larger) recitation; according to the sylla- 34. I ask you about the farthest end of the earth; I ask where
is the navel of the world; I ask about the seed of the poble they make the seven voices (or tones).
tent stallion; I ask about the final abode of speech.
25. With the Jagat (Saman, melody) he established the river
35. This altar is the farthest end of the earth; this sacrifice
in heaven; in the Rathantara (melody) he had a complete
is the navel of the world; this Soma is the seed of the
vision of the sun; there are three kindling sticks to the
potent stallion; this Brahmin (priest) here is the final
Gayatra (melody), they say. (Nevertheless the Gayatra)
abode of speech.
goes far beyond the (other) two (tdtas is rarely or no36. The seven (primeval seers who are) children of the (two
where "therefore" in the RV) in its greatness.
cosmic) halves (heaven and earth) (just as the initiate,
I (B)
cf. 33) are intent on expanding (vidharmani as inf. with
26. I call hither this cow easy to milk; and a dexterous
Geldner) the seed of the world at Visnu's command.
milker shall milk her. May Savitr incite us with a per-
fect incitement. The Gharma (pot) is heated: this I
Through their thoughts and mind, they, the wise ones,

are surpassers that surpass (everything) on all sides.
37. I (Gharma pot / Veda student in Avantaradiksa) do not
hereby announce.
27. Making a hii-sound, longing for the calf in her mind,

the mistress of riches has come near. Let this (cow
which is) not for slaughter give milk for the two Asvins;
let her prosper for great happiness.
know just what (what kind of thing) it is that I am; con-
cealed, bound (blindfolded), I wander in my mind.

When the firstborn of the truthful order (Agni) has come
to me, I immediately obtain a share of this speech.
28. The cow has lowed after the calf which blinks its eye; 38. He (the living one, jivd, prand in the boiling ghee)
she was making a hifi-sound to begin lowing. Yearning
for the hot mouth (of the calf; ideally that of the heated
Gharma pot), she lows her lowing, swells with milk.
I (C)
29.
This one is humming, by which the cow (the milk) is
enveloped. She (the milk) lows a lowing (when she is)

placed on the sparkling (fire). With her cracklings she
has indeed put down the mortal. Transforming herself
to lightning (vidyut), she pushed back her covering

(the pot).
recedes and goes forward, held fast by (his or the pot's)

own capacity, immortal, having a common birthplace
(the fire) with the mortal (the "enlivened" clay pot).

These two (the mortal, the clay pot; and the immortal,
the life-breath) are always going apart, in separate directions. Although people see the one (the clay pot), they do
not (normally) see the other (the living one, jivd, prand).
39. The imperishable syllable of the verse of praise, the final
abode where all the gods are residing-he who does not
know it, what will he do with the verse of praise? Only
those who know it are sitting here together.
536
II (B)
path to the sky (sun rays return to heaven by night/flames
ascend through smoke). (And then) these (rays) have re-
40. May you, enjoying good pasturage, become happy; and
turned from the seat of the truthful order (heaven). Forth-
we too should like to be happy. Eat always grass, o (you

cow that are) not for slaughter; drink pure water, coming
with the earth is in all directions moistened with ghee
hither.
(i.e., prosperity).
II (B/C)
41. The cream-colored [cow] has lowed, making floods (of

milk); one-footed, two-footed, she [has become] four-
footed; having become eight- and nine-footed, she is

thousand-syllabled in the final abode.
II (C)
42. From her the oceans flow in all directions, by this the
48. The felly-pieces are twelve, the wheel (year) is one, the
nave-pieces three; who has understood this? On it are
placed, as it were, 360 pegs that do not wobble.
III (B)
49. This everflowing teat of yours (o cow), refreshing, with

which you make all valuable things thrive, which gives
treasures, finds wealth, is liberal-Sarasvati, make this
four quarters of space are living; thereupon flows the syl-
(teat) ready for suckling (by the calf, to get prepared for
lable (/ the imperishable or non-flowing); on it the whole
the milking for the Gharma).
world subsists.
III (C)
50. With the sacrifice the gods sacrified to the sacrifice: these
were the first regulations. These greatnesses reached up
III (A)
43. From afar I saw the smoke of dung (for fumigating the
freshly formed Gharma pot just before baking it), in
the middle, above this lower one (i.e., at the Garha-
to the vault of heaven, where the ancient Sadhyas reside
as gods.
51. This water, being the very same, goes up and downward,
patya). The heroes cooked the spotted bull (the milk-and-
day by day.
ghee mixture in the Gharma-pot). These were the first

regulations.
by the fires.
44. Three long-haired ones show themselves in due season;

during the year one of them (fire, with flames as hair)
shaves (himself, strewing his hair/flames all around); one
(the sun, with rays as hair) surveys everything by means
of his powers; of one (the wind, with lightning as hair)
the rushing is seen but not his form.
45. Speech is measured in four quarters (pada). The Brahmins that are wise know these (four quarters). Three
(quarters), placed in secret, (ordinary) men do not stir
(employ effectively in the ritual): (only) one quarter of
speech they speak.
46. Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni they call it; and then it is the
heavenly bird Garutman.
One reality that is-the inspired priests speak of it as

many; they call it Agni, Yama, MatariSvan.
47. The yellow birds (sun rays/flames), enveloping them-
The rains are urging on the earth, and heav'n is urged on
52. The great heavenly well-winged bird, the beautiful

embryo of the waters, of the herbs, bringing satisfaction straight to (us) through rains, Sarasvat I invoke for
furtherance.
Note 1: Incidental reference to Pravargya episode D

(offering to Agvins) in 27c; to preparatory procedures (P) in
4, 43ab; to Avantaradiksa in 37.
Note 2: The yajurvedic avakada mantras (e.g., TA 4.7;

KathA 2.101i-115; VS 37.14-20) share one stanza with RV
1.164 (viz., 31), and are thematically closely parallel to the
A-parts of cycles I-III.
The yajurvedic milking mantras are parallel to the Bparts of cycles I-III (several mantras are identical).
The yajurvedic mantra svahd tvd siryasya rasmdye
vrstivd-naye juhomi "Svaha ! I offer you (the milk) to the
rain-winning beam of light (the beam of light which wins
rain for the worshiper)!" (TA 4.8.4[16]) is parallel to the Cparts of cycles I-III.
selves in the (evaporated) waters, fly up along the dark

I 164 Riddle Hymn

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I 164 Riddle Hymn

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The Ritual Pragmatics of a Vedic Hymn: The "Riddle Hymn" and the Pravargya Ritual

Author(s): Jan E. M. Houben

THE RITUAL PRAGMATICS OF A VEDIC HYMN:

The mind of man is framed even like the breath

And harmony of music.

tin Haug presented his paper on "Vedic riddle-questions

My acquaintance with the so-called riddle-hymn Rgveda

loosely connected or disconnected, or in other terms expressed a

tations proposed by numerous scholars, both in 1984-85 and

was presented at the 208th meeting of the American Oriental

Thomas Oberlies. Some excellent suggestions for improvement

indebted to Mr. Selukar Maharaj and Mr. Nana Kale, whothe

sources only had been taken into account. The investigations

1 Wordsworth, "The Prelude" (1805 version), 1.351-52.

4 V. Henry (1894: 107-14, 143-57; Oldenberg's review

2 Cf. W. N. Brown: "Translators and commentators who have

Journal of the American Oriental Society 120.4 (2000)

were formulated in the same kind of enigmatic language.13

Rgveda 1.164-traditionally attributed to the seer Dirgha-

ual context of the verses. His suggestion was that the

viz., 30 and 3814-deal with the universal problem of the

whole hymn is a collection of riddles once employed at

lection of "natural" lyrical poetry having little or nothing

tamas-and study them in detail, he was also the first to

address the problem of the original employment and rit-

medha the Srauta sources indeed prescribe verses 34 and

verses (Haug 1875: 457; 460-66).

10 "... the hymn (1.164) which is but a string of enigmas . . ."

1 "This long hymn consists mainly of disconnected riddles,

matically grouped,8 and Brown presented the hymn as

rather emphasized the unrelatedness of the verses-e.g.,

"Riddle of the Year" in world literature. Of interest is Thompson

tions to several of the "riddles" of 1.164 are not very convincing,

6 Cf. AsvSS 10.9.2-3, SankhSS 16.6.5-6 (the hotr asks, the

but some important observations are made on the language of

sacrificer answers); BSS 15.28-29 and ApSS 20.19.6-7 (here the

riddles (or one could say, enigmas) as "Sondersprache" which pre-

supposes certain social facts (the existence of a group of "know-

7 Deussen (1920: 105-19) had few followers in strongly em-

between things rather than to their phenomenal appearances).

phasizing a pervasive thematic unity in RV 1.164-as an "Ein-

that in Roth's view apparently deal with something else, is in har-

heitslied" dealing with the "unity in diversity" of phenomena.

mony with his assumption that the hymn is a "collection of riddles."

8 Geldner: "Die Str[ophen] lassen sich z.T gruppenweise

15 "Mit solchen Ratseln hat sich auch die alte Spruchdichtung

Boden jener fest umschriebenen minutiosen liturgischen Praxis

further by Johnson (1980), who made use of a modern text-

HOUBEN: The Ritual Pragmatics of a Vedic Hymn

scholars, who highlighted numerous continuities.17 In the

brahmodya. Johnson spoke of a "symposium," and de-

1892 article, Roth argues especially against construing

scribed its nature, function, and aim with much imagina-

words in meanings known only from later ritual sources,

tion, but with few philological data to support his view.21

but he does not explicitly reject Haug's suggestion that

Thus, scholars after Haug have proposed numerous al-

the occasion for which the riddle-verses were intended

ternative interpretations for problematic verses, but with

responding with descriptions in later ritual texts).18

Rgveda aand vedic ritual it is time to take a fresh look

at thistoproblem. We start with a consideration of the

stances, the strongest possible confirmation that this is the

one proposed by Haug: that of the ritual discussion or case