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FROM BYZANTIUM

TO EL GRECO

G R E E K

FR E SC O E S A N D

IC O N S

E d ito r o f th e c a talo g u e
d r

C O M M ITTEE OF HONOUR

M Y R TA LI A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U

D e s ig n a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c a ta lo g u e
R A C H E L M IS D R A C H I-C A P O N

E n g lish tr a n s la t io n

H IS E M I N E N C E A R C H B I S H O P M E T H O D I O S O F T tf Y A T l IK A A N D G R E A T B R I T A I N
T H E RT. H O N . T H E L O R D H A IL S H A M Ol S I
LORD CHANCELLOR

M A R Y l, I H O N E ,

d r D A V ID A. H A R D Y

E d ito ria l ad v iso r


D IA N A Z A FIR O PO U L O U

E d ito r ia l assistant
P H A ID R A K A L A FA TIS

A rtistic ad v iso r

P u b lic a tio n assistant

M OSES CAPON

L IK A SA K K I

E x h ib itio n d esign

JA S P E R JA C O B A SSO C IA T ES

D e s ig n a d v is o r to t h e
G r e e k M in istry o f C u lt u r e

M ADAM E M E L IN A M E R C O U R I

M in ister o f C u ltu re , A th e n s
H is E x cellen cy th e G r e e k
A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n ,
MR STEPHANOS STATHATOS
PROFESSOR C O N S T A N T IN E T r V p A N I S

A N T O N IS K Y R IA K O U L IS

P h o to g ra p h s
9, 11, 12, 16,

B R IT ISH M U S E U M

P resid en t of th e A th e n s A c a d e m y
M A N O L IS C H A T Z ID A M S
o f th e A th e n s A ca d em y

T H E RT. H O N

11 i s I x c c l l a n c y ( I n

M R R O C I R DE

6 7, 6 8 , 6 9, 70
3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17,

M. S K IA D A R E S IS

18, 2 0 , 2 1 b , 22 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 25 , 26 , 2 8 ,
2 9 , 31, 3 2, 3 4 , 3 7 , 3 8, 39, 4 1, 42,
4 5, 4 6 , 4 7, 4 9, 5 0 , 53, 54, 5 6, 57,
6 0 , 6 2 , 6 2 a , 63, 64, 65 , 7 1 , 7 2, 73
A d d itio n a l p h o to g ra p h s for th e ex h ibition
I KDOT1KE ATH EN O N . N A T IO N A L B A N K O F G R E E C E

S tripping
G. PA PA PA N A G O PO U LO S

T y p e-setting
IO T O G R A M M A L ID .
( 'o l o u r s e p a r a t i o n
M i l I IA11 I D E S B R O S .

Print
L. K A R Y D A K I S
S. K A R Y D A K I S
(C o lo u r plates and cover)

) I ' m / < Io r k M i n i l l i y ill ( u l l m i i

Hyzsinliiu M u s e u m o f A t h e n s

All riglils i c s c i v e i l . N n p u l ol (liir. p u b l i c a t i o n m a y be r e p r o d u c e d o r


I r a n s m i l l c i l in liny f o r m o r by a n y m e n u s , e l e c t r o n i c o r m e c h a n i c a l ,
i n c l u d i n g p h o l o e o p y , rec o i t l in j i o r a n y i n l o n n a l i o n s t o r a g e a n d
r e t r i e v a l s y s l c m , w illio u l p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t in g Ironi t h e p u b l i s h e r
(I:_) ol p h o t o g r a p h s
B r i t i s h M u s e u m 9, I I , 12, 16. A < C o o p e r 3 0 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 59, 61. B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m o f
A t h e n s a n d a u t h o r s o f t h e e n t r i e s 1-K, 10, 13-15, 1 7 - 2 9 , 3 1 - 3 9 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 4 - 5 8 , 6 0 , 6 2 - 7 3

C over illustration: Cat. no. 35


P rinted a n d b o u n d in Greece, 1987

lim it,h

< IRI

n n i ii i n . lit S I I VI N Kl IN< [ M A N i n
P n siili nl ol Hi ini i> ly lm 1 111 I' i m u u io n
ol l l y / i i n l m r Nlijj!<

3 6, 44, 4 8 , 51 , 52, 55, 58, 66,

BYZANTINE MUSEUM OF ATHENS

Ml*

P r c i i k ' i i l o l 11 n ' K o v i i l A i i u l r m y

1, 2 , 6, 19, 2 1 a , 27, 33, 35,

G. B A L IS,

I I '( I

A m b a s s a d o r in A llii'iis,
S I R II R I M Y II I ( ( M A S . M O

30 , 40, 43, 59, 61

A .C . C O O P E R

l <l ( H A R D

M i n i s t e r lo-t t i n A i l s , I i i n t l n i i

C O O R D IN A T IN G C O M M IT T E E

SPY R O S M E R C O U R IS
Special A d v is o r to th e G r e e k M in ister o f C u ltu re , C h a ir m a n
P IE R S R O D G E R S
S ecretary , R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A rts, L o n d o n
N O R l^ A N R O S E N T H A U
E x h ib itio n s S e c re ta ry , R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r ts , L o n d o n
E L E F T H E R IO S IK O N O M O U
G r e e k M inistry o f C u ltu re
V IC T O R IA SO L O M O N ID IS
C u l t u r a l A t t a c h e , G r e e k E m b a s s y in L o n d o n

O R G A N IZ IN G C O M M IT T E E

M A N O L1S C H A T Z ID A K IS ,
o f th e A th e n s A c a d e m y , C h a irm a n
M Y R O N M IC H A IL ID IS
D ire c to r o f B y z an tin e a n d P o st-B y za n tin e M o n u m e n ts , G re e k M in istry of C u ltu re
M Y R T A L I A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U
D ir e c to r of th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m of A th e n s

L IS T O F L E N D E R S

N A N O C H A T Z ID A K IS
P ro fesso r at th e U niversity of lo a n n in a
ATHENS B y z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A th e n s ; B e n a k i M u s e u m ; C ity o f A th e n s M u s e u m ; K a n e llo p o u lo s M u s e u m ; 2n d E p h o r a te of B y z a n tin e A n tiq u itie s (K y k la d e s); R A n d r e a d is ; . _
(
P K a n e l l o p o u l o s ; I. Y a n n o u k o s ; P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o n s . C R E T E 1 3 t h E p h o r a t e o f
B y * n n lin e A n t i q u i t i e s , I r a k l i o n ; C h u r c h o f St. M a t t h e w S i n a i t o n , I r a k h o n ; C o l l e c t i o n o f th e
( 'lu n c h o f St

C a t h e r i n e S in a ito n , I r a k h o n . EG IO N M e t r o p o l i s o f K a l a v r y t a a n d E g ia le ia

Church o f Z o o d o c h o s P ig . ( P a n a g i a T r y p i t i ) . E L A S S O N M e t r o p o l i s o f D e m e t n a s a n d
I I n s s o n ; M o n a s t e r y o f t h e O l y m p i o t i s s a . IO A N N I N A 8 t h E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s ,
Ml i r o p o l i s o f l o a n n i n a . K A S T O R I A A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o l l e c t i o n . K E P H A L L O N I A l a
I i t n II y

I ixouri

ovatios

K E R K Y R A A n t i v o u n i o t i s s a M u s e u m . K O S M e t r o p o l i s o f K o s , M e t r o p o i-

u , < 'I m p e l o f t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n . L A R I S S A 7 t h E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s . L E F K A S
,, I i l u a r y C o l l e c t i o n . L O N D O N B r i t i s h M u s e u m ; M .

P e ra tic o s C o lle c tio n ; P riv a te

,,ll . l i o n . P A T M O S M o n a s t e r y o f S t. J o h n t h e T h e o l o g i a n ; M o n a s t e r y o f Z o o d o c h o s P i g i ,
( |,o iii; ( 'lu n c h o f A yios G e o rg io s A p o r th ia n o n (o r D im a rc h ia s), C h o r a . PATRA 6 th E p oi iii.<

Ol

I t y / a u t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s . R H O D E S 4 t h E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s ; M e t r o p o is

o f K l i o ili's . s i AKTA 5 t h E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s . S Y R O S M e t r o p o l i s o f S y r o s ,
I m o , A u d i o s , K e n a n d M i l o s ; C h u r c h o f t h e K o i m e s i s tis T h e o t o k o u ( P a n a g i a t o n P s a n a I,0*5

i m S S A I . O M K K ilfh E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i t i e s ; M o n a s t e r y o f V l a t a d o n .

I IN. i s S
II.

.1 I u i n d n l i o n o f t h e E v a n g e l i s t r i a . V E R I A 9 t h E p h o r a t e o f B y z a n t i n e A n t i q u i -

/ . A k VN I Mo s

Z n U y n t h o s M u s e u m ; M e t o c h i o n o f t h e M o n a s t e r y o f S t.

C a th e rin e

R O B IN C O R M A C K
R e a d e r in t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t in t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n ,
C o u rta u ld Institute of A rt, a n d S en io r M e m b e r o f R o b in s o n C o lleg e, C a m b rid g e
L A S K A R IN A B O U R A S
C u r a to r o f th e B y z a n tin e C o llection
o f th e B e n a k i M u s e u m , A th e n s
A N A S T A S IO S M A R G A R IT O F F
I n sp e c to r o f C o n s e rv a tio n , G r e e k M inistry o f C u ltu re
S T A V R O S B A L T O Y A N N IS
I n sp e c to r o f C o n s e rv a tio n , G r e e k M inistry o f C u ltu re

ALTERNATES
C H A R A L A M IiO S B O U R A S
P r o f e s s o r o f Che N a t i o n a l I'e chn iciil U i u v e r s i l y o f 11u

11

isiD O R O S

k a k o u k is
I l e a d o f t h e B y z a n l i i u M u s e u m s \ e e l i o n C r e e k M iiliflPs o l <

i i Ii i h

P R E SID E N T

S P R E F A C E

A
T H E

T h e

G R E E T IN G

G R E E K

M IN IST E R

flourish a g ain t h r o u g h o u t C h r is te n d o m .
T h e e x h ib itio n displays, first, the h ig h e s t a c h ie v e m e n ts o f B y z a n tin e artists an d
(lien sh o w s h o w , p a rtic u larly a fter th e fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e , th e legacy o f B y z a n
tium w as d e v e lo p e d a n d tr a n s f o r m e d , u n d e r W e s t e r n in flu e n c e , p a rtic u la rly in
C r e te . It c o n c lu d e s w ith a, possibly u n iq u e , sign ed w o r k o f E l G r e c o , re c e n tly d is
c o v e r e d on th e islan d o f Syros. T h u s we a re c o n sta n tly r e m i n d e d o f th e in te g ra l role
of B y z a n tin e a n d la te r G r e e k artists in th e d e v e lo p m e n t of E u r o p e a n p a in tin g .
T h a t w e s h o u l d b e p riv ile ged to h o ld this e x h ib itio n is d u e , first to th e g e n e r o
sity a n d c o - o p e r a ti o n o f th e G r e e k a u th o r itie s , a n d in p a r t ic u l a r o f t h e M in is te r of
C u lt u r e , M a d a m e M e lin a M e r c o u ri, a n d h e r Special A d v is o r fo r e x h ib itio n s , M r
S p y ro s M e r c o u r is , an d th e staff of th e M inistry a n d th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m of
A th e n s : w e m u s t t h a n k th e m fo r brin g in g t o g e t h e r th e e x h ib itio n , f o r a rr a n g in g
the tr a n s p o r t o f th es e p re c io u s w o rk s fr o m A t h e n s to L o n d o n a n d fo r th e p r o d u c
tio n , at v e ry s h o r t no tice, of this m a g n ific e n t c ata lo g u e . W e h a v e also b e n e f i te d
Irom th e in v a lu a b le s u p p o r t of th e G r e e k A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , H . E . M r S te
p h a n o s S t a t h a to s , a n d th e C u ltu ra l A t t a c h e , D r V ic to r ia S o lo m o n id is.
W e are d e e p ly in d e b t e d to the ecclesiastical a u th o r it ie s a n d to th e o t h e r public
an d p riv ate c o llectio n s th r o u g h o u t G r e e c e w h o h a v e a g r e e d to lend th e i r tr e a s u re s
I n this e x h ib itio n ; also to th o s e ind iv idu als a n d in s titu tio n s in L o n d o n w h o h av e
fa v o u red us w ith th e lo an o f m a j o r w o rk s. W e a re p a rtic u la rly p le a s e d to s h o w in
Mils co n te x t th r e e s u p e r b w o rk s re c e n tly a c q u ir e d by th e B ritish M u s e u m fo r th e

C U L T U R E

T h i s ex h ib itio n u n d e r t a k e s a j o u r n e y in
th e d azzling , m ystical w o rld o f th e art o f B y z a n tiu m , w hich su rv iv ed t h e fall o f th e
E m p i r e a n d c a m e d o w n to the g re a t C r e ta n p a in te r, D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s .
W all pain tin g s a n d icons fro m G r e e c e , giving fo r m to th e c ultu ra l a n d a e sth e tic
c o n c e p t io n s o f a p e o p le w ith a c e n tu r ie s old artistic tr a d itio n . A tr a d it io n th a t
c o m b i n e s th e classical love fo r b e a u ty , sy m m e try a n d h a r m o n y w ith th e ascetic
sp iritu ality of O r t h o d o x C h ris tian ity an d E a s t e r n ric h n ess o f co lo u r. T h e w o rk s o f
a p e o p le th a t c r e a t e d m a s te rp i e c e s d u rin g th e glo rio u s h o u r s of the B y za n tin e
E m p i r e ; w h o , in th e difficult tim es a fte r th e fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e , did n o t lose
h e a r t , b u t c o n ti n u e d to c r e a t e , p ro d u c in g w o rth y c o n ti n u e rs a n d r e n e w e r s o f the
t r a d i t i o n , an d o n o ccasio n c re a t o r s w h o left th e i r m a r k on th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f art:
a rtists o f th e s t a tu r e o f E l G r e c o .
T h e e x h ib itio n is o rg a n iz e d by th e B y zan tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s , in c o o p
e r a t i o n w ith th e e x p e rt s o f th e R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r ts in L o n d o n . It has b e e n
e n r i c h c d by th e inclusion o f ite m s n o w h o u s e d in E n g la n d , in th e B ritish M u s e u m
o r in p riv a te collection s o w n e d by th e G r e e k re s id e n ts o f L o n d o n , w h o read ily
m a d e t h e m a vailab le in o r d e r to m a k e th e ex h ib itio n as c o m p l e te as p o ssible. This
is p a rtic u la rly w e lc o m e to m e , since it is m y belief th a t p a r t ic i p a ti o n in artistic
e v e n ts is of g re a t im p o r t a n c e in p r o m o ti n g c o o p e r a t io n , fr ie n d sh ip a n d m u tu a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n n a tio n s a n d b e tw e e n p e o p le .

M E L IN A M E R C O U R I
G r e e k Minister of Culluiv

n a tio n a l collectio n o f icons.


I m ally, 1 m u s t ex p re ss th e R o y a l A c a d e m y 's g ra t it u d e to th e s p o n s o r s , w ho
irspu iul d with alac rity to o u r ap p e a l for s u p p o r t. T h e y in clu d e c o m m e r c i a l c o m Iiii11it
( G la x o H old ing s, J o a n n o u & P a ra s k e v a id e s (O v e r s e a s ) a n d M o b il Oil
i ii ) i-iIik a lio n a l an d cu ltu ral f o u n d a t io n s (th e H e lle n ic F o u n d a t i o n , th e A . G .
I I'vrulP. I n m u l.ilio n , th e H e llen ic C u lt u r a l C e n t r e ) , a n d a n u m b e r o f g e n e r o u s
Individual, w h o have p r e f e rre d to reta in th e i r a n o n y m ity . In o b ta i n in g this spo n,in >.1ii 11 we h av e e n jo y e d th e u n s tin tin g s u p p o r t o f p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r s o f th e
111

O F

art o f B y z a n tiu m w as o n e o f th e

s e m in a l in flu en c es o n W e s t e r n (as on E a s t e r n ) E u r o p e a n p a in tin g . O f this n o - o n e


w h o has s t o o d r a p t in a d m i r a t io n b e fo r e th e C im a b u e C rucifix, w h e n it w as sh o w n
at B u rli n g to n H o u s e fo u r y ea rs ag o, c o u ld d o u b t. A n d it is a h a p p y c o in c id e n c e
th a t this y e a r sh o u ld m a r k th e 1200th a n n iv e r s a ry o f th e C o u n cil o f N ic a e a w hich
a ffirm e d th e e n d of Ic o n o c la sm , th u s o p e n in g th e w ay for religio us p a in t in g to

F R O M

........ unit y in I .o nd on .

ROGER DE GREY
President, Royal A cad e m y of Arts

I\

CONTENTS

IN T R O D U C TIO N S
19

M. C h a tz id a k is

22

M . A cheim astou-Potam ianou

25

R. C o r m a c k

ESSAYS
29

A . A v r a m c a / B y z a n tin e G r c e c e

31

R . B ro w n in g / B y z a n tiu m a n d A n c ie n t G r e e c e

35

C. M a n g o / T h e C u lt o f Icons

37

K. W a r e , B ish o p o f D io c le ia / T h e T h e o lo g y a n d Sp irituality o f th e Ic o n

40

M . C h a tz id a k is / B y z a n tin e W all P a in t in g in G r e e c e

43

M . A c h e i m a s t o u - P o t a m i a n o u / B y z a n tin e Ic ons

46

C h. M a l te z o u / T h e G r e e k W o r l d a n d th e L a ti n D o m in a t io n

48

N. C h a tz id a k is / Ic o n P a in tin g in C re te d u rin g th e 15th a n d 16th C e n tu r i e s

51

M . C o n s t a n t o u d a k i- K i tr o m il id e s / T a s te a n d th e M a r k e t in C r e t a n Ic o n s in
th e 15th a n d 16th C e n tu rie s

54

L. B o u r a s / W o r k i n g D ra w in g s o f P a in t e r s in G r e e c e
afte r th e Fall o f C o n s t a n t in o p l e

57

PLATES

58

B y za n tin e W o o d -C a rv in g s

62

B y z a n tin e a n d P o s t-B y z a n tin e W all P ain tin gs

68

B y za n tin e Icon s

98

P o s t-B y z a n tin e Icons

142

C a r to o n s

145

CATALOGUE

20(1

M a p of G r e e c e

201

Select B iblio graph y

201

A b b re v ia tio n s

206

Ic o n o g m p h ical Index

206

Index of N aim s
I *

G LO SSAR Y

A kra T ap ein osis. M a n o f S o r r o w s o r C h r i s t o f P i t y . A p r e d o m i n a n t l y l i t u r g i c a l t y p e o f i c o n i n s p i r e d


f r o m t h e p a s s i o n r i t u a l . I t d e p i c t s t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t s h u m a n n a t u r e
one.
A n ap eson . A t y p e o f r e c l i n i n g C h r i s t C h i l d p r e f i g u r i n g C h r i s t o n
B y z an tin e hym ns.
B e m a d o o rs. Cf. S a n c tu a ry d o o rs.
C h iton . U n d e r g a r m e n t o r t u n i c .
C om n en ian . B y z a n t i n e d y n a s t y r e i g n i n g f r o m 1081 t o 1185.
D eesis. T h e p r a y e r f o r i n t e r c e s s i o n . D e e s i s c o m p o s i t i o n s c o n s i s t o f
fig u re s o f th e V ir g in a n d St. J o h n th e B a p tis t. T h e G r e a t D e e s i s also
A p o stle s.

a n d th e lib e ra tio n o f th e divine


th e C ro ss. It w as in sp ire d by

C h rist b e tw e e n th e supplicant
in c lu d e s p o rtra its o f th e tw elve

D od ek aorton . A s e t o f t w e l v e i c o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m a j o r f e a s t s o f t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ( A n
n u n c i a t i o n , N a tiv ity , P r e s e n t a t i o n in th e T e m p le , B a p ti s m , T r a s f i g u r a t i o n , R a is in g o f L a z a r u s ,
E n tr y in to J e ru s a le m , C ru cifix io n , R e s u r re c tio n , A s c e n sio n , P e n te c o s t, D o r m i ti o n o f th e V irg in ).
T h e s e ic o n s f o rm a frie z e o n t o p o f th e ico n o sta sis b e a m .
E leou sa. T h e V i r g i n o f M e r c y .
E m m an u el. V a r i a n t o f P a n t o c r a t o r , w h e r e C h r i s t is r e p r e s e n t e d y o u n g a n d b e a r d l e s s .
E p istyle. A r c h i t r a v e , t h e i c o n o s t a s i s b e a m .
G lyk op h ilou sa. T h e V i r g i n o f T e n d e r n e s s . A n i c o n o g r a p h i c t y p e in w h i c h t h e f a c e s o f t h e M o t h e r
a n d C h ild to u ch each o th er.
H im ation . O u t e r g a r m e n t .
H o d eg etria . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r t y p e o f V i r g i n M a r y h o l d i n g t h e C h r i s t C h i l d a n d p o i n t i n g t o H i m a s a
w a y t o s a l v a t i o n . I t is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e a r c h e t y p e w h i c h w a s p a i n t e d b y S t . L u k e , w a s k e p t in t h e
H o d e g o n M o n a s t e r y i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , a n d w a s i n v o k e d f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e city.
Icon ostasis. T h e s c r e e n s e p a r a t i n g t h e s a n c t u a r y f r o m t h e n a v e . F r o m t h e l a t e 1 1 t h c e n t u r y t h e
c e n t r a l d o o r s ( s a n c t u a r y d o o r s ) a r e f l a n k e d b y i c o n s o f C h r i s t a n d t h e V i r g i n . A b o v e t h e s e i c o n s is
th e e p is ty le , o fte n d e c o r a te d w ith icons o f th e G r e a t D e e s is a n d /o r o f th e tw elv e feasts. O n to p of
th e s c r e e n s ta n d s th e c r o s s b e t w e e n tw o sm a ll ico n s o f th e l a m e n t i n g V ir g in a n d St. J o h n ( th e
l y p i r a ).

K a rd iotissa. A n e p i t h e t o f t h e V i r g i n u s u a l l y r e f e r r i n g t o a v a r i a n t o f t h e V i r g i n G l y k o p h i l o u s a ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u l a r in C r e t e . I t is t h o u g h t t o d e r i v e f r o m a h i g h l y v e n e r a t e d i c o n k e p t in K a r y e s o f
M o u n t A th o s.
K a t h o l i k o n . T h e m a i n c h u r c h in a m o n a s t e r y .
K oim esis. T h e D o r m i t i o n o r f a l l i n g a s l e e p ' o f t h e V i r g i n , o r a n y o t h e r s a i n t , a t t h e m o i n e n l o f
d eath .
L yp ira. C f . I c o n o s t a s i s .
M ap h orion . W o m a n s c l o a k w i t h f r i n g e s l i f t e d a t t h e b a c k o f t h e n e c k a n d u s e d a s a h o o d .
M e l i s m o s . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C h r i s t C h i l d in a c h a l i c e , a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e o f f i c i a l inn b i s h o p s in
th e c h u r c h a p s e fro m th e 13th c e n t u r y o n w a rd s .
O m op h orion . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e l i t u r g i c a l d r e s s o f b i s h o p s . b a n d ol e l o l h I
a r o u n d th e n e c k a n d m a r k e d w ith crosses.
lalaeologan . B y z a n t i n e d y n a s t y r e i g n i n g f r o m 1 2 59 t o 14 53 (fall o f ( ' o n s t a n t i n o p l i ).
P an tan assa. T h e q u e e n o f all. A n e p i t h e t o f t h e V i r g i n .
P an tocrator. T h e A l m i g h t y : t h e m o s t u s u a l t y p e o f C h r i s t h o l d i n g a g o s p e l in m u h u m I m i d III
w ith th e o th e r.
P e r i b l e p t o s . E p i t h e t o f t h e V i r g i n m e a n i n g l o o k e d at I r o m all sidi",, m l m m il
o b s e r v e r s .

-lonion. I t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c h a s u b l e o f t h e W e s l i ' i n (

mi

mil h n .n n l l x

Iioiiiiiiii

hv

nil

di n m i l i i l w i t h

crosses.
Il a t y t e r a . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o l t h e V i r g i n a n d t hiU.1 II o i v n p l c l l i r > Inn Ii in
11>
< n .v n ilio l o l tin
In c a rn a tio n .
P r o s k y n e t a r i o n . S t a n d f o r i c o n s e x p o s e d t o ptib lii in p i i v i i l r v ein m l l o n
P r o t h o s i s . T h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o l t h e s a n i li i M i y w liu fi tin o il iui)i I I In illv lni l l l n i | i y i u i >li poM li'il
S a n c t u a r y d o o r s . T h e c e n t r a ] d o o r s o l (In i i - o i n w h l i Ii glvi n n i
n i l o lln m iiiiIiimiv (iiImi
Iten ia d o o r s )
S l k l u i i i o n . A b i s h o p s u n d e r g a r m e n t . A l o n g lin n , i r l n l r d t o tin iillu l| llie Wi I i n < l i n n Ii
T r l p l y r l i . P o r t a b l e i c o n c o m p r i s i n g a i v n l i a l p a n i 'l nnil t w o l o l d t n i will)'
V i r g i n o f t h e P a s s i o n . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n ol t h e V n i ' i n n nil < III Ii I will) t w o nrtjhiinf.rl, i iuTylft|i llie
s y m b o ls o f Ihe P a ssio n .
/.ikkIiii'Iios Iigi. f l i c l i f e - g i v i n g s o m v i t y p e ol II V l i | t l n i nn ii 'i n p ' . l i n p r d f o n n l n i n
w hich w as in sp ired by B y/an lin i h ym ns,

I/

T h . wall p a in tin g s a n d ico ns h e r e a s s e m b le d


h a v e c o m e fr o m G r e e c e , at th e far e n d o f E u r o p e , to E n g la n d , th e c o u n tr y th a t
su p p lie d th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e w ith its finest m e r c e n a ri e s : th e In g lin o i. T h e
p e r i o d w h e n th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e w as at its h e ig h t (tw e lfth to fifte e n th c e n tu r ie s )
a n d B y z a n ti u m th e w o r l d s le a d in g p o w e r , is r e p r e s e n t e d only by a few wall p a i n t
ings, anti by lesser k n o w n ico ns o f this p e rio d . T h is is th e first ti m e , h o w e v e r , th a t
so m a n y G r e e k icons fr o m th e follow ing p e rio d (fiftee n th to s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s )
h av e b e e n b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in L o n d o n . D u r in g th e s e c e n tu r ie s , th e te r r it o r y o f
m o d e r n G r e e c e w as o c c u p ie d b y tw o foreign p o w e rs, th e V e n e t i a n s a n d the O t t o
m a n T u r k s . T h e tw o c o n q u e r o r s , w ith th e ir very d if fe re n t h is to ry a n d cu ltu ral
origin s, in evita bly e x e rc ise d an influe nce o n th eir su b je c ts, e a c h a t its o w n level.
T h e few f r a g m e n ts of d e t a c h e d wall p a in tin gs p r e s e n te d h e r e a re o n ly a tiny
fraction o f th o s e th a t h a v e b e e n r e s c u e d fr o m r u i n e d c h u r c h e s in G r e e c e ; n a t u
rally, th e s e a r e n o t an a d e q u a t e basis o n w hich to fo rm an id e a o f th e la y o u t of
(he p a in t e d d e c o r a t io n o f a B y z a n tin e ch u rc h , w hich w as o n e o f th e a c h ie v e m e n ts
o f th e B y z a n tin e w o rld . T h e y a re , h o w e v e r, r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f B y z a n ti n e p a in tin g ,
(or tw o re a s o n s: th e t e c h n i q u e in w hich th ey w ere e x e c u t e d , in h e r i t e d fr o m the
( li e c o - R o m a n tr a d it io n , e n a b l e d th e s e wall p ain tin g s to re t a in th e i r o rig inal,
bright c o lo u r s fo r c e n tu r ie s , d e s p ite th e d a m a g e inflicted o n t h e m by th e w e a t h e r
mil a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d itio n s . A n d sec o n d ly , b ecause th e i r style is n o t that ol a
local sch oo l, b ut e m b r a c e s a v arie ty of te n d e n c ie s w h ich can be f o u n d th r o u g h o u t
the leng th a n d b re a d t h o f th e e m p i r e , fr o m C o n s ta n t in o p l e to th e b o u n d s ol Asia
M in o r an d fr o m C r e t e to Italy. W h e n we reflect th a t t h e r e a re rou g h ly two
11 ii>iis;mill B y z a n tin e c h u rc h e s in G r e e c e , co n ta in in g an e n d le s s v ariety a n d ill
vi rsily o f d e c o r a t io n , we a r e b e t t e r ab le to a p p re c ia te the significance o f what is
In i Inips a u n iq u e p h e n o m e n o n : h o w e v e r different all th e s e w o rk s ol art m ay lu in
ti frns o f te c h n i q u e a n d q u a lity , th ey n o n e th e le s s h av e s o m e th i n g in c o m m o n that
Iii lifles the d e sc r ip tio n o f t h e m as B y z a n ti n e a n d clearly ilisl in gu r.h i's I he in lio in
tin non B y i a n l i n e . F ro m a n o t h e r po int o f view, these wall pain tin g s lo n s lilu U
v alu ab le e v id e n c e lor th e a v e ra g e level of art in a B y zan tin e mil it Iin,
lo be eoiicedeil th a t this w as q u it e high, c o n side ring that th ey did not unit in-ui
iiiti|oi ii i ban cen tre s.

T h e icon as a fo rm o f a rt w as c re a t e d an d flo u ris h ed in B y z a n ti u m , in d irect


re la tio n w ith b o th public a n d p riv a te w orsh ip . N e v e rth e le s s , it w as so closely
b o u n d u p w ith public life th a t it a c te d as a cata lyst in tim es o f g r e a t political crisis,
such as th a t o f the Ic o n o c la sm , w hich lasted for a p p r o x i m a t e ly a c e n tu r y a n d a
h alf (720-863) w ith only a sh o r t b r e a k . T h e significance of a B y z a n ti n e icon for
w o rs h ip lay in th e likeness it b o re to a specific p r o t o ty p e . T h e sain t d e p ic t e d in an
icon h a d to b e im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n iz a b le , w ith o u t it b ein g n e c e ss a ry to r e a d the
insc ription . T h is likeness was a n essen tial c o n d itio n o f th e w o rs h ip o f icons since
w ith o u t it th e divine grace i n h e r e n t in th e p r o t o ty p e w o u ld n o t b e t r a n s m i t t e d to
th e icons. T h is goes so m e w ay to e x p la in th e c o n s ta n t r e p e t it io n o f c e r t a in ty p e s ,
no t on ly o f p o rtra its , b u t also o f n a rr a tiv e scenes. In th e case o f th e la t te r it
g u a r a n t e e d th e historical ac c u ra c y a n d a u th e n tic ity of th e e v e n t n a r r a t e d . T h e r e is
n o d o u b t th a t this p rin cip le affe c te d the ico n o g ra p h ic d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e art in a
v a rie ty o f w ays. By c o n tr a s t, th e stylistic d e v e lo p m e n t w as n o t so strictly c o n fin e d ,
th o u g h it to o re ta in e d its tr a d itio n a l c h a ra c te r.
T h e d if fe re n t fo rm s, sh a p e s an d sizes t a k e n by icons w e re in larg e m e a s u r e
d e t e r m i n e d by the d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e sa n c tu a ry s c r e e n , w h ich e v o lv e d fr o m a
sim p le p a rt it io n to a tall iconostasis. T h e g ra d u a l e v o lu tio n o f th e ico n o s ta sis an d
th e p ra ctice o f a d o rn in g it w ith icons m a y a c co u n t, m o r e th a n a n y o t h e r f a c t o r , for
th e vast p ro d u c t io n o f icons in th e B y zan tin e E m p ire .
E a c h g r o u p o f icons o n th e ic on ostasis h a d a fixed s u b je c t a n d a fixed size, an d
e a c h in dividual icon had a fixed p o sitio n w ithin the g ro u p . T h e su m to tal o f th e m
c o n s titu te s a co ncise, hiera rch ically o rg a n iz e d s t a te m e n t o f th e O r t h o d o x d o ctrin e:
w o rsh ip o f icon s, ritua l, salv atio n o f th e soul, in c a r n a tio n . T h e la r g e r icons of
C h ris t, th e V irg in , St. J o h n th e B ap tist an d th e saints usually b e lo n g to th e b o tt o m
ro w close to the w o r s h i p p e r , w h e r e th e y w ere co n v e n ie n tly p la c e d f o r p u r p o s e s of
p r o s k y n e s is (v e n e r a ti o n ) ; icons d e p ic tin g scenes fro m th e life o f C h ris t r e l a te d to
th e tw elv e m a j o r feasts o f th e y e a r c o m e fro m th e row of th e D o d e k a o r t o n
(ritu a l); icons w ith busts o f C h ris t, th e V irgin, St. J o h n th e B a p ti s t, an g els a n d
a p o s tle s b e lo n g to th e to p row o f th e G r e a t D eesis (s alv atio n ); finally, th e ic o n o s
tasis is c ro w n e d by a large C rucifix, a n d e n tr y to th e S a n c tu a r y is t h r o u g h a richly
c a rv e d p a ir o f d o o r s (th e B e m a d o o rs ) d e c o r a t e d w ith a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n sy m b o liz
ing th e I n c a r n a ti o n (usually th e A n n u n c i a t i o n ) . T h e s e icons a n d th e i r a r r a n g e m e n t
h a d th e i r in flu ence o n Ita lia n a rt, o n th e form t a k e n by th e p a la on t h e a lt a r, an d
on E u r o p e a n art in g e n e ra l p r i o r to th e R e n a is s a n c e , w h e r e it c a n b e se e n in the
g ro w th o f p an el p a in tin g o n w o o d . Sim ilarly, a n u m b e r of p a r t ic u l a r ico n s, n o ta b l y
Iho se o f th e V irgin a n d C h ild in v a rio u s p o s t u r e s a n d the A k r a T a p e in o s i s , o r M a n
o f S o rr o w s , serv ed as m o d e ls for W e s t e r n w o rk s, p r o d u c e d in th e m a in fo r the
p riv a te w o rsh ip o f C atholics.
I'he a rt o f wall p a in tin g a n d o f th e icon did n o t c o m e to an e n d w ith th e final
d is so lu tio n o f th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e in 1453. C r e te a n d m a n y o f t h e A e g e a n
islands h a d a lr e a d y b e e n o c c u p ie d in 1204 by th e C r u s a d e r s , by w h o m th e y w e re
m l e d for m a n y c e n tu r ie s , b u t this d id n o t p r e v e n t th e G r e e k O r t h o d o x i n h a b i ta n t s
Im m c o n ti n u in g to p r o d u c e w o r k s of art fo r th e ir religious n e e d s.
A llci th e fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e , a n e w m a j o r c e n tr e o f art a ro s e in C r e t e ,
whi i r I h e cities p r o s p e r e d u n d e r t h e V e n e tia n a d m in is tra tio n . T h e n u m b e r of
p i u i i l u s was swollen by artists s e e k in g re fu g e fr o m th e c e n tra l a r e a s o f th e e m p i r e
20

c o n q u e r e d by th e T u rk s . T h e im p ressive n u m b e r of p a in t e r s a t w o rk in C r e te in
th e fifte e n th a n d six te e n th c e n tu r ie s w as e v id e n tly a re s p o n s e to th e inc re ased
d e m a n d fo r th e ir p r o d u c t s , n o t on ly fro m th e ir O r t h o d o x c u s t o m e r s b u t also from
th e c o n s e r v a tiv e C a tho lics. T h e s a m e forces in d u c e d th e C r e t a n p a in te rs to m o v e
to o t h e r p a rts o f G r e e c e , s o m e o f th e m p e r m a n e n tl y ; T h e o p h a n e s Str elitzas
B a th a s , fo r e x a m p l e , s e ttle d in M o u n t A t h o s w h e r e , w ith th e assistan ce o f his
so n s , h e c re a t e d s o m e s u p e r b e n s e m b le s o f wall pa in tin g s , an d e n ti r e sets o f icons.
R e s e a r c h in th e arc hiv es o f V en ice in re c e n t y ears h a s i l lu m in a t e d m a n y
asp e c ts of th e p a in tin g a n d w o o d -c a rv in g o f this p e r i o d ; m o s t im p o r t a n tl y o f all, it
has e n a b l e d us to id entify w ith so m e accuracy th e m a j o r artists o f th e fiftee n th
c e n tu r y a n d th e ir w o rk ; m a n y of th e s e p a in te rs h a d e it h e r b e e n p re v io u sly u n
k n o w n , o r h a d b e e n e r r o n e o u s ly d a te d . T h e resu lting f r a m e w o r k h as in tu r n m a d e
it po ssib le to assign to this p e r i o d a large n u m b e r o f b o th k n o w n a n d , until
r e c e n t ly , u n k n o w n icons. T h is e x h ib itio n has th e privilege o f p r e s e n tin g a large
n u m b e r o f th es e icons, w hich h av e n o t yet fo u n d th e i r w ay in to th e h a n d b o o k s .
T h e flo w e rin g of icon p a in tin g in fifte e n th -c e n tu ry C r e te offers an e x p l a n a tio n of
th e in f lu e n c e a n d a c h ie v e m e n ts o f this a rt in the s ix teen th c e n t u r y , w h ich w e re
a lr e a d y k n o w n .
If ca lled u p o n to s u m m a r i z e th e c h a r a c t e r a n d qu ality o f C r e t a n a r t , o n e m igh t
say th a t it k e p t alive th e B y z a n tin e tr a d itio n , with g re a t success, a n d w as a b le to
re n e w it by r e c o u r s e to Italia n e le m e n ts , t h o u g h it is a s to n ish in g h o w few o f th e s e
t h e r e a r e at such a late p e r i o d , a n d a fter so m a n y c e n tu r ie s o f co e x is te n c e .
T h is w a s th e artistic b a c k g r o u n d fro m w hich T h e o t o k o p o u l o s ( E l G r e c o ) e m e r
g ed. L ik e o t h e r fine C r e t a n artists o f his d a y , h e le a r n e d in Ir a k lio n to p a in t in
b o th th e G r e e k a n d th e Italian m a n n e r ; it is clea r fro m th e D o r m i t i o n o f the
Virgin fr o m S yros th a t e v en b e f o r e he left C r e te (1567) h e w as a b le to h a n d l e b o th
styles with im p re ss iv e ea se. H e n e v e r e x p la in e d w hy h e u ltim a te ly c h o se th e r o a d
to the W est. His p a in tin g in Italy an d S p a in , h o w e v e r, w hich re v e a ls a c o m p l e te
b re a k w ith th e art o f his fellow C r e ta n s , p e r h a p s supplies th e a n s w e r.
M A N O LIS C H A T Z ID A K IS
of th e A th e n s Academy

F rom A t h e n s (1985-86) to F l o r e n c e (1986),


a n d n o w to L o n d o n . T h e e x h ib itio n o f G r e e k wall p ain tin g s a n d icons f r o m
B y z a n ti n e a n d P o s t-B y z a n tin e tim es c o n ti n u e s its trav els in E u r o p e , c o m i n g no w
to o n e o f t h e w o r l d s g re a t cap itals. It brings w ith it th e f r a g ra n c e a n d fla m e of
th e fa ith , th e g r a n d e u r , th e p o e tr y a n d th e glory o f B y z a n tiu m , a n d th e s t a t u r e a n d
b rillian ce o f H e lle n is m a fte r th e fall of C o n s ta n t in o p l e . T h is w o rld , so sm all, so
g r e a t in t h e w o rd s of th e p o e t. It c o n ti n u e s to trav el, ta k in g us w ith it to B y z a n
ti u m , to G r e e c e .
A m o n g s t th e exhibits a re th e s u p e r b c a rv e d w o o d e n d o o r s fro m a m o n a s t e r y in
T h e s s a ly , o n e o f th e r a r e e x a m p l e s o f its k in d (cat. no. 1), a n d a few r e p r e s e n t a
tive wall p a in tin g s d e ta c h e d fr o m c h u r c h e s in G r e e c e (cat. nos. 2-6). T h e m a in
focus o f in t e re s t , th o u g h , lies in th e p o r t a b l e icons (cat. nos. 7-71). T h e m a j o ri ty
o f th e s e a r e o u ts ta n d i n g w o rk s o f th e a rt o f O rth o d o x y , a n d p a r t o f th e rich
h e rita g e o f G r e e c e , g a th e r e d t o g e t h e r fr o m d iffe re n t a re a s o f th e c o u n tr y . T h e y
a re in m o s t cases th e c re a tio n s o f k n o w n a n d u n k n o w n p a in te rs w h o w o r k e d in th e
m a j o r artistic c e n tr e s of B y z a n tiu m , o r in th e r e m o t e o u tp o s ts o f m a i n la n d a n d
island G r e e c e . M a n y o f th e m a re d iscov erie s an d acq uisition s o f th e last tw e n ty
y e a rs , n o t y e t fully k n o w n to sc h o la rsh ip o r th e pub lic at large. In its p r e s e n t fo r m ,
Ihc e x h ib itio n also includes s o m e fine icons fr o m the B ritish M u s e u m (cat. no s. 9,
I I, 12 a n d 16); a n u m b e r lo a n e d by G r e e k s re s id e n t in L o n d o n (cat. nos. 30, 40,
3 , 59 a n d 61); a n d o th e r s fr o m th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s s e e n a b r o a d for
Ihc first tim e (cat. nos. 17, 20 a n d 35).
T h e icons a s s e m b le d h e r e , inev itab ly n o m o r e t h a n a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s a m p le ,
illustrate th e d e d ic a tio n to b e a u ty o f b o th th e c re a to rs a n d th e re c ip ie n ts o f th e ir
visible a n d mystical s p l e n d o u r a n d sp iritu al c o n te n t. T h e y also re v e a l t h e firm
classics I f o u n d a t io n s , a n d occ asion ally th e anti-classical te n d e n c ie s th a t coexistt il in IJy iaillin e , th a t is, E u r o p e a n art. A n art w h o s e h u m a n i s t ic c h a r a c t e r
i I f (,i m i nftd ils o ri e n ta t io n s a n d f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e rn w ith th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
lli>- divine .iiul ils spiritual m a n ife sta tio n s. T h e icons o ffe r a c o n s p e c t u s o f th e
mii|ni and m in o r slylislic an d a e s th e tic tr e n d s , p re f e re n c e s a n d id e as ; f o r m u la t e d

o v e r th e c e n tu r ie s in th e artistic c e n tr e s o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e an d I h e ss a lo n ik e .ind,
fro m th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s , o f C r e t e , th e s e ideas fell o n fertile soil, to ok
r o o t a n d b o r e fruit b o th in B y z a n tin e G r e e c e a n d later. In so m e eases, such as in
B y z a n ti n e T h e s s a l o n ik e a n d p o s t-B y z a n tin e C r e te , th e y f o r m e d l a n d m a r k s in the
d e v e l o p m e n t of a rt, influe ncing p a in tin g a n d supp lyin g il w ith now f a r m s anil
ideas in a n a r e a far w id e r th a n th a t of m o d e r n G re e c e .
O n e o f th e i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s in c lu d e d in th e e xh ibition consists o f i< o n s f r o m
n o r t h e r n G r e e c e . T h o u g h o n ly a small p r o p o r tio n o f th e m a n y surviving Uy/,in
tin e a n d p o s t-B y z a n tin e icons o f M a c e d o n i a , m o s t of th e m from k a s l o i i a , they a r e
i n t e re s t in g e x a m p le s o f th e d istinctive te c h n iq u e a n d style o f tin nil p i o d m i d in
T h e s s a l o n ik e , K a sto r ia a n d o t h e r M a c e d o n i a n w o rk s h o p s . O i k o f I lit in is a m a s
te r p ie c e : th e w o n d e rfu lly e x p res siv e d o u b le - s id e d icon with llu Virgin I lo d< )H iri*
a n d C h ris t in th e typ e o f the A k r a T a p e in o s is , o r M a n o f S o rro w s ( r a l . n o . K).
T h e m a j o r p a r t o f th e ex h ib itio n is d e v o te d to the C r e t a n irt of iIn n l i ' c u i l i
a n d , to a lesser e x te n t , the s ix te e n th c en tu ries . It includes signed w o rk s by
A n g e lo s a n d N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris , a n d by N ik o la o s l.a m b o u d is , an isnigmnln pauil
e r fr o m S p a r t a w h o p r o b a b l y w o r k e d in C r e te , un sig n e d icon n lliih m il to
A n g e lo s , A n d r e a s R itz o s a n d T z a fo u ris , an d s o n * excellent panel* IY a n o n y m o u s
artists. T h e s e are typical o f th e artistic qu ality an d the n pi n o i r e ol lilt eiilli and
early s i x te e n t h - c e n tu r y C r e t a n p a in tin g , which e o v e n 'd a will, , lim n i nti rin }..
fo r th e religio us a n d a e s th e tic r e q u i r e m e n ts of a d e m a n d i n g ami mix I < >i llimlox
a n d C a th o l ic c lie n te le, b o th in C r e t e an d fu rth e r ih eld sm all Iiul im|<mliml
g r o u p o f signed an d u n sig n ed icons by M id i lei I ' imasknio! p i o h i b l y by I m n
gios K lo n tz a s o r his circle, an d by o t h e r p a m l r r s , riv e s a p n i m <>l ninlufi < i r l a n
p a in tin g in th e seco n d hall' o f th e s ix teen th e e n l m y At lit mil it tu n s I In
artistic e n v ir o n m e n t that n u r l m e i l (he y o u n i O oniunlK ts II" 'I'lK op ou los, w ho
la ter b e c a m e fa m o u s as (il G r e c o w hen lie was lollowiui'. llu c.lniiou. p ath 111a I
led to th e lofty p e a k s of 1 u r o p e a n ait Ills icon ol th M o i m i n o n ol tli Virgin
fro m th e A e g e a n island of iyyrQs (eat no o ' ) which h sign ed At t 11N IK (><
1 ( , is the pfidi Ol tli i \liib ilio n willi n Hashes of
light a n d c o lo u r , it rev eals the lati nt u I M n genius ol the gri i| ( re la n , tin stMl
y o u n g m a s t e r fro m C a n d ia .
T h is s u p e r b icon by D o m e n i k o s wil d ise n v e ie d by ( i M iis lm o p o iilo s, ( in ilor
o f A n tiq u i ti e s , in 1983, w h ile se a rc h in g in llie c h u n In o( SvfOs for In n lo o m s left
by re f u g e e s fr o m th e island o f lsara. II was im nn dialely b i o n i hl to the B y /a n t in e
M u s e u m o f A t h e n s , w h e r e th e authentic, i Iy ol Ihi in I isl 's signal i was c o n firm e d
It was th e n c le a n e d a n d c o n s e r v e d willi great l.ill by \ Ita lto y en n is, w h o re
m o v e d th e later r e p a in tin g s an d u nd id llu damagi- c a u se d by lim e a n d th e
ig n o r a n c e of m e n . T h e clu m sy , m u c h later painting, I Iiul o b s c u r e d it, m ostly at th e
e d g e s, c a n still b e se e n h e r e a n d th e r e , no tab ly m llu g ro u p s o f a p o s tle s in th e
clouds.
T h e ico n by D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s is only o n e o f m a n y in th e e x h ib itio n
t h a t w e r e d is c o v e re d , id e n tifie d , re s c u e d an d co n se rv e d by th e a r c h a e o lo g is ts a n d
re s to re r s o f th e G r e e k A rc h a e o lo g ic a l Service. A few of th e s e icons m a y b e m e n
tio n e d h e re .
T h e d o u b le - s id e d icon o f th e V irgin H o d c g e tri a a n d St. N ic h o la s (cat. n o. 18),
an ex c e lle n t f o u r te e n t h - c e n tu r y w o r k , w as sele cted fro m t h o s e h o u s e d by the
23

A rc h b is h o p o f R h o d e s , S p y rid o n . T h e p ro c e s s of c o n se r v a tio n a n d c le a n in g in th e
B y zan tin e M u s e u m u n c o v e r e d th e orig inal r e p r e s e n ta t io n o f St. N ic h o la s on th e
re v e rse side. T h e icon w as th e n sto le n b u t, h ap pily, w as lo c a te d a n d r e t u r n e d to
G reece.
T h e icon w ith scenes fro m th e P assio n o f C h ris t, fr o m th e B y z a n tin e M o n a s
tery o f V l a t a d o n in T h e s s a l o n ik e (cat. n o. 22), w as se n t by th e E p h o r a t e o f A n t i
qu ities in T h e s s a lo n ik e in 1977 to th e C e n t r e for th e C o n s e r v a t io n of A n tiq u i ti e s ,
w h e re th e la t e r re p a in tin g w as r e m o v e d by the d istin g u ish e d c o n s e r v a t o r P h .
Z a c h a r i o u , re v ea lin g w h a t survives o f this m a s te rp ie c e o f m i n ia t u r e p a in tin g .
T h e w o r k of th e la b o r a to r y o f th e B y za n tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s in c lu d e s th e
r e m o v a l o f la te r re p a in tin g s, w h ich a re p re s e rv e d an d p la c e d o n s e p a r a t e w o o d e n
pa n e ls. T h is p ro c e s s has re c e n tly b r o u g h t to light tw o m o r e icon s fro m the
M u s e u m p r e s e n t e d h ere: in 1981, th e ex cellent C r e ta n s a n c tu a ry d o o r s (cat. n o.
53) w e r e c l e a n e d o f th e e i g h t e e n th - c e n tu r y p a in tin g w ith w h ich th e y w e r e c o v e r e d ;
a n d in 1984, th e icon o f th e T h r e e C h u r c h F a th e r s (cat. no. 17), an o u t s ta n d i n g
f o u r te e n t h - c e n tu r y w o rk , w as r e v e a l e d b e n e a t h a s e v e n t e e n th - c e n tu r y p ain tin g .
T h e difficult, delicate task was c a rr ie d o u t by th e r e s to re r s S. B a lt o y a n n is a n d A .
M a r g a rit o ff, w ith th e h e lp of th e M u s e u m c o n s e r v a tio n te am .
In c o n c lu s io n , we w o u ld like to e x te n d w a r m e s t th a n k s to th e v a rio u s E p h o ra te s o f B y z a n ti n e A n tiq u i ti e s , m o n a s te r i e s , c h u rc h e s , m u s e u m s a n d p u b lic an d
p riv a te c o llectio n s w h o h a v e b e e n kind e n o u g h to le n d item s for th e e x h ib itio n ,
a n d also to all th o s e w h o h a v e e x p e n d e d effo rt an d m o n e y to b rin g it a b o u t. W e
o w e a g re a t d e a l to th e ecclesiastical a u th o r itie s a n d th e p e o p le o f S y ro s, w h o
c o n s e n t e d to th e first a p p e a r a n c e o u ts id e G r e e c e o f th e p re c io u s icon o f D o m e n i kos T h e o t o k o p o u l o s ; a n d to th e n a tio n a l a n d ecclesiastical a u th o r it ie s o f C y p ru s ,
th r o u g h w h o s e g e n e ro s ity we a re p e r m i t t e d to show five of th e o u ts ta n d i n g t r e a
su res o f th a t is land, includ ing th e two g re a t tw e lfth -c e n tu ry icons o f th e N e o p h y t o s
M o n a s te r y . P a rtic u la r t h a n k s are d u e to th e G r e e k an d C y p rio t c o m m u n it ie s , an d
th e G r e e k E m b a s s y , in L o n d o n fo r th e i r m o r a l a n d m a te ria l s u p p o r t ; a n d ab o v e
all to t h e R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r t s fo r t h e e n th u s ia s m w ith w hich it u n d e r t o o k th e
o r g a n i z a ti o n , w ith G r e e k c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d for its u n stin tin g effo rts to se c u r e a
p e rfe c t s e t ti n g fo r th e exh ib itio n.
MYRTALI ACH EIM A ST O U -PO T A M IA N O U
Director of the Byzantine M u seu m of Athens

- E / x h i b i t i o n s o f icons in G r e a t B rita in
h a v e b e e n few an d far b e tw e e n . W o r s e , th e y h a v e co n sp ic u o u sly l a c k e d a c o n c e p t
ual a im - th e y h av e w o r k e d o n th e principle th a t icons can s p e a k fo r th e m se lv e s.
O f c o u r s e icons c a n n o t s p e a k for th e m selv e s; n o a rt can. T h e a im o f this e x h i
b itio n is to d o m o r e th a n to s h o w an o u ts ta n d i n g set o f p ainting s: it d o c u m e n t s the
in te g ra l ro le o f B y z a n tin e a n d la te r G r e e k artists in th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f E u r o p e a n
art. Y e t th e s e icons c o m e fr o m th e p e rio d w hich saw the d e c lin e o f th e B y z a n tin e
E m p i r e a n d th e re a l ig n m e n t o f political c o n tro l in th e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n
b e t w e e n th e Islam ic a n d C r u s a d e r p o w e rs. W e s t e r n p o w e rs , p a rtic u la rly V e n ic e ,
d o m i n a t e d in G r e e c e o v e r m o s t o f th e tim e , a lth o u g h u ltim a te ly T u r k is h ru le was
i m p o s e d . W ith o n e e x c e p t io n , th e artists of this p e r i o d a re little k n o w n in B rita in .
T h e e x c e p t io n is El G re c o .
O n e fu n d a m e n ta l is sue o f th e p e r i o d is w h a t is an i c o n . T h is m a y be an
e v e r y d a y w o rd b u t h o w m a n y p e o p l e really k n o w w h a t an icon w as in th e M id d le
A g e s o r w h a t p a rt icons h a v e p la y e d in the d e v e lo p in g histo ry o f E u r o p e a n a rt,
p a rtic u la rly in the R e n a is s a n c e a n d a fte r? T h e c o m m o n e s t a n s w e r will p r o b a b l y be
in t e r m s w h ich im ply th a t this fo r m o f a rt was r e p e titiv e an d stylistically u n c h a n g
ing, m o s t s u itab le fo r s u p p ly in g th e im ag es on C h ris tm a s card s . T h is ex h ib itio n
c o n ta i n s e n o u g h v ariety a n d r a n g e o f e x p re s sio n to c h allen g e su ch an a n s w e r. II
i n te n d s to tu r n ic o n f r o m an e v e ry d a y w o rd in to an e v e r y d a y concept.
A d ic tio n a r y d e fin itio n o f th e G r e e k e i k o n is lik ene ss, im age o r p i c t u r e , and
th e w o r d has th e r e f o r e b e e n u s e d - q u ite justifiably - as a b la n k e t te r m to re f e r lo
a n y w o r k of a rt p r o d u c e d in th e G r e e k w orld. B u t s o m e ti m e s it is m o r e useful to
limit its u se to p a n e l p a in tin g s p r o d u c e d for m e m b e r s o f th e O r t h o d o x c o m m u n it y
for c h u r c h o r h o m e d e v o ti o n s a n d w o rsh ip . T his o p e n s up th e possibility ol' a
d e e p e r analysis o f th e m e a n i n g s o f ico n ic an d of th e roles in religion a n d s o u e t y
ol I his k ind o f im ag e. T h e fa ilu re o f Ico n o clasm in the eig h th a n d n in th c enliiiii s
lo d e n y th e use o f figu rative im ag es in B y zan tiu m led to th e e s t a b li s h m e n t ol n
h eo lo g y in c o lo u r . Icons to o k on an integral p art in e v e r y o n e 's th ink ing llu v
C.naranleed (he historicity ot C h ris t an d die saints an d lliey s u p p lie d visytil pm
(rails w hich h e lp e d society in g e n e ra l anil m o n k s in p artic u la r to n< hii-ve llu mn
25

o i th e im ita tio n o f th e life of C h ris t a n d th e saints. T h is e x h ib itio n also u se s th e


te r m to d e s c r ib e d e v o tio n a l p a n e ls p r o d u c e d in C r e te a n d e ls e w h e r e in G r e e c e
a l t e r th e fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e in 1453, a n d it t h e r e f o r e c re a te s a n e w a r e a of
d e b a t e . T h e s e icons a re in a c o m p o s it e style w ith e le m e n ts o f th e B y z a n ti n e t r a d i
tio n a n d of Ita lia n R e n a is s a n c e a rt, a n d w e re p r o d u c e d b o th for G r e e k a n d Ita lia n
p a tr o n s . T h e y a re a n ew fo rm o f religious e x p re s sio n a n d a n e w ty p e o f E u r o p e a n
a rt. A r e t h e y icons in th e s a m e sense as e a rlier?
W ith in th e ov era ll c h ro n o lo g ic al a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e ex h ib itio n , t h e first gallery
is d e v o te d to th e B y z a n tin e p e r i o d (w ith e x a m p l e s fr o m th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y u p to
1453), a n d this will allow th e focus to b e on th e n a t u r e o f t h e B y z a n ti n e icon,
w h e t h e r p r o d u c e d in such u r b a n c e n tr e s as th e cap ital C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o r T h e s s a lo nik e o r by a rtists w o rk in g in th e m o r e p e r i p h e r a l a re a s o f th e E m p i r e . T h e c h a n g
ing f o r tu n e s o f th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e in this p e r i o d a re re f le c te d in its a rt. Since
C o n s t a n t i n e th e G r e a t d e d ic a te d his n e w E a s te r n R o m a n c apital o n t h e site of
B y z a n ti u m o n th e B o s p h o r u s in 330, C o n s ta n t in o p l e h a d b e e n t h e c a p ita l w h ich
c o n tr o ll e d e x te n s iv e reg io n s o f th e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o rld . S ince th e
e m p e r o r T h e o d o s i u s th e G r e a t h a d d e c la r e d C h ristian ity to be th e official religion
o f th e e m p i r e in 391, it h a d c o n ti n u e d as a self-consciously C h ris tia n S ta t e . B y z a n
tiu m w a s t h e r e f o r e in this p e r i o d a d eclin in g p o w e r , s u r r o u n d e d by t h e e x p a n d in g
Islam ic e m p i r e o f th e A r a b s an d T u r k s , a n d by th e K in g d o m s o f th e W e s t e r n
E u r o p e a n C r u s a d e r s a n d by c olo niz ing Ita lian cities. B y z a n tiu m w as p o la r iz e d into
a n e m b a t t l e d e m p i r e u p h o ld in g O r t h o d o x C h ris tian ity against h e re s y a n d u n b e lie f,
its m o n a s t e r i e s a n d c h u rc h e s w e re th e s y m b o ls o f its religio us c o m m i t m e n t . In this
w o rld , B y z a n ti n e icons w e re th e sy m bo lic e x p res sio n of O r t h o d o x C h ris tia n b elie f
a n d w o r s h i p a n d a c te d as m o r e th a n m e r e d e c o ra t io n : th e y r e p r e s e n t e d th e t r u th
w h ic h th is so ciety u p h e ld . S ince this tr u th w as seen as u n c h a n g in g , so ico n s to o a re
significantly tr a d itio n a l in th e i r fo rm s a n d su bje cts. Y e t this e x h ib itio n r e p e a t e d ly
d e m o n s t r a t e s th a t w ithin th e tr a d itio n s , p a in te rs fo u n d o p p o r t u n it ie s fo r v a ria tio n
a n d i n n o v a t io n . B y z a n tin e a r t is o b v io u s ly to o d iv erse to b e la b e lle d as m e r e ly a
s t y le ; B y z a n t i n e refers to th e visual w o rld o f a w h o le c o m p le x c u ltu re .
A n o u t s t a n d i n g case o f th e B y z a n tin e icon is th e d o u b le - s id e d w o o d e n p a n e l
from K a s to r ia in n o r t h e r n G r e e c e . It c o u ld b e c a rr ie d in p ro c e s sio n o r set u p o n a
st a n d in c h u rc h . T his is a c lea r case o f h o w icons c o u ld p a rt ic i p a te in c o m m u n a l
w o rsh ip o n special occasio ns an d also b e a vailab le fo r p riv a te d e v o ti o n s . O n e side
sh o w s the V irgin M a r y te a rfu l an d sa d , p o in tin g to th e C h ris t C h ild a n d e v o k in g
his C ru c ifix io n ; o n th e o t h e r side w e se e C h ris t in D e a t h . T h is is t h e s u b j e c t
k n o w n as th e M a n o f S o r r o w s o r in G r e e k A k r a T a p e in o sis ( U t m o s t
h u m i li a ti o n , Isaiah 53.8); b u t C h ris t is d e s c r ib e d in th e text o n th e ico n as th e
King o f G l o r y . T h e icon sh o w s o n e o f th e u ltim a te p a r a d o x e s o f th e re lig io n , th e
h u m ilia tio n o f C h ris t w hich d e m o n s t r a t e d all th e p o w e r s o f G o d . T h is is th e earI. si k n o w n e x a m p le of this icon s u b je c t, w hich seem s to h a v e b e e n in v e n t e d in
Lhr tw elfth c e n tu r y as p a rt o f th e ritual o f G o o d F rid a y . It m a y h a v e b e e n p ro d iin 'tl lor a m o n a s te ry : m o n k s w e r e i m p o r t a n t p a tr o n s o f art in th e p e r i o d a n d
p a rtic u la rly in te re s te d in d ra m a tiz in g th e c e re m o n ia l of E a s te r .
I <111;111y i m p o r t a n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e his torical ro le o f th e icon in E u r o p e a n
mi the ( msHider p a in tin g o f St. G e o r g e (n o w in th e c ollection o f t h e B ritish
M i r , m i Ml ! o u d o n ) . If this is c o rrectly id en tified as a p a in tin g by a F r e n c h artist
26

w o r k in g in th e G r e e k E a s t in th e m id d le o f th e th i r t e e n th c e n tu r y , it fo rm s part ol
a g ro w in g d o ss ie r o f e v id e n c e th a t in this p e r i o d W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n artists had
d ir e c t o p p o r t u n it ie s to stud y B y z a n tin e icons at first h a n d a n d th a t th e ir artistic
p r o d u c t i o n w as a lte re d by th e e x p e rie n c e . T h e C r u s a d e r e x p e r i e n c e w as only o n e
c a ta ly st in the p ro c e s s th r o u g h w hich th e B y za n tin e w o rld , itself in a c o m p lic a te d
r e l a ti o n s h ip w ith its G r e c o - R o m a n p ast, w as assim ila ted in to th e E u r o p e a n
R e n a is s a n c e .
W it h th e fall o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 1453, th e c e n tr e of th e B y z a n ti n e w o rld
d is a p p e a r e d an d th e e m p i r e w as split b e tw e e n the m a j o r p o w e rs of th e M e d i t e r
r a n e a n . O r t h o d o x C h ris tia n s n o w h a d to live u n d e r th e n e w re g im e s o f th e O t t o
m a n s a n d W e s t e r n e r s . T h e s e c o n d a n d third g alleries o f th e e x h ib itio n s h o w th e
e ffects on a rt in G r e e c e . G e o g ra p h ic a lly th e largest a r e a still u n d e r C h ris tia n rule
w as C r e te . T h e V e n e tia n s h a d t a k e n o v e r th e island as p a r t o f th e i r colo nial
e m p i r e in th e a f t e r m a th o f th e F o u r t h C ru s a d e o f 1204 a n d th e y m a n a g e d to k e e p
c o n tr o l until th e fall o f C a n d i a (I ra k lio n ) to th e O t t o m a n s in 1669. C r e t e w as an
island o f to w n s a n d villages w h e r e O r t h o d o x m o n a s te r i e s a n d c h u r c h e s m in gled
w ith V e n e tia n pa la z z o s a n d C a th o lic ch u rc h e s . R e g u la r c o n ta c t w a s easily po ssib le
by b o a t w ith V en ice ; it w as th e ideal p lace fo r th e artistic a s s im ilatio n o f e a s t e rn
a n d w e s te r n E u r o p e a n tr a d itio n s. O n e o f th e m ost o b v io u s W e s t e r n f e a t u r e s w as
th e o rg a n i z a ti o n o f a rtists into a S c u o la di San L u ca . C re te w as n o t u n i q u e in its
e n c o u r a g e m e n t of the p r o d u c t io n of a rt in this p e rio d . T h e O r t h o d o x m o n a s te r i e s
o f n o r t h e r n G r e e c e , as at M e t e o r a a n d o n M o u n t A t h o s , a n d o t h e r p a t r o n s c o m
m is s io n e d m u c h w o r k t o o , a n d t h e r e w as a th rivin g c o m m u n it y o n R h o d e s ( p a r tic
u larly fr o m 1306 w h e n t h e K n ig h ts o f St. J o h n of J e r u s a l e m g a in e d c o n tr o l until
1522 w h e n th e is land fell to th e T u rk s ) . B u t th e artists o f C r e t e e s ta b lis h e d the
c h a r a c t e r o f th e p e r i o d th r o u g h o u t G re e c e .
T h e n a m e s o f m a n y o f th e s e artists are k n o w n a n d sev eral sig n e d o r a tt r i b u te d
w o r k s a re in th e e x h ib itio n , n o ta b l y by A n g e lo s fro m th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y an d
M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s f r o m th e six te e n th , w h o w as th e c o n t e m p o r a r y o f El G r e c o .
A fin e e x a m p le o f th e f i fte e n th -c e n tu ry p ro d u c t io n a f t e r 1453 is an icon o f the
E n t r y into J e r u s a le m ( f ro m th e K a n e llo p o u lo s C o lle c tio n ), w h ich sh o w s h ow
m u c h o f the B y z a n tin e is r e t a i n e d in C r e ta n a rt, yet su b tly a lte re d . T h e s c en e is
id e n tif ie d by a G r e e k in s c rip tio n in th e sk y , a n d m a n y stylistic a n d ico n o g ra p h ic
e l e m e n t s are fam iliar fr o m e a r l ie r icons. Y e t th e r e a r e su rp ris in g fe a tu re s : th e boy
re m o v in g a th o r n in o n e o f th e tr e e s , w hich refers visually to th e fa m o u s classical
s t a tu e o f ju s t this t h e m e ( t h e sp in a rio ), th e spatial r e n d e r in g o f th e city o f J e r u
s alem w hich re m in d s u s o f th e circle o f M a n t e g n a , o r th e re c e d in g landscape
w hich m ig h t e v o k e T u s c a n y . T h e tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f th e B y z a n tin e ico n ic ten
tierin g o f Biblical n a rr a ti v e in to this exotic w e s te r n iz e d n a r r a ti v e p a in t in g n eed s
v ery care fu l a ss e ssm e n t. W a s it d e e p ly offensive to th e o u t l o o k of th e O r t h o d o x
C h ris tia n o f th e fiftee n th c e n tu r y ? D id the G r e e k p o p u la t io n o f C r e te feel that
th e ir religio us faith w as b e in g u n d e r m i n e d by this v e n e e r o f R e n a is s a n c e nxpiVs
sio n ? O r did th e y w e lc o m e this tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f the p ast? I low did the V e n e tia n
p a t r o n s o f this typ e o f a rt rea ct to this kind o f O r i e n t a l i s m in sty le? f h # s c and
o t h e r such q u e s tio n s still n e e d to be a n s w e re d . It is on ly in recent yeai that Ih
q u a litie s o f C r e ta n p a in tin g h ave b e e n a c c e p te d by art h is to rian s an d ill tl> III to
rical in f o rm a tio n in th e a rc h iv e s a n d e ls e w h e re has yet to be IbJJv e x p lo ite d
7

A f u r th e r e x a m p l e of th e d ec o ra tiv e possibilities o f this n e w ty p e of icon is a


large p a n e l of St. D e m e t r i u s (f ro m C o rfu ) d a tin g fro m th e e n d o f th e s i x te e n t h
ce n tu r y . T h e p a t r o n s ain t o f T h e s s a l o n ik e is sh o w n riding o n h o r s e b a c k in f r o n t of
th e city h e p r o t e c ts w ith th e h elp of G o d . T h e s s a l o n ik e , by this tim e u n d e r O t t o
m a n c o n tr o l, lo o k s m o r e I ta lia n a te th a n B y za n tin e! F o r all th e q u alities o f this
icon, h o w e v e r , it d o e s n o t e q u al the a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e y o u n g E l G r e c o , b o r n in
C a n d ia ( I r a k li o n ) a b o u t 1541 an d b a p ti z e d D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s (d ied
1614).
T h is e x h ib itio n d o e s n o t se e k to d o c u m e n t th e w o r k of 1 G r e c o , as w e k n o w
h im b e t t e r , in Italy o r a fte r 1577 in T o l e d o , b u t it d o e s vividly e v o k e th e visual
e n v i r o n m e n t in w hich h e w as tr a in e d in C r e t e , an d d isplays his m o s t i m p o r t a n t
early w o r k , t h e sig ned icon (fro m S yros) o f th e D o r m i ti o n (o r K o im esis) o f the
V irgin M a r y . O n e c a n see all th e tr a d it io n a l B y za n tin e e le m e n ts - th e h u m a n
w itn e s ses o f h e r d e a t h a n d th e signs o f th e a sce n t of h e r soul to h e a v e n ; b u t th e
p ic to ria l t r e a t m e n t of this O r t h o d o x C h ris tia n s u b j e c t is t r a n s f o r m e d in to th e a t
m o s p h e r e o f V e n e t i a n R e n a is s a n c e art. T w o o t h e r w o rk s are k n o w n fr o m this
early p e r i o d o f E l G r e c o o n C r e te (b o t h in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m , A th e n s ) . O n e is
an icon o f St. L u k e p a in tin g a p o r t r a it icon o f th e V irgin M a r y , an d th e o t h e r is an
A d o r a t i o n o f th e M agi. T h e s e w o rk s e stab lish th e e x te n t o f k n o w le d g e of B y z a n
ti ne tr a d it io n s in C r e te w hich El G r e c o h a d a b s o r b e d a n d sh o w his abilities to
tr a n s f o r m t h e m t h r o u g h stu d y o f t h e a tm o s p h e r i c a n d sp atial dev ices o f c o n t e m p o
rary V e n e t i a n art.
T h e e x h ib i ti o n d o c u m e n t s th e b eg in n in g of th e r e m a r k a b l e c a r e e r of E l G r e c o .
H e is surely th e m o s t c halleng ing artistic figure to arise fro m it. D o e s his w o r k
r e p r e s e n t th e c u lm in a t io n o f B y z a n tin e a rt? O r d o e s it r e p r e s e n t th e b e tr a y a l of
B y z a n tin e tr a d it io n s ? D o e s it give a n e w m e a n i n g to G r e e k a rt ? O r is E l G r e c o an
artist w ho tr a n s c e n d s th e legacy into w hich h e w as b o rn ? Such q u e s t io n s can only
be a n s w e r e d w h e n th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e ic o n is also u n d e r s t o o d . It is e a s i e r to say
th at El G r e c o g re w o u t o f th e m ix e d tr a d itio n s o f G r e e c e , B y z a n tiu m a n d V e n ic e
th a n it is to e x p lo r e all th e q u e s tio n s ra ise d in the id en tificatio n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n of
lliese tr a d itio n s.
R O B IN C O R M A C K
Courtau ld Institute o f A rt, London

B Y Z A N T IN E

G R E E C E

D u r i n g its o n e t h o u s a n d y e a rs ' h is to ry ,
th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e , th e C h ris tia n s tate of th e R o m a n E a s t, e m b r a c e d a v a rie ty
of d if fe re n t civilizations a n d f o r m e d an a m a lg a m of d iverse c re e d s a n d c u ltu res.
B y z a n ti u m , a s ta te of h u m a n n a ti o n s h a d its capital at C o n s ta n t in o p l e , th e m e e t
ing p o in t o f E u r o p e a n d A sia. T h o u g h firmly a tt a c h e d to th e p olitical a n d social
in s titu tio n s o f th e L a t e r R o m a n E m p i r e , it ev o lv ed th e n e w e c u m e n ic a l religio n,
C h ris tia n ity , s p o k e th e G r e e k la n g u a g e , and a d o p t e d G r e e k e d u c a t io n .
In o r d e r to trace th e b o u n d a r i e s of G r e e c e u n d e r th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e , we
h av e to b e a r in m in d th a t th e w o r d H e l l a s is a historical t e r m , w ith o u t any
specific g e o g ra p h ic a l c o n te n t . T h e g e o g ra p h y o f B y z a n tin e H e lle n i s m c oin cid es
n e i t h e r w ith th e w id e r b o r d e r s o f the E m p i r e , n o r w ith th e n a r r o w e r b o r d e r s of
m o d e r n G r e e c e . W ith in th e c o n sta n tly cha n g in g b o r d e r s an d th e v aried eth n ic
c o m p o s it io n o f the E m p i r e , th e f o r m a ti o n of G r e e c e as an in d e p e n d e n t regio n was
in f lu e n c e d by th e a d m in is tra tiv e o rg a n iz a tio n , the military o rg a n iz a tio n an d the,
n a t u r e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s .
D u r i n g the E a rly B y zan tin e p e ri o d , th e G r e e k lands, wlueh l o r m t d pari ul the
b r o a d e r a d m in is tra tiv e fr a m e w o rk o f the stale, w e re assiiiu d in tin p m e f i t u r a
o f Illyricum a n d div id ed b e tw e e n the p m v i n t i s o f ' M a c e d o n i a ' an d 'A i h.ica' m
H e l l a s th ey w ere far r e m o v e d from the c e n tr e , w h ere tin dec isio n s ul great
m o m e n t w e re ta k e n . W ith the e x c ep tio n ol M a c e d o n ia and Us cap ital I hessalo
n ik e , w h ich o c c u p ie d an im p o r t a n t position o n the m a j o r u n s r i e s ol t o m n iu m
ca tio n b e tw e e n E a s t a n d W e s t, the G r e e k lands o c cu p ie d a p o sitio n ol sia O ftdify
im p o r t a n c e . D u r in g this tr a n sitio n a l p e ri o d , e v e n ts o f great im p o rt m o h a s te n e d
th e e n d o f th e a n c ie n t w o rld . T h e p ro c l a m a t io n ol C h ii s li a m t v as tin- official
relig ion o f th e state m a r k e d th e b e g in n in g o f the E arly C h ris tia n civili/aLion I h it
fl o u ris h e d in the fifth a n d sixth c en tu rie s . T h e G r e e k m a in la n d an d islands a n lull
o f brillia nt, richly d e c o r a t e d m o n u m e n t s . T h is build in g activity sug gcsls e c o n o m ic
p ro s p e rity . T h e E a rly C h ris tia n basilicas are s o m e tim e s built o v e r p ag an te m p le s ,
s o m e ti m e s close to f a m o u s p a g a n sh rines, an d s o m e tim e s on the to m b s ol m a r ty rs ,
as in th e case of the large basilica o f St. D e m e tr iu s in I h e s s a lo m k e , the basilica ol
the Ilissos in A t h e n s a n d th e basilica at L e c h a e u m n e a r C o r in t h .
29

T h e n a tu r a l d is aste rs in the m id d le o f th e sixth c e n tu r y - th e e a r t h q u a k e s o f


522 an d 551 - a n d m o r e im p o rta n tly th e in cu rsio n s o f th e A v a rs a n d th e Slavs
fro m th e e n d o f this c e n tu r y o n w a r d s , c a u se d m a j o r u p h e a v a ls. U r b a n life w e n t
into d eclin e a n d e c o n o m i c activity d im in ish e d . T his w as th e b e g in n in g o f th e
critical y e a rs o f th e ( g re a t c h a s m ') in th e h istorical r e c o r d a n d
th e c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n . T h e ro o t cau ses are to b e so u g h t in th e c o lo n iz a tio n b y th e
Slavs a n d in e v e n ts o f a m o r e g e n e ra l n a t u r e th a t w e re h a p p e n i n g in th e E m p i r e ,
such as th e c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e naval p o w e r of the A r a b s in th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,
a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t collap se o f th e B y z a n tin e s u p r e m a c y at sea. T h e d is tu r b a n c e s
o f th e s e v e n t h c e n tu r y signalled th e failure o f th e G r e c o - R o m a n p o litical, e c o n o
m ic a n d in te lle c tu a l system .
B e tw e e n th e e n d o f th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y a n d th e first d e c a d e s o f th e n in t h , th e
prov incial a d m in is tra tiv e sy stem of th e E m p i r e w as re f o r m e d by th e i n t r o d u c t io n
o f a n e w a d m i n is tra t iv e in s titu tio n , th e t h e m e . T h e re a s se rtio n o f the a u th o r it y of
th e state w a s to m a r k a g ra d u a l re v italiz atio n of th e a r e a , d e sp ite all th e difficulties
it h a d to face as a resu lt o f th e inv asion s by th e A r a b s a n d th e B u lg ars d u rin g the
n in th a n d t e n t h c e n tu r ie s . T h e e c o n o m ic a n d d e m o g r a p h ic re c o v e r y c a n be d e
te c t e d in th e reviv al o f th e e a rlie r u r b a n c e n tr e s a n d th e f o u n d in g o f n e w s e t
tle m e n ts. L o ca l in d u s try flo u ris h e d , an d th e q u a n ti ty o f c u rr e n c y in c ircu latio n
in c re a se d . In t h e c o u n tr y s id e , th e p o w e rfu l la n d o w n e rs o c c u p ie d g re a t e sta te s. A t
th e s a m e ti m e , the C h u r c h was r e o r g a n iz e d a n d t h e r e w as a revival in religious
a n d m o n a s tic life. T h e cultivation of le tte rs a n d a rt w as a f e a t u re o f th e p e r i o d
from th e b e g in n in g of th e n in th c e n tu r y o n w a rd s .
T h e d is tu r b a n c e o f th e in te rn a tio n a l b a la n c e of p o w e r in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,
th e d eclin e o f th e nav al p o w e r o f the A r a b s , an d th e e x p a n s io n o f th e W e s t e r n
p o w e rs in to th e E a s t u s h e r e d in a n e w p e ri o d . T h e N o r m a n raid s a g a in s t G r e e k
land s at th e e n d o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y w e re to b e r e p e a t e d m o r e savag ely in th e
tw elfth. T h e a b a n d o n m e n t of th e B y z a n tin e M e d i te r r a n e a n to th e m a r it im e cities
o f Italy w a s o n e o f the m ain fe a t u r e s o f th e last ce n tu r ie s of B y za n tin e h isto ry.
T h e L atin e c o n o m i c p e n e tr a ti o n th a t a c c o m p a n ie d th e d o m i n a ti o n by W e s t e r n
tr a d e led to th e de clin e o f B y z a n tiu m . T h e political a n d e c o n o m i c s o v e r e ig n ty o f
the W e st c u lm in a t e d in th e dissolutio n of th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e in 1204. T h e L atin
feudal sta te s - th e k i n g d o m o f T h e s s a l o n ik e , th e D u c h y of A t h e n s , a n d th e P rin ci
pality o f A c h a e a - w e re e re c te d on th e ru in s o f th e B y z a n tin e state. T h e V e n e
tians installed th e m s e lv e s at p o in ts th a t w o u ld secu re c o n tr o l of c o m m u n ic a t io n s
11v sea: the Io n ian islan ds, M o d o n a n d C o r o n in th e P e lo p o n n e s e , C r e te a n d th e
( yfilades b e c a m e V e n e tia n po ssessions. In 1204, the u n ity of B y z a n tin e G r e e c e
i .mu tu mii e n d . The effo rts of th e B y z a n tin e e m p e r o r s a n d th e d e s p o t s o f E p iru s
m l i he M iiiea re s u lte d in the r e c o n q u e s t o f th e lost te r rito rie s , b u t th e e n d o f th e
111111 11' i iilli i uliiry saw th e b e g in n in g o f th e g ra d u a l e x p a n s io n o f th e O t t o m a n
I in I
11111 III
i;0 n(|ii(sst o f G r e e k lands. In 1460, th e D e s p o t a t e o f th e M o r e a fell
bCO I Ik ImihI tin 1 in k s an d th e last r e m n a n t o f B y z a n tin e a u th o r it y in G r e e c e
W ilN ll I III 11v

ANNA AVRAMEA
Professor at the University of Crete

M)

B Y Z A N T IU M
A N D

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A c a d e m y m a y well feel n o n p lu s s e d . H a s h e s te p p e d in to a totally d if fe re n t w o rld ,
s e p a r a t e d fro m classical G r e e c e by an u n b rid g e a b le gulf? T h e d iffe re n c e is real
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th e y visit th e exh ibition . B y z a n tin e artists w e re n o t slavish copyists of m o d e l s from
a d is ta n t p ast. T h e y h a d th e ir o w n tr a d itio n s, th e ir o w n v alu es, th e i r o w n ideals.
Y e t th e y a n d th e society in w hich a n d fo r w hich th e y w o r k e d w e r e lin k e d by a
c o m p l e x w e b o f c o n tin u ity w ith G r e e k a n tiq u ity , a n d th eir w o r k c a n n o t be fully
u n d e r s t o o d unless w e b e a r in m in d th e s e links.
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o v e r th e cen tu rie s . B u t the ra te o f c h a n g e w as slow if we c o m p a r e it w ith th a t
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li te r a tu r e o f Classical G r e e c e , o f th e H ellen istic w o rld , an d o f th e F a th e r s o f th e
C h u r c h w a s in stantly accessible to an y e d u c a t e d B y zan tin e. A n d w ith th e litera
tu r e h e a b s o r b e d th e idea s a n d v alu es w hich it e x p re s se d . H e m ig h t well t a k e a
critical sta n c e to w a rd s so m e o f th e s e . H e m ig h t s o m e tim e s m i s u n d e r s ta n d th em .
B u t he w as n o t cut o ff by a la n g u a g e b a r r ie r fro m th e w o rld o f his a n c e s t o r s , as
w as th e m e d ie v a l Italian o r F r e n c h m a n , to say n o th i n g o f his E n g lish o r G e rm .in
contem porary.
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c o n ti n u it y w ith th e p a st w h ich th e W e s t lack e d . In Italy, F r a n c e , S p a in , Mi it iin,
G e r m a n i c k in g d o m s h a d e sta b lish e d th e m se lv e s on th e ru ins o f th e R o m a n I in
p ire. T h e B y z a n tin e s ta te w as th e R o m a n E m p i r e , a n d its citizens i i l l r d l l u m
selves R o m a n s . T h e i r ru lers w e re th e direct successors o f A u g u s tu s , I i ij in .uni
C o n s ta n t in e . T h e i r in s titu tio n s h a d c h a n g e d o v e r the c e n t i m e s by e v o lm io n i.iiln i
th a n b y re v o lu tio n .
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r e a d H o m e r a n d S o p h o c le s , D e m o s t h e n e s and A iistS lle while h i . 11 nn r. nl
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s c h o o l b o y s p r a c t i s e d c o m p o s i n g s p e e c h e s t o p u t in t h e m o u t h o f P e r i c l e s o r A l e x

E l e m e n t s o f b o t h a r e c o n s t a n t l y f o u n d sid e by s i d e , as a k i n d o f c li c h e o f B y z a n

a n d e r. H o w e v e r , th e long c e n tu rie s o f H ellen istic a n d R o m a n G r e e c e w e re clo ser

t i n e t h o u g h t . A n e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y a r c h b i s h o p m a k e s a triv ia l m o r a l p o i n t by l i m i t

t o t h e B y z a n t i n e s t h a n w a s c la s sica l A t h e n s , b o t h in t i m e a n d in e m p a t h y . L u c i a n

in g f r o m H o m e r a n d t h e P s a l m s . T h e e m p e r o r A l e x i u s C o m n e n u s j u s t i f i e s th e

a n d th e G r e e k n o v elists, P to le m y a n d G a le n w e re m o r e read ily accessible to th e m

s e i z u r e o f c h u r c h p l a t e a t a m o m e n t o f crisis t o p a y his t r o o p s b y c it in g th e c \ a m

t h a n w e r e A e s c h y l u s o r H e r o d o t u s . It w a s in la r g e m e a s u r e t h r o u g h H e l l e n i s t i c

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e y e s t h a t t h e y p e r c e i v e d C la s s ic a l a n t i q u i t y .
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s o l d i e r s , a n d P e r i c l e s , w h o t o o k t e n t a l e n t s o f s ilv e r f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f A t h e n a
'f o r a s e c re t p u r p o s e d u rin g th e rev o lt o f th e E u b o e a n s .

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o u t , w h i c h h a s m a r k e d t h e c iv i li z a ti o n o f E u r o p e t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s . T h i s

t r a n s c e n d t h e n a r r o w local p a t r i o t i s m w h ic h o f t e n m a r k e d t h e m in th e C lassic il

f u s io n t o o k p l a c e in a s o c i e ty o f G r e e k c u l t u r e , t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f t h e G r e e k

p e r i o d . A s o n e o f t h e m r e m a r k e d in a s o m e w h a t id e a lis tic p a n e g y r i c o f K o m i

l a n g u a g e , f r o m S t. P a u l t h r o u g h C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a t o t h e g r e a t F a t h e r s o f t h e

R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p d i d n o t b e l o n g t o a sin g le c ity b u t w a s a c o m m o n n a t i o n a l i t y

f o u r t h a n d e a r l y fifth c e n t u r i c s : A t h a n a s i u s , G r e g o r y o f N a z i a n z u s , B a s il o f C a e

f o r t h e w h o l e civ ilize d w o r l d . T h i s s e n s e o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e l o n g i n g lo a

s a r e a , G r e g o r y o f N y s s a , J o h n C h r y s o s t o m , C y ril o f A l e x a n d r i a .
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E m p i r e b e c a m e t h e C h r i s t i a n R o m a n E m p i r e , t h e u n i q u e m s t r u m e i i i ot a ilivnn

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p l a n f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f m a n k i n d . W h i l e W e s t e r n E u r o p e d i s s o l v e d m i o a k a lc i

z a n tin e c u ltu re . T h e s e ra n g e d fro m p ro v e r b s a n d a n e c d o te s to a p h ilo so p h ic a l

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s in g le l i f e t i m e , t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , t h o u g h its f r o n t i e r s c.\[ mil .n i o n

t h e N e o p l a t o n i s t s o f l a t e a n t i q u i t y h a d all m a d e s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h e s e

t r a c t , r e m a i n e d a p o w e r f u l , d u r a b l e , s t a b ly a d m i n i s t e r e d s tati ol uiu-<|iii\cn il l<

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tio n in t o 1 it in ol all P l a t o 's d i a l o g u e ; , w Iik I i p r o v i d e d th e e s s e n t i a l f o u n d a t i o n o f

a n d o f N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e in 1920. B ut th e y h a d

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h n i p i o M a l a t e s t i a n o in R i m i n i . T h e s e t w o R e

p o d r o m e a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w e r e b e li e v e d in lie i n h a b i t e d by p o t e n t i a l l y d a n

n a i s s a n c e m o n u m e n t s a r c a t e s t i m o n y to t h e p e r s i s t e n c e w ith w h i c h t h e B y z a n t i n e s

g e r o u s s p i r it s . In t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e , h o w e v e r , ai lists t u r n e d to c o p y i n g , b o t h in

p r e s e r v e d th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l li c ii ta g e ol t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .
B y z a n t i n e s w e r e a lw a y s c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e i r c iv i li z a ti o n h a d t w o r o o t s , H e l l e n i c

i c o n o g r a p h y a n d in s t y le , t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c art o f a n t i q u i t y , w h ic h t h e y g r a d u a l l y

a n d C h r i s t i a n , a n d o f t e n r e f e r r e d to t h e m . A m a n o r a n e p o c h m i g h t lay m o r e

o n l y l o o k a t t h e s i x t h - c e n t u r y litu r g ic a l v e s s e ls fr o m R ilia a n d S t u m a in S y r i a ( n o w

e m p h a s i s o n t h e o n e o r t h e o t h e r , b u t n e i t h e r c o u l d b e to t a l l y r e j e c t e d o r d e n i e d .

d i v i d e d b e t w e e n t h e A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M u s e u m in I s t a n b u l a n d D u m b a r t o n O a k s in

f u s e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n a r tis tic t r a d i t i o n s larg e ly o f N e a r I - a s t e r n o r i g in . O n e n e e d

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Classical a rt to C h ris tia n p u rp o s e s b e g a n . T h e classicizing illu s tratio n s in th e
m a n u s c rip t o f G r e g o r y o f N a z ia n z u s e x e c u t e d fo r th e e m p e r o r Basil I c. 880 (P aris
gr. 510), o r th e t e n t h - c e n t u r y P aris P sa lte r (P aris gr. 139), o r th e c o n t e m p o r a r y
B ible o f L e o th e P a tric ia n (V a t. R eg. gr. 1) sh o w h o w p r o f o u n d th e in f lu e n c e of
a n ti q u e m o d e l s on B y z a n tin e art h a d b e c o m e by th e age o f th e M a c e d o n i a n e m
p e ro r s. E v e n such co n se rv a tiv e a rt fo rm s as th e m u r a l d e c o r a t io n o f c h u r c h e s a n d
th e p a in tin g o f icons w ere n o t im m u n e to th e artistic c u r r e n ts o f th e i r tim e.
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b e e x p lo r e d , is th e use m a d e by B y z a n tin e artists o f e a rlie r lite ra ry d e sc r ip tio n s.
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a n d e v e n ts by th e f o u r th -c e n t u ry F a th e r s , w h o h a d all b e e n tr a i n e d in th e s o p h is ti
c a te d t e c h n i q u e s o f rh e to ric a l d esc r ip tio n . B u t it m ay well go m u c h fu r th e r : th e
de sc r ip tio n o f a n a tu r a l o b je c t , a l a n d s c a p e , o r a w o rk o f a rt w as o n e o f th e
ex ercises p r e s c rib e d on th e s c h o o l -b o o k s fr o m w hich th e B y z a n tin e s l e a r n e d th e
art o f self-e x p re ssio n , a n d for w h ich th e y l o o k e d to classical m o d e ls . W h e t h e r
artists th e m s e lv e s re a d b o o k s - w hich w e re costly o b je c ts in th e M id d le A g e s - or
w h e t h e r literary in fluen ces w e re m ain ly tr a n s m i tt e d via th e i r p a t r o n s , is an i n t e r
estin g q u e s t io n , to w hich we d o n o t yet k n o w th e a n sw e r.
T h e th ird c h a n n e l of in flue nce is a m o r e a b s tra c t o n e . P la to w a s d e e p ly m o v e d
by a rt , a n d at th e s a m e tim e fe a r e d it for its p o w e r. H e b a n is h e d ft f r o m his ideal
s ta te b e c a u s e it w as at tw o re m o v e s fr o m th e tru e reality, th e w o rld o f id e a s , of
w h ich physical o b je c t s w e re b u t im p e rfe c t copies. T h e p r o b l e m of th e n a t u r e o f
artistic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p r e o c c u p i e d his la ter follo w ers, w h o m w e call N e o p la to nists. T h e g re a te s t o f th e se, Plo tinu s (th ird c e n tu r y A D ) , v e n t u r e d to c o rr e c t his
m a s te r a n d to suggest th a t an a rtist m ig h t well see b e y o n d th e phy sical o b je c t
w hich w a s his m o d e l to its ideal n a tu r e . In o th e r w o rd s h e r e c o g n i z e d th a t art
co u ld b e a c re a tiv e activity a n d n o t a m e r e m a n u f a c tu r e o f facsim iles. T h is view of
th e sta tu s a n d activity o f th e artist c o n t r ib u t e d to th e a r g u m e n ts u s e d by th e
d e f e n d e r s o f icons d u rin g th e g re a t icon oclast disp u te w hich r e n t B y z a n tin e society
in th e eig h th a n d early n in th c e n tu rie s . In this way th e a tt it u d e of th e O r t h o d o x
C h u r c h a n d O r t h o d o x society to w a rd s th e artist a n d his w o r k w as in p a r t d e
te r m i n e d by a p h ilo so p h ical d is c o u rse w hich o ri g in a t e d in classical G r e e c e . In no
d o m a i n o f B y z a n tin e a rt was this m o r e im p o r t a n t th a n in th a t of icon p a in tin g .
R O B E R T B R O W N IN G
Emeritus Professor, University of Lo n do n

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T H E

C U L T

O F

IC O N S

. ^ ^ . n O r t h o d o x c h u rc h is u n th i n k a b le
w ith o u t its icons in fr o n t o f w hich c a n d le s are lit, in cense b u r n t a n d o t h e r acts of
d e v o tio n p e r f o r m e d . In this r e s p e c t th e O r t h o d o x differ fro m C h ris tia n s of o t h e r
d e n o m i n a ti o n s : R o m a n C a th o lics a d m it in th e ir c h u rc h e s b o th s t a tu e s a n d p a in t e d
im a g e s, b u t d o n o t, on th e w h o le , a d d re s s to th e m m u c h in th e w ay of v e n e r a t io n ;
P r o t e s t a n t s o f the m o r e fu n d a m e n ta l is t v ariety e sch ew all im ag es; w hile Syrian
J a c o b i te s a r e e q u a lly c o n t e n t to w o rsh ip with or w ith o u t th e m .
W h e n w e e n q u ir e why it is th a t th e O r t h o d o x a re so a tt a c h e d to th e i r ic on s, we
d is c o v e r th a t this practice h as n o fo u n d a t io n e it h e r in H o ly S c rip tu re o r in th e
th e o lo g y o f th e e a rly F a th e r s . Its origins m u s t be so u g h t in h istorical tr a d it io n a n d
its d e ta i le d ju stification is c o n ta i n e d in the A c ts o f the S e v e n th C o u n cil h e ld at
N ic a e a in 787 as well as in th e so-called S y n o d ik o n o f O r t h o d o x y o f 843. T h e s e
e n a c t m e n t s r e p r e s e n t th e re a c tio n o f the E a s te r n C h u r c h ag a in st Ic o n o c la s m ,
i n t r o d u c e d by th e E m p e r o r L e o III in 730; a n d Ic o n o c la sm , in tu r n , w a s a re a c tio n
to w h a t w'as r e g a r d e d in so m e q u a r t e r s as an id o la tr o u s v e n e r a t io n o f im ag es for
w hich th e A lm i g h ty h ad d e liv e re d th e C h ris tia n s to c h a s t is e m e n t at th e h a n d s of
th e i r e n e m i e s . In o t h e r w o rd s , th e E a s te r n C h u rc h in 843 r e s to r e d w h a t h a d b e e n
g e n e ra l p ra c tic e b e fo re 730; an d since th e w h ole q u e s tio n w as d efin itely se ttle d
th e r e a n d th e n , th a t is still w h e re it r e m a in s to d a y . T h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h is a
C h u r c h o f tra d itio n .
W e try , th e r e f o r e , to cast o u r m in d s b ack to 730 (a n d e a rlier) a n d w h a t d o we
find? R e lig io u s im a g e s a re e v e r y w h e r e , in c h u rc h e s , in p riv a te h o u s e s , on p u b lic
m o n u m e n t s , in b o o k s , o n utensils. S o m e are ' n a r r a t i v e im a g e s in th e sen se th at
th e y r e p r e s e n t an in c id e n t, an d th e s e m a y be a r r a n g e d in a s e q u e n c e to tell a sto ry
e it h e r fr o m th e Bible o r fr o m th e life o f a saint. T h e y serv e to in s tru c t the illiterate
in th e tr u th s o f C h ris tia n ity o r act as r e m in d e r s o f sa c re d e v e n ts . O t h e r im ag es,
h o w e v e r, a r e simply p o rt ra it s an d d o n o t c on vey any action o r m e s sa g e o t h e r th a n
a p r e s e n c e . T h e y m ay, if s e ld o m , r e p r e s e n t a saint w h o is still alive, m o r e o ft e n a
saint o f th e p a s t - a m a r ty r , an a p o stle , th e Virgin M a r y , J e s u s C h ris t him self. It is
the p o r t r a it icons th a t a ttra c t v e n e r a t io n . T h e y a re p r a y e d to a n d w o rk m iracles.
O c c a sio n a lly th e y s p e a k o r w e e p . T h e y b leed if s t a b b e d by an u n b e lie v e r. They
float acro ss th e sea w ith o u t g ettin g w et. L ik e pa llad ia th e y are c a rr ie d into b attle
by a rm ie s. T h e y serv e as g u a r a n t o r s o f co ntracts. A particle o f paint or plaster
t a k e n fr o m an icon m a y be in g es ted an d cure a disease. In s h o r t, an icon is
p e rc e iv e d n o t m e re ly as a lik eness, b u t as a vehicle o f s u p e r n a tu r a l p o w e i. as tli
d o u b le o f the saint r e p r e s e n t e d on it o r the s h e ll in w hich lie dwells.
There can be no d o u b t th a t such p ractices w e re e x tr e m e ly w i d c s p u ad in 1 1
sixth an d s e v e n t h cen tu ries . A t th e tim e it was a ffirm e d th at i r o n p a n n in g w as a,
old as C h ris tia n ity itself a n d w as an unw ritten tra d itio n that St. I u k r , paiiii
Is

e d a p o r t r a it of th e Virgin M a r y a n d th a t C h ris t, after im p ress in g his f e a t u r e s o n a


to w el h a d s e n t it to K in g A b g a r o f E d e s s a . T h e la tte r (a lo n g w ith se v e ra l o th e r s )
w as an im a g e n o t m a d e by h a n d ' (a c h e iro p o ie to s) a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d divine
sa n c tio n fo r th e existe nce of icons. T o d a y we n o lo n g e r b elieve th a t ico n p a in tin g
w e n t b a c k to ap osto lic tim es. W e k n o w fro m arch aeo lo g ical e v id e n c e t h a t the
ea rly C h ris tia n s b e fo r e c. A D 300 cu ltiv a te d if th ey d id so at all an a rt th a t was
s y m b o lic r a t h e r th a n literal; th a t p o r t r a it s o f saints b e g a n to a p p e a r r a t h e r tim idly
at a b o u t th e tim e o f th e E m p e r o r C o n s ta n t in e a n d th a t so m e c h u r c h m e n did no t
a p p r o v e o f th e m . A s fo r th e cult o f icons, we c a n n o t tr a c e it m u c h b e f o r e the
m id d le o f th e fifth c e n tu r y . S p e a k in g historically, w h at th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h has
p e r p e t u a t e d is th e situ a tio n th a t p r e v a ile d in th e sixth a n d s e v e n th cc n tu rie s .
It is easy to d e sc rib e th e cult o f icons as crass s u p e r stitio n a n d e x p la in its
g r o w th as th e resu lt o f th e s p r e a d of C h ris tian ity to ru ral p o p u l a t i o n s th a t h a d
b e e n p a g a n fro m tim es im m e m o r i a l an d w ere in c a p a b le of a d o p ti n g a spiritu al
religion w ith o u t a physical focus of d e v o tio n . T h e Icon oc lasts, a lth o u g h th e y lac k e d
o u r h istorical p e rs p e c ti v e , clearly re g a r d e d it as id ola try . So d id c o n t e m p o r a r y
Jew s. Y e t th e p r o b l e m is n o t q u ite th a t sim ple. W h y is it th a t su b tle th e o lo g ia n s
like St. J o h n D a m a s c e n e , like St. T h e o d o r e th e S tu d ite an d th e P a tr ia r c h N i k e
p h o r o s , w h o w e r e c e rtain ly a w a re o f w h a t strike us as s u p e r s titio u s p ra c tic e s , felt
c o m p e l le d to d e f e n d in m a n y h u n d r e d s o f p ages b o th th e ex is te n c e a n d - u n d e r
c e rta in sa f e g u a rd s th e cult o f icons, n o t as un q u a lified w o rsh ip {latreia ) , t h a t can
b e a d d r e s s e d on ly to th e D ivinity, b u t as h o n o rific or relative w o rs h ip ( li/n etike
o r sc h e tik e p r o s k y n e s is )? W h y w e re th e y c o n v in ce d th a t th e b a n n in g o f icons
stru c k at th e very h e a r t o f th e C h ris tia n m e ssa g e? I shall n ot d o t h e m th e d is se r
vice o f r e - s ta tin g th e ir a r g u m e n ts in t e r m s th e y w o u ld h av e f o u n d alien , b u t shall
p e r m it m y s elf o n e o b s e r v a tio n . T o th e m as to m o s t o t h e r B y z a n tin e s th e re la tio n
o f an im a g e to its m o d e l (o r ' p r o t o t y p e ') w as no t the sa m e th in g as it is to us. If
p re s s e d o n this p o in t, we w o u ld say th a t th e p ro d u c tio n of a lik en ess is a m a t t e r of
artistry , t h a t it d e p e n d s o n a co n fig u ra tio n of line a n d co lo u r w h ich c a p t u r e s th e
li n e a m e n t s a n d ex p re s sio n o f an in d iv id u al, n o t a g e n e ra liz e d h u m a n face. A B y
z a n tin e w o u ld n o t h ave p u t it in th o s e te r m s. T o him th e re latio n w as m o r e inti
m a t e like th a t o f a signet to its im p re ss io n , different as to s u b s ta n c e , b u t id entical
as to fo r m o r p e r s o n . T h a t is w hy he r e j e c te d th e s t a te m e n t th a t a n icon ot C h rist
o r o f a C h ris tia n sain t w'as an idol. H o w cou ld it be an idol if it r e p r e s e n t e d
C h ris t? A n idol was th e p ic tu re of a false g o d , w ho w as really a d e m o n , say A p o l
lo o r A r te m is . A n im ag e o f a holy p e r s o n a g e was n o t a m e r e o b je c t: it p a r t o o k
o f his n a tu r e . A n d since we w o rs h ip C h ris t w h o w as m a d e m a n a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
o u g h t to b e r e p r e s e n t e d so as to m a k e m anifest th e p l e n i tu d e o f his m a n h o o d , it
follows th a t we m u s t do h o m a g e to his im ag e just as, on a lo w er p la n e , w e o ffer
respect to th e im ag e of an e m p e r o r .
'M o s t p e o p le to d a y ', if I m a y q u o t e E d w y n B e v a n , 'w o u l d feel th a t pic tu res
a n d im a g e s a re religiously in d iffe re n t: th e y w'ould n e it h e r s h a r e th e Ic on oclastic
passion ag a in st th e m as id o la tr o u s n o r the O r t h o d o x passio n fo r t h e m as an e s s e n
tial e l e m e n t in th e C h ris tia n cult. W e value pictu res o n g ro u n d s q u ite o t h e r th a n
III. specifically religious, as giving us an a esth e tic p le a s u r e , w h e n th e y are g o o d
u l . not as giving us religious u p lift. W e are free to e n jo y B y z a n tin e icons as g o o d
; 111
Init hi so d o in g we miss th e ir d e e p e s t m e a n in g .
C Y R IL M A N G O
Professor at the University of Oxford

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T H E
A N D

T H E O L O G Y

SP IR IT U A L IT Y

O F T H E

IC O N

- i i - n icon m a y b e a p p r o a c h e d as a w o r k o f
a rt , to be a p p r e c i a te d for its a e s th e tic qualities. B u t th o s e w h o orig in ally p a in t e d
th e icons th a t w e see in th e p r e s e n t ex h ib itio n , w hile th e y stro v e to m a k e th e ir
w o rk as b e a u tifu l as p o ss ib le , n e v e r lo o k e d o n this as th e ir sole o r p r i m a r y aim .
T o B y z a n tin e ic o n o g r a p h e r s , an d equ ally to th e ir p a t r o n s , th e icon w as m u c h
m o r e t h a n a p iece o f d e c o r a t i o n , d e sig n ed to fulfil an a e s th e tic fu n ctio n . T h e y saw
th e icon as p a r t o f an act o f p r a y e r a n d w o rship . T h e art o f th e icon is essen tially a
liturgical art. D iv o rc e d fr o m its co n te x t w ithin th e liturgy, th e icon cea ses to be
tru ly itself.
It is o f c o u rs e im p o r t a n t th a t th e icon p a in t e r sh o u ld b e artistically g ifted , a n d
sh o u ld u se his o r h e r a e s th e tic skills to th e full. B u t it is no less i m p o r t a n t th a t the
icon p a i n t e r sh o u ld p r e p a r e him self for th e ta s k th r o u g h p r a y e r a n d fasting , an d
th r o u g h th e s a c r a m e n t s o f con fession a n d H o ly C o m m u n i o n . A s h e p a in ts , the
ic o n o g r a p h e r also prays. A n d w h e n th e icon is c o m p l e t e d , in c o n t e m p o r a r y O r
th o d o x p rac tice it is b r o u g h t into th e ch u rc h a n d b le s se d - o nly t h e n d o e s it
b e c o m e in th e full sense a h o ly icon.
T h e spiritual an d th eolog ical m e a n i n g of th e icon w as fo r m u la t e d at th e
se v e n t h E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c il, a s s e m b le d exactly tw elv e h u n d r e d y e a rs a go in 787
at N ic a e a , w h e n it re c e iv e d sanctification . T h e ico n, as th e y sa w it, d o e s no t
sim p ly act as a visual a i d , b u t has a sa c r a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r , serv in g as a c h a n n e l o f
div in e g race. A t th e s a m e tim e th ey w e re m o s t ca refu l to m a k e a distinctio n
b e t w e e n tim S , the re lativ e h o n o u r o r v e n e r a t io n ' th a t m a y leg itim ately be given
to icons, a n d latreia , the a b s o lu te w o rsh ip ' o r 'a d o r a t i o n ' th a t is a sc rib e d to G o d
the T rin i ty alon e.
F o llo w in g th e te a c h in g o f th e s e v e n th C ou nc il, O r t h o d o x C h ris tia n s c o n ti n u e
u p to th e p r e s e n t da y to m a k e p ro s tra t io n s b efo re icons, to kiss t h e m an d to carry
th e m in p ro c e s s io n , to b u rn in ce n se a n d to light c a n d le s a n d la m p s in fro n t ol
th e m . Y e t in all this th e y a re n o t w o rsh ip p in g w o o d a n d p a in t. In th e w o r d s o f tin
c h ie f d e f e n d e r o f icons at th e start of th e icon oclast c o n tr o v e r s y , St. J o h n ol
D a m a s c u s (d ie d c. 749), W h e n we v e n e r a t e ico n s, w e d o n o t o ff e r v e n e r a t i o n lo
m a t t e r , b u t th r o u g h th e icons w e v e n e r a t e th e p e rs o n s d e p ic te d . F o r, as St. Basil
says, th e h o n o u r given to th e icon passes to th e p r o t o t y p e . C e rta in ly in th e m i l
o f icons th e r e h a v e o fte n b e e n su p e r stitio n s, e x a g g e ra tio n s , b u t th e a v e ra g e ( >i
th o d o x la y - p e rs o n is fully a w a re th a t th e icon is in n o sen s e an idol.
A t first, h o w e v e r, this vital d istinctio n b e tw e e n re lativ e 'h o n o u r ' an d ab so lu te
a d o r a t i o n w as no t fully g ra s p e d by th e W est. A l th o u g h the p a p a c y e o n s e . l e n lIv
u p h e ld th e te a c h in g o f th e s e v e n th C ou nc il, n o rt h o f the A lps tin I m p e i o i
C h a r l e m a g n e m i s u n d e r s to o d its s t a n d p o in t , im agining th at llu- ( . r e e k s d ele m le il
th e id o l a tr o u s w o rs h ip o f icons. H e an d th e th e o lo g ia n s in hi* ciiftli i j u p i e d
p o sitio n sim ilar to th a t o f th e m o r e m o d e r a te iconoclasts ifl llie I asl i mi
n
th ey m a i n t a i n e d , m a y be d isp la y ed in c h u rc h e s lor the p u ip u s e s ul il D falm n hm
'7

s h o u l d n o t b e s h o w n li tu r g ic a l h o n o u r . S u c h w a s t h e p o s i t i o n t a k e n b y th e
W e s t e r n s y n o d s o f F r a n k f u r t ( 7 9 4 ) a n d P a r i s (8 2 5 ). N o t u n ti l t h e e l e v e n t h c c n t u r y
w a s t h e 7 87 C o u n c i l g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h r o u g h o u t W e s t e r n C h r i s t e n d o m .
' T h r o u g h t h e i c o n s , sa y s S t. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s , a n d his w o r d s p r o v i d e a v a l u a
b le c lu e to t h e O r t h o d o x p o i n t o f v ie w . T o q u o t e t h e L if e o f S t. S te p h e n th e
Y o u n g e r ( d i e d c. 7 6 4 ), t h e i c o n is t e r m e d a d o o r . It is a w a y in , a p o i n t o f
m e e t i n g , a p l a c e o f e n c o u n t e r . T h e ic o n fu lfils a m e d i a t o r i a l r o l e . B y m e a n s o f t h e
i c o n , t h e w o r s h i p p e r e n t e r s t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s a c r e d s p a c c a n d s a c r e d t i m e , a n d is
b r o u g h t i n t o a li v in g , e f f e c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p e r s o n o r t h e m y s t e r y d e p i c t e d .
S t a n d i n g b e f o r e t h e i c o n o f t h e S a v i o u r , h e o r s h e fe e l s f a c e t o f a c e w i t h C h r i s t
h im s e l f . P r e s e n t t h r o u g h t h e i r ic o n s , C h r i s t , t h e m o t h e r o f G o d , t h e a n g e l s a n d
t h e s a i n ts s h a r e in t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e livin g. T h e m e m b e r s o f t h e v is ib l e c o n g r e
g a t i o n a r e m a d e t h r o u g h t h e i c o n s c o n c e l e b r a n t s at t h e t i m e l e s s li t u r g y o f h e a v e n ;
i c o n s a r e o u r m e a n s o f e n t r y i n t o t h e c o m m u n i o n o f s a i n ts . T h e i c o n - s c r e e n a n d
t h e w a lls b e c o m e w i n d o w s in t o e t e r n i t y , a n d t h e c h u r c h b u i l d i n g as a w h o l e is
m a d e i n t o h e a v e n o n e a r t h ' . In t h e w o r d s o f St. G e r m a n u s , P a t r i a r c h o f C o n s t a n
t i n o p l e ( d i e d c. 7 3 3 ) , t h e c h u r c h is a n e a r t h l y h e a v e n , in w h i c h t h e h e a v e n l y G o d
d w e lls a n d m o v e s ' .
T o a p p r e c i a t e th is s e n s e o f h e a v e n o n e a r t h ' , w e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t an
ic o n n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e a p a i n t i n g o n a s e p a r a t e p a n e l o f w o o d . M o s a i c s a n d
f r e s c o e s o n t h e c h u r c h w all a r c a ls o ic o n s . T h e i c o n s t h a t in th is w a y fill e v e r y p a r t
o f a L a te B y z a n tin e o r a P o st-B y z a n tin e ch u rch - on th e d o m e , th e a p se , th e ro o f,
t h e w a ll a n d p i l la r s - t r a n s f o r m t h e e n t i r e b u i l d i n g i n t o a s i n g le , a l l - e m b r a c i n g ic o n
o f t h e h e a v e n l y k i n g d o m . ( W h i l e m o s t i c o n s a r e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l , i m a g e s in r e l i e f
a n d e v e n f r e e s t a n d i n g s t a t u e s a r e n o t u n k n o w n in t h e C h r i s t i a n E a s t , a n d t h e s e
t o o h a v e a r i g h t t o b e r e g a r d e d as ic o n s . D u r i n g t h e i c o n o c l a s t c o n t r o v e r s y o f t h e
e i g h t h a n d n i n t h c e n t u r i e s , n o d o c t r i n a l s ig n if i c a n c e w a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e l ig i o u s a r t . ) .
O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s a r e a c c u s t o m e d to h a v e ic o n s n o t o n ly in c h u r c h b u t a ls o
in t h e i r o w n h o m e s . In e a c h h o u s e h o l d t h e r e is t r a d i t i o n a l l y a n ic o n c o r n e r o r
s h e l f , b e f o r e w h ic h l a m p s a r e lit, i n c e n s e is o f f e r e d , a n d f a m il y p r a y e r s a r e s a i d .
T h i s t o o is fe l t as h e a v e n o n e a r t h , a p l a c e o f m e e t i n g w i t h t h e c o m m u n i o n o f
s a i n ts .
B e s i d e s s e r v i n g in th is w a y as a m e a n s o f s a n c t i f i c a t i o n a n d a d o o r , t h e ic o n is
i m p o r t a n t m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y in f o u r r e l a t e d w a y s. F i r s t , it a c ts a s a m e a n s o f
t e a c h i n g . ' I c o n s a r e o p e n b o o k s t o r e m i n d us o f G o d , s a y s S t. L e o n t i u s o f C y p r u s
( s e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) . A s S t. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s p u t s it, w h a t t h e w r i t t e n w o r d is to
t h o s e w h o k n o w l e t t e r s , t h e ic o n is t o t h e il li te r a te . W h a t s p e e c h is t o t h e e a r , t h e
ic o n is t o t h e e y e . S o t h e i c o n is o f t e n t e r m e d ' t h e o l o g y in c o l o u r ' , a n d a c o m p a r i
s o n is m a d e b e t w e e n i c o n s a n d t h e b o o k o f t h e G o s p e l s ; t h e ic o n is t h e G o s p e l in
i m a g e s , j u s t as t h e G o s p e l is a v e r b a l ic o n , a n d b o t h a l i k e d is c lo s e G o d t o us.
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , w e s p e a k o f ' i c o n o g r a p h y ' - n o t t h e p a i n t i n g b u t t h e w r itin g o f ic o n s .
ic o n f o r m s in th is w a y p a r t o f C h u r c h t r a d i t i o n . I n a n i m p o r t a n t s e n s e i c o n s
nil- n o t i n v e n t e d b u t r e v e a l e d . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e i c o n o g r a p h e r is n o t f r e e to
a d a p t o r i n n o v a t e as h e p l e a s e s , f o r h is w o r k s h o u l d r e f l e c t , n o t his o w n s u b j e c t i v e
v is io n b u t t h e m i n d o f t h e C h u r c h . A r t i s t i c c r e a t iv i ty is b y n o m e a n s e x c l u d e d ,
Inn il is e x e r c i s e d w ith i n p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s . W h e r e a s in n o n - i c o n o g r a p h i c a r t ,
s p i l e s I >i P h ilip S h e r r a r d , ' t h e p i c t u r e is g e n e r a l l y c o n c e i v e d as e x p r e s s i n g t h e
. t r u s t 's o w n r e s p o n s e to o r o b s e r v a t i o n o f his s u b j e c t , it is m o r e t r u e in t h e c a s e o f
I I I I oil iii th i n k o f t h e s u b j e c t itse lf p r o j e c t i n g o r r e f l e c t i n g it s e l f o n to t h e m a t e r i IX

al o f t h e i c o n . . . t h e a r t i s t h a s to b e c o m e o n e w ith w h a t h e is to r e p r e s e n t , in o t h e r
w o r d s , t h e r e is n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n .
S e c o n d l y , t h e i c o n s e r v e s t o s a f e g u a r d t h e t r u e r e a l i t y o f C h r i s t s i n c a r n a t i o n .
T h e w o r d w a s m a d e f l e s h ( J o h n 1 .1 4); G o d d id n o t s i m p l y a p p e a r u p o n e a r t h ,
b u t t o o k a r e a l h u m a n b o d y , f o r m e d o f p h y s ic a l m a t t e r as o u r b o d i e s a r e . T h e
i c o n o c l a s t s , in r e f u s i n g t o m a k e a n ic o n o f C h r i s t , i m p l i e d t h a t H i s b o d y , a n d so
H i s h u m a n i t y , is s o m e h o w u n r e a l . I c o n s , as t h e C o u n c i l o f 7 8 7 p u t s it, a r e a
g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e w o r d o f G o d is g e n u i n e a n d n o t i l l u s o r y .
T h e I s r a e l i t e s in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t w e r e rig h tly p r o h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g a n y
v is u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e u n s e e n d e it y . B u t C h r i s t , w h o is t h e i m a g e o r i c o n
o f t h e in v is ib le G o d ( C o l o s s i a n s 1 .1 5 ) , h a s t h r o u g h H i s i n c a r n a t i o n m a d e p o s s i b l e
a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s a r t . O f o l d , s t a t e s S t. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s , G o d , w h o
is w i t h o u t f o r m a n d b o d y , w a s n o t d e p i c t e d a t all. B u t n o w , s i n c e H e h a s a p p e a r e d
in t h e fl e s h a n d d w e l t a m o n g h u m a n s , I m a k e a n ic o n o f G o d in so f a r a s h a s
b e c o m e v i s i b l e .
T h i r d l y , t h e ic o n h e l p s t o e n s u r e a n a f f i r m a t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m a t e r i a l
w o r l d . G o d saw- e v e r y t h i n g t h a t H e h a d m a d e , a n d , b e h o l d , it w a s a l t o g e t h e r
g o o d a n d b e a u t i f u l ( G e n e s i s 1 .3 1 ). I c o n s s a f e g u a r d n o t o n l y t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f
C h r i s t ' s p h y s i c a l b o d y b u t a ls o t h e s p i r i t - b e a r i n g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f all m a t e r i a l
th i n g s . T h e i c o n o c l a s t s , so t h e i r o p p o n e n t s f e l t, s o u g h t to r e s t r i c t t h e w o r s h i p o f
G o d t o t h e m i n d a l o n e , a n d f a ile d t o a llo w s u f f ic i e n tl y f o r t h e m a t e r i a l i s m o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y . I s h a ll n o t c e a s e t o h o n o u r m a t t e r , St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s p r o t e s t s ,
f o r it w a s t h r o u g h m a t t e r t h a t m y s a l v a t i o n c a m e to p a s s . . . D o n o t d e s p i s e m a t t e r ,
f o r it is n o t d e s p i c a b l e ; n o t h i n g is d e s p i c a b l e t h a t G o d h a s m a d e . T o t h i n k s u c h
t h i n g s is M a n i c h a e i s m ' .
In t h e f o u r t h p l a c e , t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e ic o n h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n
u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e h u m a n p e rs o n . T h e ic o n o g r a p h e r ta k e s c u b es o f s to n e , or
e ls e p a i n t a n d a p a n e l o f w o o d - th i n g s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d a n d
t h a t , a s G o d s c r e a t i o n , a r e a l r e a d y c h a r g e d w ith t h e d iv i n e g lo r y - a n d t h e n by
m e a n s o f his a r t is t ic skill h e r e n d e r s t h e d iv i n e g lo r y e x p li c it in a n e w a n d d y n a m i c
w a y . I n th is m a n n e r h e a c ts as p r i e s t o f th e c r e a t i o n , g iv i n g m a t e r i a l th i n g s a v o ic e
a n d r e n d e r i n g t h e m a r t i c u l a t e in p r a i s e o f G o d . T h e c r e a t i o n d o e s n o t v e n e r a t e
t h e m a k e r d ir e c t l y a n d b y it s e l f , s a y s St. L e o n t i u s o f C y p r u s , b u t it is t h r o u g h m e
th a t th e h e a v e n s d e c la re th e g lory o f G o d , th r o u g h m e th e m o o n w o rsh ip s G o d ,
t h r o u g h m e t h e s t a r s g lo r ify H i m , t h r o u g h m e t h e w a t e r s a n d s h o w e r s o f r a i n , th e
d e w a n d all c r e a t i o n , v e n e r a t e G o d a n d give H i m g l o r y . S o i c o n s r e v e a l to us tin
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f o u r h u m a n p e r s o n h o o d . T h e ic o n p a i n t e r s h o w s u s h o w , mack in
G o d s i m a g e ' o r i c o n ' ( G e n e s i s 1 .2 6 ), w e h u m a n s c a n a c t as s u b - c r e a t o r s a l t e r
th e likeness of G o d th e c re a to r.
S u c h a r e a m o n g t h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e v e n t h E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l , t w e l v e cvn
t u r i e s a g o , u p h e l d t h e m a k i n g a n d t h e v e n e r a t i o n o f ic o n s , a n d w h y ic o n s ;i u still
h o n o u r e d in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h t o d a y . In th e w o r d s o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y R u s s i a n
i c o n o g r a p h e r , L e o n i d O u s p e n s k y , it is a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e to i m a g i n e a n y liiui
gical r i t e in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h w i t h o u t t h e i c o n . A s t h e l e a d i n g G r e e k ienn
p a i n t e r o f th i s c e n t u r y , P h o t i o s K o n t o g l o u , h a s s a i d , 't h i s a rt is u m v e i s a l j f l j
e t e r n a l - n o o t h e r a r t h a s u s e d s u c h s i m p l e m e a n s , a n d n o o t h e r art has g i a s p -I
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b e l o n g e d a n d t h e lo cal e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s . D r a s t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e p o li ti c a l

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IN

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a u t h o r i t i e s , as in t h e c a s e o f I c o n o c l a s m , w a s r a r e . A t t h e a r t i s t i c le v e l, in e x p l a i n
in g t h e v a r i e t y o f e x p r e s s i o n w e a ls o h a v e to t a k e in t o a c c o u n t t h e lo c a l t r a d i t i o n

G R E E C E

a n d t h e p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a r t is t , w h i c h w a s n o t as in s ig n i f i c a n t as it
m ight seem .
G i v e n th is b a c k g r o u n d , w e a r e in a p o s i t i o n b e t t e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d if fi
c u lt ie s i n v o l v e d in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p a i n t i n g o f a
p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n in t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , su c h as t h e r e g i o n n o w o c c u p i e d b y t h e
R e p u b l i c o f G r e e c e . T h e first d if fic u lty is t h a t th is r e g i o n f o r m e d o n l y p a r t o f a
w i d e r a r e a in w h ic h G r e e k s li v e d a n d w o r k e d d u r i n g t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , a n d
m a y n o t t h e r e f o r e b e r e g a r d e d as a s e p a r a t e g e o g r a p h i c a l e n t i t y . S e c o n d l y , t h e
m a i n b o d y o f G r e e c e is d i v i d e d b y h ig h m o u n t a i n s , a n d f r a g m e n t e d in t o n u m e r o u s
i s l a n d s , l a r g e a n d s m a l l , s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e m a i n l a n d : t h i s p r o d u c e s d is tin c t
r e g i o n s b e t w e e n w h ic h c o m m u n i c a t i o n is n o t e a s y a n d w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , in differ
e n t p e r i o d s , d e p e n d e d t o d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s o n t h e m a i n B y / a n t i n e c e n t r e s of ( o n
s t a n t i n o p l e a n d T h e s s a l o n i k e . In th is c o n t e x t it w *s no t p o s s ib le fo r p a i n t i n g , e v e n

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p a i n t i n g , t h o u g h p r e - e m i n e n t l y a c o n s e r v a t i v e a r t f o r m , is n o n e t h e l e s s a liv in g a r t ,
w h i c h r e s p o n d s to t h e c h a n g i n g d e m a n d s o f official c h u r c h d o c t r i n e a n d o f p o p u l a r

in t h e a r e a ol m o d e r n Greece, t o a c q u i r e a u n if ie d C h a r a c t e r tli.it would set it


a p a r t f r o m th a t o f o t l i c r w e g i o n s o u t s i d e Greece
It is p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , lo d is ti n g u is h c e r t a i n m o t e g c n c i il shafnci& i isties d<

b e li e f . T o u n d e r s t a n d th is m o r e fu lly , it s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e d y n a m i c

ri v in g f r o m p r e c i s e l y t h o s e n o n - a r t i s t i c f a c t o rs l i n t w e h a v e n o t e d

o f p a i n t i n g is t h e r e s u l t o f t w o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d t e n d e n c i e s . O n t h e o n e h a n d s t a n d

m o s t in d i c a t i v e is t h e c o m p a r a t i v e n u m b e r s ol w all p a i n t i n g s d c c o i . i t i n g m o n u

O n e ol tin-

all t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t le a d t o u n it y o f p l a c e a n d c o n t i n u i t y in t i m e , a n d o n t h e o t h e r

m e n t s . T h r o u g h o u t G r e e c e n o less t h a n tw o t h o u s a n d c y c le s o f w all p a i n t i n g s ,

t h o s e t h a t l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d e v o l u t i o n . T h e first t e n d e n c y e m b r a c e s th e

d a t i n g f r o m t h e s e v e n t h to t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , h a v e s u r v i v e d , o f t e n s u p e r i m

c o n s t a n t , u n c h a n g i n g i d e o l o g ic a l v a l u e s t h a t fin d t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h t h e

p o s e d o n e u p o n a n o t h e r . T h i s is n o t th e fin a l c o u n t b u t it is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t fo r

i c o n o g r a p h y o f a n O r t h o d o x c h u r c h a n d b e l o n g t o t h e lev el o f d o c t r i n e , h i s t o r y ,

all t h e s u r v i v i n g c y c le s in all t h e o t h e r B y z a n t i n e r e g i o n s in E u r o p e a n d A s i a

d e v o t i o n a n d r i t u a l . T h e s e v a l u e s u n d e r g o v e r y fe w f l u c t u a t i o n s t h r o u g h t i m e ,

M i n o r , o r in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g O r t h o d o x s t a t e s . M o r e o v e r , d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e

w i t h o n l y t h e o c c a s i o n a l shift o f e m p h a s i s . T h e y a r e c o n s t a n t s , f i r m l y l i n k e d w ith

d i s t i n g u i s h e d in t h e d e n s i t y o f m o n u m e n t s in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f G r e e c e . T h e y a r e

t h e n o t i o n o f a c c u r a c y in m a t t e r s o f h i s t o r y a n d d o c t r i n e , a n d w i t h t h e d e m a n d

m u c h m o r e d e n s e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in G r e e c e s o u t h o f O l y m p u s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s

f o r l i k e n e s s , n o t o n l y in t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s a i n ts , b u t a ls o in a m o r e g e n e r a l

f o r th i s d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t in t h e a r e a n o r t h o f O l y m p u s t h e m a j o r i t y o f m o n u

se n s e : t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n e s s e n t i a l p r e c o n d i t i o n if t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f a c h u r c h is t o

m e n t s a r e t o b e f o u n d in t h e r e l a t i v e l y la r g e t o w n s . I n T h e s s a l o n i k e a l o n e w e

f i n d a c c e p t a n c e as a u t h e n t i c f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f O r t h o d o x i c o n o g r a p h y .

k n o w fro m d o c u m e n ta ry sources th at there w ere m o re th a n a h u n d re d ch u rch es

T h o s e w h o d r e w u p i c o n o g r a p h i c p r o g r a m m e s a n d th e p a i n t e r s t h e m s e l v e s n a t u

a n d m o n a s t e r i e s , a n d t h e l a y e r s o f p a i n t i n g t h a t will h a v e c o v e r e d t h e w a lls o f

ra lly s o l v e d t h e p r o b l e m s w ith w h ic h t h e y w e r e f a c e d by c o n c e n t r a t i n g s t r ic t ly o n

t h e s e s a c r e d b u i l d i n g s will h a v e b e e n m u c h g r e a t e r in n u m b e r . M o s t o f t h e m

m o d e l s w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y w a s i n d i s p u t a b l e : m i r a c u l o u s ic o n s , e a r l i e r w a ll p a i n t

d i s a p p e a r e d , h o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e l o n g c e n t u r i e s o f O t t o m a n o c c u p a t i o n . In t h e

in g s , i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r i p t s , s k e t c h b o o k s , d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d so o n . A m o n g s t th e

s o u t h o f G r e e c e , b y c o n t r a s t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a f e w t o w n s li k e M i s t r a a n d

c o n se rv a tiv e e le m e n ts should b e in c lu d e d th e te c h n iq u e s o f m u ra l d e c o ra tio n ,

Y e r a k i , m o s t o f t h e k n o w n B y z a n t i n e m o n u m e n t s a r e t o b e f o u n d in t h e c o u n

w h e t h e r w e a r e ta l k i n g o f m o s a i c s , o r f r e s c o e s , o r o f a m i x t u r e o f f r e s c o a n d

t r y s i d e , o u t s i d e t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll f o r t i f i e d t o w n s t h a t w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e s a f e r
m o u n ta in regions.

t e m p e r a t h a t d e r i v e d f r o m G r e c o - R o m a n p a i n t i n g . T h e sty le s o f p a i n t i n g , t o o ,
c o n t i n u e d t o t h e e n d to e x h i b i t t h e b a s i c v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e m a i n t r e n d s t h a t h a d

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e f o r a r t o f th is d i s t i n c t i o n is t h a t t h e a r t o f t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n

a l i c . i d y e m e r g e d in la te a n t i q u i t y . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d h e r e t h a t o n e o f t h e c o n s t a n t

h a s a n u r b a n c h a r a c t e r , s i n c e it w a s f o s t e r e d w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d

p i c c o m l i t io n s m a k i n g f o r t h e u n i t y o f a r t is t ic e x p r e s s i o n w a s its a n t i - r e a l i s t i c a n d

c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e city. T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t all t h e m o n u m e n t s in t h e

n m s c e n d c n t n l c h a r a c t e r , t h o u g h it n o n e t h e l e s s r e s p e c t e d t h e h u m a n f i g u r e a n d

s o u t h w e r e n o n - u r b a n in c h a r a c t e r . F i r s t , t h e r e w e r e l a r g e m o n a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s ,

d ie Iiimc s h a p e s o f o b j e c t s .
W i( 11111 th is c o n s t a n t f r a m e w o r k , p r e s e n t e d h e r e in a v e r y s i m p l i f i e d f o r m ,

b u il t a n d d e d i c a t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r s , o r b y s e c u l a r a n d r e l i g i o u s r u l e r s , w h o

I l i n e w e i e c o u n t l e s s v a r i a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e t h o u s a n d y e a r s , o r m o r e , o f v ita l c r e a -

l e v e l , if n o t o f t h e le v e l o f l u x u r y r e p r e s e n t e d b y m a r b l e r e v e t m e n t s a n d m o s a ic s .

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e n c e t h e lo c a l p r o d u c t i o n , w h ic h ( t o u s e a m o d e r n G r e e k i m a g e ) a l w a y s s t o o d t o

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t h e m in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a v is u a l d e m o t i c , o r p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e , to t h e p u r e
l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , o r k a th a r e v o u s a .
O t h e r lo c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n c l u d e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l a r c h a i s m s , s u c h as t h e r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n o f t h e f o u n d e r s o r o f t h e p r o p h e t s in t h e S a n c t u a r y a p s e , o r t h e m a n n e r
o f p a i n t i n g t h e P a n t o c r a t o r , in t h e d o m e , w i t h o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n v a r i a t i o n s , b o t h
in t h e o v e r a l l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d in t h e s e c o n d a r y f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d . A p r e f e r e n c e f o r
n o n - f i g u r a t i v e d e c o r a t i o n c a n a ls o b e o b s e r v e d in G r e e c e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e i s l a n d s ,
f r o m t h e p e r i o d o f I c o n o c l a s m o n w a r d s . T h i s is a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g p h e n o m e n o n ,
w h o s e full e x t e n t h a s y e t t o b e d e t e r m i n e d .
T h e s e p h e n o m e n a , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t u n i q u e , o r e x c lu s iv e , a n d w e r e n o t p a r t o f
an a u to n o m o u s e v o lu tio n . T o d iffe re n t d e g re e s , ac c o rd in g to p lace a n d to p e r io d ,
t h e y a r e r e l a t e d to d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s a n d in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g
r e g i o n s s u c h a s A s i a M i n o r a n d Ita ly .
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m o d e l a n d a t e a c h e r , b e c a m e c l o s e r a f t e r t h e F o u r t h C r u s a d e , w h ic h r e s u l t e d in
t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e ( 1 2 0 4 ) . A la r g e p a r t o f s o u t h e r n G r e e c e ,
i n c l u d i n g C r e t e , t h e is la n d s o f t h e A e g e a n a n d s o m e p a r t s o f t h e P e l o p o n n e s e ,

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r e m a i n e d u n d e r L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n u n ti l t h e O t t o m a n c o n q u e s t . W h a t is r e m a r k

p l a c e in t h e p a i n t i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f a re l ig i o u s n a t u r e , w h i c h w a s a n o t a b l e

a b l e is t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e c e n t u r i e s t h e O r t h o d o x p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o ' s e e '

f e a t u r e o f B y z a n t i n e c u l t u r e . W h i l e its o ri g in s w e r e in G r e c o - R o m a n p o r t r a i t u r e

a m i lo p a in t in a p u r e l y B y z a n t i n e m o d e . T h e in e v i t a b l e f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s w e r e

t h e ic o n w a s a n a u t h e n t i c p r o d u c t o f B y z a n t i n e c iv i li z a ti o n a n d c a m e t o p l a y a

v e r y l e w , a f f e c t i n g m linly t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d to a m u c h le s s e r e x t e n t t h e sty le .
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p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e d e t e c t e d in th is r e g i o n at

l e a d i n g r o l e in r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l , b e c o m i n g t h e s u p r e m e c u lt o b j e c t o f t h e O r t h o d o x
C h u r c h . T h e rich d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e B y z a n t i n e c h u r c h w i t h m o s a i c s a n d w a ll p a i n t

a b o u t 9 0 0 in

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w h ic h v a ry g r e a t l y in q u a l i t y , w e r e p a i n t e d in t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h

tic, t h r o u g h t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d s p a c e i n t o a m i c r o c o s m o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

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o b s e r v e d in th e o t h e r re g i o n s o c c u p i e d by t h e 1 r a n k s . It c a n b e e x p l a i n e d t o s o m e

c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e f a i th fu l a n d t h e w o r l d o f t h e t r a n s c e d e n t a l . T h e ico n w a s

e x t e n t by th e c h a n g e in t h e so cial r a n k o f t h e p a t r o n s , a n d a ls o b y c o m p a r i s o n

t h e i m m e d i a t e r e c i p i e n t o f t h e p r a y e r s d i r e c t e d to t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p o r t i a i t

w ith w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g in t h e B y z a n t i n e a r e a .
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t h r o u g h p r a y e r , it s e r v e d as th e c h a n n e l ol s p i rit u a l e x a l t a l i o n

g e n e r a l f l o w e r i n g o f a r t , w ith i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s in T h e s s a l o n i k e , M i s t r a , A r t a a n d

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d e m o n s t r a t e t h e v a l u e a n d p o w e r o f ico n s in Ihe l l v / m l n n
a m o n g s t t h e l o w e r c la s s e s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n

o f t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , u s i n g t h e ric h r e p e r t o i r e o f O r t h o d o x i c o n o g r a p h y . B y
t h e s e m e a n s it c r e a t e d a n e w s ty le t h a t w a s t o h a v e its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e W e s t .

ti o n s , b u t e v e r y w h e r e , in p u b l i c b u il d in g s , in p r i v a t e h o u s e s u n i in III- Ia lu c e

q u e n t l y g iv e e x p r e s s i o n t o c o m p l e x t h e o l o g i c a l id e a s r e l a t i n g to t h e b u r n i n g p r o b

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t h e o t h e r t r e a s u r e s in t h e s u m p t u o u s l l a ll o f tin

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f a i t h f u l , t h e ic o n w a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e p u b lii

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p a r t o f t h e t r i u m p h a l e n t r y o f t h e e m p e r o r in to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o n Ins r e t u r n fr o m
M A N O L IS C H A T Z ID A K IS
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v i c t o r i o u s w a r s . T h e y w e r e u s e d to c o n s e c r a t e l o i t r e s s e s a n d p r o t e c t c itie s .

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w e r e c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n , w i t h g r e a t p o m p , o n feast d a y s , a l t e r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s ,
43

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III l i l y w.is u n d e r sie g e . T h e b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n s in h o n o u r o f

c h a n g e s a n d sh ifts in p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t e n d e n c i e s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e o c c a s i o n a l

m u ;u lr w in k m ; , ic o n s is c a p t u r e d in a la t e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w a ll p a i n t i n g , u n i q u e
>111 tin s pi m u nl v ie w , p r e s e r v e d in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f V l a c h e r n a a t A r t a , t h e

r e n e w a l s a n d o t h e r c u r r e n t s in a r t , r u n n i n g f r o m t h e c e n t r e t o t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d
vic e v e r s a .

cap fu l I 01 I lu D e s p o t a t e o f E p i r u s . T h i s d e p i c t s in d e ta i l t h e p r o c e s s i o n in w h i c h
tin- f a m o u s m m o f t h e V i r g i n H o d e g e t r i a w a s c a r r i e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a p r e -

d i f f ic u l t, s i n c e , s a v e in a v e r y few i n s t a n c e s , t h e w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e x is t,

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T h e t a s k o f l o c a t i n g t h e a r t is t ic w o r k s h o p s in w h ic h th e i c o n s w e r e p r o d u c e d is

si i lin d i itu a l e v e r y T u e s d a y in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , b e f o r e h o s t s o f w o r s h i p p e r s , a n d

a n d t h e ic o n w a s a n e a s ily t r a n s p o r t e d i t e m . T h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y h ig h q u a l i t y a n d

i 'spoilt Is w i t h d e s c r i p t i o n s g iv e n b y f o r e i g n tr a v e l l e r s .
Iro n s w e re m a d e fro m a w ide v a rie ty o f m a te ria ls , d e p e n d in g o n th e p u r p o s e

s e n s iti v it y o f m a n y o f t h e m s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o w o r k s h o p s in

lo r w h ic h t h e y w e r e d e s i g n e d ; s o m e t o o k t h e f o r m o f m o s a i c s , o r w e r e p a i n t e d o r

a p o s i t i o n t h a t e n a b l e d it to d i r e c t t h e p r o c e s s e s r e g u l a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d

I a r v e d in w o o d o r m a r b l e ; o t h e r w e r e m a d e o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l , e n a m e l , a n d s o o n .

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ico ns.

W a ll p a i n t i n g s s o m e t i m e s t o o k t h e p l a c e o f p o r t a b l e i c o n s o n t h e i c o n o s t a s i s

E m p i r e , in w h ic h so c ia l a n d o t h e r a c tiv ity w a s a lw a y s o f t h e liv e lie st o r d e r , a n d

w h e r e th is w a s b u il t in m a s o n r y . I c o n s m i g h t b e a d o r n e d w i t h d e l i c a t c s i lv e r a n d

w h i c h h a d M o u n t A t h o s c lo s e b y , p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t h e C a p i t a l , w h ic h w a s t h e l e a d e r a n d focal p o i n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a r t is t ic c u r r e n t s ,
I h e s s a l o n i k e t o o , t h e s e c o n d la r g e s t c ity in t h e B y z a n t i n e

g o l d le a f , w i t h e l a b o r a t e f r a m e s , w i t h e n a m e l s , iv o r y , p e a r l s a n d p r e c i o u s s t o n e s .

t h e a r t . H e r e t h e r e w e r e s o m e u n d o u b t e d l y i m p o r t a n t w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c i n g ic o n s

m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e s u r v i v e d - a n d t h e s e will h a v e b e e n t h e g r e a t e r

a n d d i r e c t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o i l i e r local w o r k s h o p s in t h e w i d e r a r e a i n f l u e n c e d

n u m b e r - a r e p a i n t e d o n w o o d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s : w ith

b y t h e city ( K a s t o r i a , M o u n t A t h o s a n d O c h n d ) . C y p r u s , f r o m w h i c h i m p o r t a n t

e n c a u s t i c p a i n t i n g , a t e c h n i q u e f o u n d m a i n l y in t h e E a r l y B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , in

e x a m p l e s ol local p r o d u c t i o n a r e k n o w n , w as p r o b a b l y a c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n

w h i c h t h e p i g m e n t s w e r e m i x e d w ith t h e m e l t e d w a x , o r m o r e u s u a l l y w i t h e g g

o f t h e s o - c a lle d C r u s a d e r ic o n s o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m a n y o f w h i c h s u r v iv e

te m p e r a , o n a g r o u n d p r e p a r e d w ith g esso, o r gesso on c a n v a s, a n d m o r e rarely

o n t h e is la n d a n d in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n M o u n t S in a i.

w i t h p a r c h m e n t i n s t e a d o f c a n v a s . A s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f ic o n a n d t h e i r u s e ,

T h e M o n a s t e r y o f S in a i p o s s e s s e s t h e la r g e s t c o l l e c t i o n of B y z a n t i n e i c o n s n o w

th e r e w e re icons th a t a d o r n e d th e ico n o stasis, icons d e s tin e d fo r th e ep isty le w ith

in e x i s t e n c e . M a n y i c o n s h a v e a ls o s u r v i v e d in G r e e c e , in K a s t o r i a , V e r i a , T h e s s a

t h e D o d e k a o r t o n a n d t h e G r e a t D e e s i s , a n d o t h e r , d o u b l e - s i d e d ic o n s , w h i c h

lo n ik e , M o u n t A th o s , th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m of A th e n s , a n d e ls e w h e re . L arge

w e r e u s u a l ly i n t e n d e d t o b e c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n , r e l i q u a r i e s , d i p t y c h s a n d tr ip -

n u m b e r s o f B y z a n t i n e i c o n s h a v e , o f c o u r s e , b e e n lost as a r e s u l t o f n a t u r a l d i s a s

ty c h s . In t e r m s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t h e y c a n b e d i v i d e d in t o c u lt i c o n s o f

te r s a n d lo o t i n g . O t h e r s still a w a i t d i s c o v e r y , a n d m a n y t h a t h a v e b e e n d a m a g e d

C h r i s t , t h e V i r g i n a n d t h e s a i n ts , a n d t h o s e , m a i n l y o f a d i d a c t i c c h a r a c t e r , d e p i c

h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n , sin ce t h e y w e r e p a i n t e d o v e r in t h e P o s t - B y

tin g s c e n e s f r o m t h e O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t s , t h e L ife o f t h e V i r g i n , t h e lives

z a n t i n e p e r i o d . It is a l w a y s a g r e a t s o u r c e o f d e l i g h t w h e n a h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n

a n d m a r t y r d o m s o f t h e s a i n ts , a n d o t h e r c o m p l e x s u b j e c t s li k e t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t .

B y z a n t i n e ic o n is d i s c o v e r e d o r , as h a p p e n s n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y , is r e v e a l e d in t h e

M a n y i c o n s te ll t h e s t o r y o f t h e D o d e k a o r t o n ; t h a t is, t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e t w e l v e

c o n s e r v a t i o n l a b o r a t o r y u n d e r n e a t h t h e m o r e r e c e n t p a i n t i n g c o v e r i n g it. F o r

m ain ly ev an g elical scenes w h o se c o n te n t w as o f g re a t d o c trin a l im p o r ta n c e a n d

e v e r y n e w d i s c o v e r y , w h e t h e r t h e p a i n t i n g o n it is o f a h i g h q u a l i t y o r m e r e l y o f

w h i c h a d o r n e d t h e e p is ty l e o f t h e i c o n o s t a s i s f r o m t h e M i d d l e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d

r o u t i n e c r a f t s m a n s h i p , n o t o n l y f u r n i s h e s n e w e v i d e n c e f o r s c h o l a r s h i p b u t a ls o

onw ards.
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p r e s e r v e s t h e m e m o r y o f B y z a n t i u m , w h ic h k e p t t h e G r e e k i d e a a liv e in E u r o p e

k n o w n in a n y d e t a i l . T h e y w e r e n o r m a l l y a n o n y m o u s w o r k s o f p i e t y , a n d t h e i r

t i n e a r t . F o r th is w a s a n a r t d r e s s e d in o fficia l r e l i g i o u s a t t i r e w h i c h , t h a n k s to its

d u rin g th e M id d le A g e s, a n d co n v ey s so m e th in g of th e sp iritu al o d o u r o f B y z a n

c re a tio n w as s u b je c t to th e lim itatio n s o f th e d o c trin e re q u irin g a g o o d lik e n e ss of

s o l id i n t e l l e c t u a l f o u n d a t i o n a n d its H e l l e n i s t i c r o o t s , t h a n k s t o its a d o p t i o n ol'

th e o b j e c t o r p e r s o n d e p i c t e d , w h i c h g u a r a n t e e d t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

e a s t e r n d e c o r a t i v e sk ills, a n d t h e w a y in w h ic h it r e f l e c t e d t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e a n d

w o rk . T h e u n c h a n g in g ic o n o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s o f h oly p e rs o n s a n d s a c r e d e v e n ts

f o r t u n e s o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , s u s t a i n e d a h ig h le v e l o f p o e t i c p o w e r , v itality
and relevan ce.

w e r e i n s u r e d b y r e f e r e n c e to m o d e l s s u p p l i e d b y m i r a c u l o u s , c u lt a n d o t h e r ic o n s ,
b y s k e t c h b o o k s , a n d b y w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s s u c h as t h o s e o f U l p i u s t h e R o m a n
fr o m t h e n i n t h - t e n t h c e n t u r i e s , o r t h e p o s t - B y z a n t i n e P a in te r 's M a n u a l b y D i o n y
sius o f 1 'o u r n a .
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Iliosc s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e n o r m s o f t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d , p r e c i s e a n d d i s c i p l i n e d a r t
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C o n s t a n t i n o p l e f o r t h e h is t o r y o f H e l l e n i s m . T h e c a p t u r e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e b y t h e
C r u s a d e r s in 1204 a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r i e s
o f t h e d i s m e m b e r e d B y z a n t i n e s t a t e m a r k e d t h e e n d o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e as
a n e n t i t y ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , w h a t N i c e t a s C h o n i a t e s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e
' ( g r e a t c h a s m ) w a s fin a lly c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n E a s t
a n d th e C h ristia n W est.
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h a d p r e v a i l e d p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h r e e p h a s e s ; first, t h e r e w a s r e s i s t a n c e t o L a t i n
i n f l u e n c e , t h e n a d j u s t m e n t to t h e n e w s i t u a t i o n a n d c o n t a c t w ith W e s t e r n c iv ili
z a t i o n a n d t h e m o r e d e v e l o p e d W e s t e r n e c o n o m i e s , a n d , fin a lly , a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e
in stitu tio n a l f r a m e w o rk o f fo reig n so v e re ig n ty . T h is th r e e fo ld r e a c tio n , th e
e x p r e s s i o n o f a c u l t u r e w h o s e m a i n h a l l m a r k w a s t h e v ita lity s t e m m i n g f r o m its
p o w e r s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , e n a b l e d t h e G r e e k e l e m e n t t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e ol t h e
f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s c r e a t e d b y W e s t e r n r u l e , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e le d it to
d e l i n c ils soc ial a n d id e o lo g ic a l o i i i il la t io n
i o r c l c r lo th e l e i r i l o i i c s o f ih c B y / a n l m c E m p i r e , Ihe I a t i n s u s e d t h e t e r m
' R o m a n i a ' , a w o r d o f p o p u l a r o r i g i n , s y n o n y m o u s in th e B y z a n t i n e s o u r c e s w ith
Ih e ( ( < tciv ( K i n g d o m ol t h e R o m a n s ). T h e L a t i n e m p i r e o f
( on l a m i n o p l c w a s th u s c a ll e d I m p e r i u m R o m a n i a e , t h e D o g e o f V e n i c e a d d e d
lo liis lilie s t h a t o f d o m i n u s q u a r t a e p a r t i s e t d i m i d i a e t o t i u s I m p e r i i R o m a n i a e ' ,
t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f f e u d a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in G r e e c e w a s g iv e n t h e n a m e o f A s s i s e s d e
R o m a n i c ' , a n d N a u p l i o n is r e f e r r e d to t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n
a s N a p o l i d i R o m a n i a . T h e V e n e t i a n s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n R o m a n i a b a s s a '
( t h e P e l o p o n n e s e , E u b o e a , C r e t e , a n d t h e i s la n d s ) a n d ' R o m a n i a a l t a ( M a c e d o
n ia , T h r a c e , a n d t h e B o s p h o r u s ) . F o r t h e c h r o n o g r a p h e r S a l i m b e n e , t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y G r e e c e w a s a p r o v i n c e o f R o m a n i a ( G r e c i a ... e s t p r o v i n c i a R o m a n i a e ).
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d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g s t t h e C r u s a d e r s is k n o w n as t h e P a r t i t i o t e r r a r u m I m p e r i i
R o m a n i e .
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rie n c e d d ifferin g fo r tu n e s fro m th e th ir te e n th to th e e n d of th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu
rie s , in v o l v in g v a r y i n g p e r i o d s o f L a t i n s o v e r e i g n t y , a n d o n e o r m o r e f o r e i g n
l o r d s . S o m e a r e a s p a s s e d d ir e c tl y f r o m t h e B y z a n t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o V e n e t i a n
s o v e r e i g n t y , o t h e r s b e c a m e fiefs, in a c c o r d a n c e w ith W e s t e r n p r a c t i c e , a n d y e t
o th e r s p a ss e d th r o u g h a feu d al p h a s e b e fo re b e c o m in g V e n e tia n p o sse ssio n s. T h e
h is to r i c a l c l i m a t e a f f e c t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f e a c h r e g i o n t h u s v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g to
th e s p e c ific lo c a l c o n d i t i o n s . E v e n b e f o r e t h e F o u r t h C r u s a d e C y p r u s h a d c o m e
u n d e r Ih c d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e F r e n c h L u s i g n a n s , w h o r u l e d o v e r t h e i s l a n d f o r
a b o u t t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , u n ti l t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1489 o f V e n e t i a n a u t h o r i t y ,
- - 46

w h i c h l a s t e d u n til 1570. f r o m 1211 u n til 1669 C r e t e w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t


c o l o n y o f t h e n a v a l p o w e r , V e n i c e , in t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . A t t i c a , B o e o t i a
a n d t h e M e g a r i d in itia lly c a m e u n d e r F r e n c h s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e first D u k e b e i n g t h e
B u r g u n d i a n O t t o d e la R o c h e ; t h e y w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y r u l e d b y t h e C a t a l a n s , t h e
N a v a r r e s e a n d th e F l o r e n t i n e s . T h e P ri n c ip a l it y o f A c h a e a w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t L a t i n a r e a s in G r e e c e , a n d u n d e r t h e V i l l e h a r d o u i n s o c c u p i e d a u n i q u e
p o s i t i o n in t h e f e u d a l w o i k l o f (lie e a s t . T h e I o n i a n is la n d s w e r e g o v e r n e d by t h e
A n g e v i n s , O r s i n i , T o c c h i , V e n i e r a n d o t h e r L a t i n r u l e r s , u n ti l t h e y w e r e a n n e x e d
to t h e c o l o n i a l s y s te m o f V e n i c e . E u b o e a , h a v in g in itia lly b e e n g r a n t e d a s a fief to
t h r e e n o b l e s fr o m V e r o n a , w h o g o v e r n e d it as a t r i u m v i r a t e ( ' t e r z i e r i ' ) , a ls o
b e c a m e a V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s i o n . V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in t h e P e l o p o n n e s e i n c l u d e d
M o d o n , C o r o n a n d l a t e r N a u p l i o n A r g o s a n d M o n e m v a s i a . T h e is l a n d s o f t h e
A e g e a n b e c a m e th e D u c h y o f Ih c A r c h i p e l a g o , a n d w e r e d i v i d e d as fiefs a m o n g s t
V e n e t i a n n o b l e s ( S a n u d i O u c r i n i , Baro/./.i, D a n d o l o , G h i s i e t c . ) . C h i o s a n d L e s
b o s w e r e G e n o e s e tr a i l i n g p o s t s , w h ile R h o d e s , u n d e r t h e K n i g h t s H o s p i t a l l e r s o f
S t. J o h n b e c a m e th e c e n t r e o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e s t a t e t h a t s e r v e d as a n id e a l b a s e o f
o p e r a t i o n s a g a in s t T u r k i s h a t t a c k s .
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s i g n a l l e d t h e e n d o f a p o li ti c a l s i t u a t i o n b u t als o b r o u g h t a b o u t s i g n if i c a n t c h a n g e s
in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f G r e e k s o c i e ty . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f e u d a l s y s t e m in t o
R o m a n i a g ra d u a lly p r o d u c e d a diversified reg im e c o m p o u n d e d o f fo r m e r B y z a n
t i n e i n s t i t u t i o n s , lo c a l c u s t o m s a n d F r a n k i s h p r a c t ic e s . B e l i e f in t h e e a s t e r n c r e e d ,
w h i c h , a l o n g w ith t h e l a n g u a g e , d i s t i n g u i s h e d th e n a t i v e e l e m e n t f r o m t h e f o r e i g n ,
c a m e t o b e t h e line t h a t d i v i d e d t h e L a t i n C a t h o l i c c o n q u e r o r f r o m t h e G r e e k
O r t h o d o x c o n q u e r e d . T h e r e s u l t w a s t h a t re l ig i o u s b e l i e f b e g a n t o b e c o n f u s e d
w ith t h e n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t s o f H e l l e n i s m , a n d g r a d u a l l y c a m e to c o i n c i d e w ith
n a tio n a l identity.
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c o m m u n itie s o f L atin G r e e c e re la x e d , th eir d ifferen ces d im in ish e d a n d a c o m m o n
w a y o f life w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t f in a lly e n a b l e d t h e t w o d i s p a r a t e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u
n it ie s t o c o e x is t in t h e s a m e g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n . T h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f G r e e k s a n d
f o r e i g n e r s in t h e s a m e a r e a w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t w o p a r a l l e l h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n a
t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d d u r i n g th is p e r i o d : o n th e o n e h a n d , t h e L a t i n s slo w ly but
s u r e l y c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t a n ti b e g a n
t o b e a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o G r e e k c u l t u r e , a n d o n t h e o t h e r t h e G r e e k s , d e s p i t e r e l a in
in g t h e i r r e l ig i o n , l a n g u a g e a n d t r a d i t i o n s , a n d a t t e m p t i n g to p r e s e r v e t h e n
i d e n t i t y a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , b e g a n n o n e t h e l e s s to in f il tr a t e a n d p a r t i c i p a l e in I lie
so c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e c o n q u e r o r s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h a c u liim il
g a p c o u l d b e d e t e c t e d b e t w e e n G r e e k s a n d f o r e i g n e r s in t h e first < . m u i u ' . ul
L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n , H e l l e n i s m l a t e r c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Ih e K e n . i r .11 it
a n d a b s o r b e d t h e v a l u e s o f W e s t e r n c iv iliz a tio n . C o n t a c t b e t w e e n Wi . l e m mu I
G r e e k f o r m s f o u n d its f i n e s t e x p r e s s i o n s in C r e t e , ( ' r e t a i l c r a l i m e n in d n i l I
w h ile r e m a i n i n g t r u e to t h e B y z a n t i n e t r a d i t i o n , s u c c e e d e d m iimhi new i p i.
iw
m e a n s t o i n t e r p r e t R e n a i s s a n c e m o d e l s o f aicliilee.lu it a n d pauiiui)
A l t h o u g h f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y h a d ils p a in f u l n-.pei 1 1u I I i r e I
s u c c e e d e d t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n a b il it ie s in fi n d in g a nc w i niluT I |.iili mil in O Pvning
up n e w a v e n u e s o f creativ ity .
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. ^ ^ . f t e r th e fall of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 1453,
C r e t e , w hich h a d b e e n u n d e r V e n e tia n o c c u p a t io n since 1204, t o o k its p la c e as th e
m o st i m p o r t a n t c e n tr e o f a rt in th e G r e e k w o rld .
T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in C a n d ia (I ra k lio n ) o f a g ro u p o f artists o f o u t s t a n d i n g
ta le n t e s ta b lis h e d th e a u th o r it y o f C r e t a n a rt, w hich s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t th e G r e e k
w o rld , th e in flu en ce o f C r e ta n p a in t e r s b ein g partic ula rly p r o n o u n c e d in th e m a j o r
c e n tr e s o f O r t h o d o x y , on M o u n t A tlio s, at M e t e o r a , on the is land o f P a t m o s an d
at llie M o n a s te r y o f Sinai. 1 he C r e t a n p a in t e rs , w h o fr e q u e n tly v isited V e n ic e ,
n atu ra lly d e v e lo p e d close ties with the G r e e k c o m m u n it y th e r e , w h ich w as 5,000
s tr o n g in th e s ix te e n th centu ry .
T h e r e is d o c u m e n t a r y e v id en c e for th e m o v e m e n t o f p a in te rs fr o m C o n s t a n t i
n o p le to C r e t e e v e n b e fo r e th e fall o f th e city, an d d u rin g this sa m e p e r i o d C r e ta n
p a in t e r s such as A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s tr a v e lle d to th e capital fro m C r e te . T h e e s t a b
lis h m e n t in C r e t e o f p a in te rs fr o m C o n s t a n t in o p l e th a t s e e m s likely to h a v e t a k e n
p lace a f t e r 1453 w as t h e r e f o r e a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f ea rlie r links b e t w e e n th e island
a n d th e cap ital.
W all p a in tin g s in c h u rc h e s o f the first half o f th e fifte e n th c c n tu r y , like th ose
p a i n t e d by m e m b e r s o f th e P h o k a s fam ily, d isplay stro n g affinities w ith w o rk s
fro m a C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n a te lie r, such as th o s e in th e C h u r c h ol th e P e r i b le p t o s
at M istra (s e c o n d h alf o f th e f o u r te e n t h c e n tu r y ) . T h e art in th es e p a in tin g s is o f a
very high q u a lity , a n d has n o n e o f the prov in cial c h a r a c t e r to be f o u n d in o t h e r
churclxts from (his p e rio d o n the island. O n ly a lew icons no w d a t e d to th e early
pari o f th e fiftee n th c e n tu r y arc inclu ded in this e x h ib itio n . D e s p ite the d if fe re n c e s
o f style b e tw e e n -, they w ere all prpilueoiJ in a highly c u lt u r e d e n v i r o n m e n t .
T h e D o r m i l i o n from the K a n e llo p o u lo s M u s e u m (cat. no. 23 ), w ith its e ru d i te
ic o n o g r a p h y , r e l in e d d ra w in g an d s u b d u e d c o lo u rs, can only be th e w o r k o f a
p a i n t e r w h o h a d le a r n e d his art in th e B y z an tin e cap ital. 1 h e N a tiv ity in th e
P e ra t ik o s C o lle c tio n (fo rm e rly Volpi C o lle c tio n , cat. no. 30) is clo ser to th e s u p
e r b e n s e m b l e s o f wall p ain tin gs at M istra. T h e icon d e p ic tin g St. M a r i n a f r o m th e
B v z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s (cat. no. 31) is an e x a m p le o f th e a d o p t i o n o f the
P a la e o l o g a n style in C re te .
- 48

T h e s e wall p ainting s a n d icons fo r m an integral p a r t o f th e P a la e o l o g a n t r a d i


tio n ; at th e sa m e tim e th ey display th o s e fe a tu re s th a t g av e C r e t a n p a in tin g its
d istin ctive c h a ra c te r: th e p recise o u tlin es , th e m o d e llin g o f th e flesh w ith d a r k
b ro w n u n d e r p a i n t an d d e n s e tiny highlights on th e c h e e k s o f th e faces, th e b rig h t
c o lo u r s in th e g a r m e n ts , th e g e o m e tric a l tr e a t m e n t of th e d r a p e r y , a n d , finally,
th e b a l a n c e d a rtic u latio n o f th e co m p o s itio n . All th e s e a re h a ll m a r k s o f late fif
te e n t h - o r ea rly s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y C r e ta n p ainting , w hich w a s to a c q u ir e a r a t h e r
a c a d e m ic c h a ra c te r. A t th e s a m e tim e , fe a tu re s fro m Italian p a in tin g w e re a ss im i
la t e d a n d h a rm o n io u s ly a d a p t e d to th e a u s te re B y z a n tin e t r a d it io n w ith a qu ality
n o t e n c o u n t e r e d in e a rlie r wall p ainting s in flu en ced by Italian art.
T h e a rt o f th e p a i n t e r w h o signs his w o r k (t h e h a n d o f A n
g e lo s ) clearly reveals the im p a c t o f th e P a la e o lo g a n tr a d itio n a n d th e assim ilatio n
o f s e c o n d a r y fe a tu re s fr o m Italian p a in tin g ; th e e m e r g e n c e of a n e w artistic
v o c a b u la r y can also b e d e t e c t e d at a d if fe re n t level in e a c h o f his w o rk s . T h is
p a i n t e r is p r o b a b l y to be id e n tifie d w ith the A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s k n o w n fr o m the
t e s t a m e n t he d r e w up in 1436 b e fo re settin g o u t on a jo u r n e y to C o n s ta n t in o p l e ;
th e id e n tif ic a tio n , h o w e v e r , d o e s not solve all the p r o b l e m s re la te d to the v ariety
of styles th a t a rc disc ern ible in his signed w orks.
T h e c h ro n o lo g ic al fr a m e w o r k in which m a y be set the activity of the most
i m p o r t a n t p a in te rs , such as A n d r e a s R itz o s a nd his son N ik o la o s , A n d r e a s Pavias
a n d N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris, res ts o n d o c u m e n t a r y ev ide nc e. T h e s e p a in t e r s h ad ate
liers a n d c o n s i d e ra b l e n u m b e r s o f a p p re n tic e s , a n d c r e a t e d ic o n - p r o to t y p e s w ith a
n e w ic o n o g r a p h y . T h e V irg in , in th e ty p es o f th e H o d e g e t r i a , G ly k o p h il o u s a o r
th e V irg in o f th e P a ss io n , w a rrio r saints, St. N ic h o las a n d St. A n t h o n y , scen es
fro m th e D o d e k a o r t o n such as th e N a tivity , th e E n tr y in to J e r u s a l e m , th e R e s
u r r e c ti o n , th e A n n u n c i a t i o n a n d th e D o r m i t i o n of th e V irg in , a n d finally s u b je c ts
like th e H o s p ita lity o f A b r a h a m , th e Noli M e T a n g e r e an d th e D o r m i t i o n of
v a rio u s h e r m it s , w ere a m o n g th e m o s t p o p u l a r su b jects co p ie d fr o m such c o m m o n
ic o n o g r a p h ic a l m o d els.
A n i m p o r t a n t g r o u p of icons can n o w be d a t e d fro m th e m id d le o f th e fiftee n th
to th e b e g in n in g of th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s ; th es e h a v e th e ir o w n p a rtic u la r c h a r
a c te r , a distin guish ing f e a t u r e o f w h ich w as th e s u p e r b tech nic al e x e c u tio n . T h e
p a i n t e r s o f th e s e w o rk s, m a s te rs o f a te c h n iq u e in h e r it e d fr o m P a la e o l o g a n a rt,
f r e q u e n tl y d is p lay ed an eclecticism th a t e n a b le d t h e m to in c lu d e e le m e n ts fr o m
Ita lia n a r t in th e ir p ain ting s.
T h e a c q u a i n ta n c e w ith th e Italian style o f p a in tin g is m u c h m o r e a p p a r e n t in
a n o t h e r g r o u p o f icons p r o d u c e d o n C r e te . T h e s e icons, w hich re v e a l an u n u s u a l
k n o w le d g e o f th e L a te G o th ic a rt a n d a re in a re f in e d style, w e re p a i n t e d by
N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris (cat. no . 42), A n d r e a s P avias, A n d r e a s R itz o s a n d o t h e r f a
m o u s artists. T h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y c o m m is s io n e d by C a th o lic c u s t o m e r s , a n d th e ir
ic o n o g r a p h y follows typical Italia n m o d e ls , such as th e M a d r e della C o n s o la z i o n e
(cat. no . 42), th e P ieta (cat. no . 45) an d th e M a n o f S o rr o w s (cat. no. 44). T h e s e
I t a l o - C r e t a n w o rk s a re r e t r o s p e c t iv e r a t h e r t h a n c o n se rv a tiv e in c h a ra c te r. T h e y
re fle ct th e tas te s o f th e clien tele w hich h e lp e d to defin e a n d d is s e m in a te this
u n i q u e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d style t h r o u g h icons th a t o ften h a v e a hyb rid cliaiacli-i
like t h e icon with the S a m a r it a n W o m a n , w hich w as p r o f o u n d ly in flu en ced by
T u s c a n p a in tin g of th e q u a t t r o c e n t o .
4<;

C r e t a n ic o n s o f t h e f i f t e e n t h a n d e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w ill a ls o h a v e
had

T A S T E

A N D

T H E

M A R K E T

i d iv isiv e in flu en ce o n th e w o rk o f th e C r e ta n p a in te rs o f th e fo llo w in g g e n

eratio n .

IN

I h e o p h a n e s , a C r e t a n p a i n t e r a c ti v e a t M e t e o r a a n d o n M o u n t A t h o s

( 1 52 7-i55 X ) f o l l o w e d t h e e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n a n d e n r i c h e d it w i t h m o r e r e c e n t I t a l i a n

C R E T A N

F IF T E E N T H

A N D

IC O N S

IN

S IX T E E N T H

C E N T U R IE S

f e a t u r e s . In 1542, t h e p a i n t e r - p r i e s t E u p h r o s y n o s p r o d u c e d i c o n s in C r e t e f o r t h e
M o n a s t e r y o f D i o n y s i o s o n M o u n t A t h o s , f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e c e p t s o f t h e s t ric tly
t r a d i t i o n a l a r t o f A n g e l o s a n d R it z o s .
In t h e m i d d l e a n d l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y , t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f M i c h a e l
D a m a s k i n o s a n d G e o r g i o s K l o n t z a s h e l p e d t o m o d e r n i z e C r e t a n p a i n t i n g . T h e i r
w o r k is o f t e n d o m i n a t e d b y M a n n e r i s m , a s in t h e ic o n o f S t. J u s t i n a a n d t w o o t h e r
s a i n ts f r o m

K erkyra

(c a t.

no.

6 5 ), w h ic h

is i n f l u e n c e d

by th e

art o f P ao lo

V e r o n e s e . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t in s o m e o f t h e i r o t h e r w o r k s , t h e s e
p a i n t e r s f o l l o w e d t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s ty le t h a t d r e w u p o n t h e a u s t e r e B y z a n t i n e
trad itio n .
T h e i r a b il it y to h a n d l e d i f f e r e n t sty le s m u s t h a v e b e e n a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e
w a y in w h i c h t h e f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t e r s w o r k e d . T h i s d u a l a b ility is d i s c e r n i b l e
In

in t h e e a r l y w o r k s o f D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s , w h o s e r v e d his a p p r e n t i c e s h i p

C r e t e d u r i n g t h e last t w o i v n i m i e s o f

in C r e t e in a m i l i e u a t o n c e r o o t e d in t r a d i t i o n , y e t o p e n to t h e a r t is t ic a s p i r a t i o n s

V e n e t i a n r u l e ( f r o m t h e m i d - f i f t e e n t h to t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) tin m o s t

o f t h e t i m e . T h e d e g r e e o f a s s i m i l a t i o n o f, o r r e s i s t a n c e t o , d i f f e r e n t a r t i s t i c s ty le s

i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l a c ti v it ie s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e m a j o r e o i i n n i m i c n t i e s

c o r r e s p o n d e d to th e s ta te o f th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e tw o w o rld s th a t c o e x

o f t h e i s la n d : t h e c a p i t a l , C a n d i a ( n o w I r a k l i o n ) , a n d o t h e r c it ie s , s u c h as I h a m i

is te d o n t h e is l a n d . T h i s d ir e c t c o n t a c t o f t h e C r e t a n p a i n t e r s w ith t h e w o r l d o f

a n d R e t h y m n o n . In t h e s e c e n t r e s t h e u r b a n m i d d l e a n d u p p e r c la s s e s b e c a m e ilu

t h e i r d a y is p e r h a p s o n e o f th e m o s t v a l u a b l e a s p e c t s o f t h e i r a rt .

m a i n b e a r e r s o f c u l t u r e . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l life f o l l o w e d
fin e

N A N O Cl IA T Z ID A K IS
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s a n c e p o e t r y a n d d r a m a ) , a n d in t h e v is u a l a r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y p a i n t i n g , lm w h ic h
t h e i s l a n d r e m a i n e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e a f t e r t h e fall o f C o n s t m u n o p l t
T h e c h a r a c t e r o f th is p e r i o d is w e ll d o c u m e n t e d b y t h e s u r v i v i n g n> hiv al sOuf
c e s . F o r p a i n t i n g , a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n is f u r n i s h e d b y t h e A rchives i c U i i n g lo
t h e V e n e t i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in C r e t e ( n o w p r e s e r v e d in t h e S ta l l A n h iv e s in
V e n i c e ) . N o t a r i a l d o c u m e n t s , in p a r t i c u l a r , y ie ld v a lu a b l i

info rm ation on

th e

s o u r c e s o f d e m a n d f o r a n d s u p p l y o f C r e t a n ic o n s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s ot n o n p r o d u c
t i o n , t h e o r g a n i z e d m a r k e t in C r e t a n i c o n s a n d t h e i r i l i s s e m m a i i o n in
r a n e a n w o rld and n o rth e rn

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b e t w e e n p a t r o n s a n d p a i n t e r s , a n d t h e c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e of tin- public

to w a rd s

p ain tin g .
A m o n g t h e s o u r c e s o f d e m a n d fo r ( ' r e t a i l ic o n s , m e r c h a n t s

b o th ( n e c k a n d

I t a l i a n , h e l d a s i g n ifi c a n t p o s i t i o n . Ilie m e r c h a n t s , a sp e c ia l p n u p o f c u s t o m e r s o f
C r e t a n p a i n t e r s , a c t e d as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n C r e t a n

11

lists a n d W e s t e r n m a r

k e t s , a n d o f t e n e x p r e s s e d c o l l e c t i v e a e s l h e t i c p i e l e i c n c e v 1 h e ir w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s
co n stitu te a considerable p ro p o rtio n (about

I V / , ) ol th e s u r v i v i n g c o m m i s s i o n s

p l a c e d w i t h p a i n t e r s a c tiv e in C r e t e .
D o c u m e n t s i n v o l v in g c o m m e r c i a l o r d e r s l o r la r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f C r e t a n i c o n s
re v e a l th a t th e s e w o rk s w e re m ass p ro d u c e d lo r e x p o rt. vast n u m b e r o f icons
w e r e c o m m i s s i o n e d in 1497 b y a V e n e t i a n d e a l e r f r o m a C r e t a n p a i n t e r . T h e
p a i n t i n g s w e r e t o b e p u t u p f o r s a le in E u r o p e , n o t a b l y in F l a n d e r s . H a l f o f t h e m
h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d i s p o s e d o f, w ith g r e a t s u c c e s s , in t h e W e s t e r n m a r k e t s b y M a y
1498.

The

constant d e m a n d

for th ese

ic o n s is d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y t h e d e a l e r s

i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e o r d e r b e c o m p l e t e d as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e .

50

51

All - h u n d r e d s o f icons of th e V irg in w as p la c e d in 1499 by tw o


ik-aleis m u lio in V en ic e a n d th e o t h e r fr o m th e P e lo p o n n e s e , w ith th r e e p a in t e r s
livmj in C a n d ia , ea c h o f th e m b ein g d e a lt w ith se p a r a te ly . T h e re s tric tio n s set by
lh 1111 ' ii li . 1111s as to th e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d style o f th e p ain tin g s (in fo r m a greca or
in ju t m u ti la la tin a ), th e explicit in s tru c tio n s r e g a r d in g th e c o lo u rs of th e V ir g i n s
g a r m e n ts , an d th e o b lig a to ry use o f p r e d e t e r m i n e d m o d e ls , all reflect th e d e m a n d s
of I he foreign m a r k e t , w hich in f lu e n c e d a rt p r o d u c t io n in C r e te . T h e larg e n u m b e r
of the pieces c o m m is s io n e d (seven h u n d r e d ) a n d th e s h o r t d eliv ery p e r i o d (fo rty live days) a tt e s t to th e efficiency o f C r e t a n w o rk s h o p s , w hich c a n in fact b e
re g a r d e d as p r o d u c t i o n u n its w ith a c o n s id e ra b le o u tp u t . Five h u n d r e d o f th e icons
c o m m is s io n e d w e r e to be in th e style of L a te G o th ic p a in tin g , a n d th e re m a in i n g
tw o h u n d r e d in th e B y z a n tin e tr a d it io n , a p p a r e n t ly follow ing th e d e m a n d s of an
a u d ie n c e w ith d ifferin g a e sth e tic p re f e re n c e s . C r e t a n p a in t e rs , e x p e ri e n c in g p a r t ic
u la r historical a n d social c irc u m sta n c e s, w e re v ersatile. T h e i r re la tio n s h ip to th e
art o f th e d o m i n a ti n g political p o w e r , V e n ic e , a n d to o t h e r W e s t e r n in flu e n c es ,
c o m b i n e d w ith th e ta s te o f th eir m ix ed pu b lic (w hich in c lu d e d b o th G r e e k O r t h o
d o x a n d R o m a n C a th o lic , w ith a b r o a d social a n d cu ltu ra l r a n g e ) , led t h e m to an
o b v io u s eclecticism , as a resu lt o f w hich th ey w e re c a p a b le o f p r o d u c i n g icon s in
d if fe re n t tr a d itio n s.
D o c u m e n t s o f t h e a b o v e k in d a tte st n o t only to th e m a s s p r o d u c t io n o f fif
te e n t h - c e n t u r y C r e t a n icons, b u t also to th e re p e titio n o f c e rta in ic o n o g r a p h ic
ty p es, a c c o rd in g to th e usual practice o f m e d ie v a l w o rk s h o p s . S urviving fiftee n th c e n tu r y ic o ns, b o t h sig n ed a n d u n s ig n e d , illu s trate this re p e titiv e use of successful
a n d e s ta b lis h e d ic o n o g r a p h ic m o d e ls. O n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y rev ea l t h e high
level o f tech nical c o m p e t e n c e a n d artistic skill o f th e m e n w h o p a in t e d th e m .
It w as w ith in this f r a m e w o r k th a t th e t r a d e in art w as d e v e lo p e d in C r e te .
P ain tin g s w e re tr e a t e d as m e r c h a n d is e a n d th e p ro d u c t io n of icons b e c a m e p a r t of
th e sy stem o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . B esid es p a in te rs a n d th e i r a ss istan ts, o t h e r
p ro f e ssio n a ls, such as w o o d -c a rv e rs a n d c a r p e n t e r s , w e re also c o n n e c t e d w ith the
a rt tr a d e . P ain tin g s p r o d u c e d u n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s m a y h a v e b e e n lack in g in
o rig in ality, b u t this w as offset by th e ir te c h n ical p e rf e c tio n , w h ich g u a r a n t e e d th e
fine qu ality of th e w o rk s an d s e c u r e d th e g o o d r e p u t a ti o n o f th e C r e t a n p a in t e rs .
In fact s o m e o f th e b est k n o w n f i fte e n th -c e n tu ry C r e ta n m a s te r s o fte n a d d e d th e
n a m e o f th e ir n a tiv e to w n to th e ir s ig n a tu re o n p a in tin g s d e s t in e d fo r e x p o r t a ti o n :
fo r e x a m p l e , A n d r e a s R ig o de C andia p in x it; A n d re a s P avias p in x it de C a n d ia .
T h e v ast p r o d u c t i o n o f fine icons in C r e te is also a tt e s t e d by th e t e s ti m o n y o f a
F r e n c h tr a v e lle r, J a c q u e s L e S aige, w h o visited C a n d ia in 1518: e t il se fait aussy
a la d ite ville [de C a n d ie ] l a r g e m e n t d e belles y m aig es d e n o s tre d a m e e n c lo s e s de
ta b l e a u x d e c ip r e s .
T h e flo u ris h in g tr a d e in C r e t a n icons w h ich is m a n ife s te d to w a r d s t h e e n d o f
(he fifte e n th c e n tu r y d o e s n o t se e m to h a v e c o n ti n u e d in to th e s ix te e n th . D o c u
m e n ts su gg est e i t h e r th e failure o f c o m m e rc ia l e n te r p r i s e s o r a lack o f in t e r e s t on
I he p a rt o f th e m e r c h a n ts in th e m a r k e t in icons. A c o n tr a c t d r a f t e d in 1509 in
C a n d ia registers th e b e g in n in g o f an a t t e m p t to t r a d e in sm all trip ty c h s w h ich ,
h o w e v e r, n e v e r c a m e to fru itio n. In 1556 a m e r c h a n t p la c e d an o r d e r fo r a specific
nu trth er of icons w ith tw o p a in te rs e s ta b lis h e d in C a n d ia . A l t h o u g h th e c o m m is
s i o n was c a rr ie d o u t , th e m e r c h a n t e x h ib i te d o b v io u s in d iffe r e n c e to t h e d elivery

52

o f th e icons he h a d o r d e r e d , a p p a r e n t ly ow ing lo lack of sufficient d e m a n d .


T h e d if fe re n t p ic tu re to be d e riv e d Irom six te e n th -c e n tu r y d o c u m e n t s m a y be
i n t e r p r e t e d as th e result of so m e radical c h a n g e s in llie d e m a n d for an d d is tr i b u
tio n o f C r e t a n icons in th e W est. I lie art tr a d e in C r e te h ad most likely b e e n
a ff e c te d b y a shift in the taste of th e public. I he di p re c a t o ry re m a r k s m a d e by
G . B . A r m e n i n i (1587) a b o u t G r e e k icons w hich he hail see n in n o r t h e r n Italy
w e r e p e r h a p s th e result o f a shift o f this kind ; he d escrib es p it tu r c delle saero
im a g in i, le qu ali e r a n o la m a g g io r p a r t e q u a d r e t ti di c e r t e figure latte alia g re c a ,
g offissim e, d ispiacevoli e tu t te a ff u m ic a te ( p ain tin g s o f sa c re d im age s w hich w ere
fo r th e m o s t p a rt p ic tu re s of c e rta in figures d o n e in th e G r e e k m a n n e r , most
u n c o u t h , u n p le a s in g a n d s m o k y ).
In th e six te e n th c e n tu r y th e p r e d o m i n a n t artistic fas h io n s w e re th o s e o f th e
R e n a is s a n c e a n d M a n n e r is m , a n d th e s e o v e rs h a d o w e d th e e a r l ie r e n th u s ia s m fo r
p a in tin g in th e B y z a n tin e o r L a te G o th ic tr a d itio n s , a lt h o u g h m a d o n n e ca n d io tte
a n d q u a d ri d o ra ti de nostra d o n n a alia greca c o n ti n u e d to figure a m o n g th e v a lu a b le
p o ssessio n s o f late six te e n th -c e n tu r y w ealth y V e n e tia n h o u s e h o ld s .
N o t o n ly can this n e w t u r n in artistic taste be d e te c te d in th e a t t it u d e o f th e
Italian a n d th e C r e ta n pu blic; it is also d e m o n s t r a t e d by th e e n r i c h m e n t of the
existing tr a d it io n s of ic o n o g r a p h y w h ich w as a t t e m p t e d , w ith in th e limits o f reli
gio us p a in t in g , by a n u m b e r o f C r e t a n artists. Suffice it to m e n t io n h e re th e n a m e s
o f th r e e s i x te e n t h - c e n tu r y m a s te rs , th e y o u n g D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s (la te r
th e f a m o u s E l G r e c o ) , M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s a n d G e o r g io s K lo n tz a s , w h o all
a d o p t e d a fresh a p p r o a c h to th e t r e a t m e n t o f tr a d itio n a l s u b j e c ts , in volving th e
use o f W e s t e r n e le m e n ts , a n d o fte n sig n e d th eir w o rk s in n e w a n d orig inal w ays.
T h e i r ic o n o g r a p h ic in n o v a tio n s w e re u n d o u b te d l y h e ld in e s t e e m by c e rt a in social
circles, such as th e m e m b e r s o f th e lite ra ry society o f th e A c c a d e m ia degli stravag a n ti o f C a n d ia .
A f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t is th e a p p e a r a n c e , fro m the b eg in n in g of th e six te e n th
c e n tu r y o n w a r d s , o f p riv a te colle ctio ns th at included icons a m o n g s t th e Italian an d
F le m is h p a in tin g s an d p ieces o f sc u lp tu re o w n e d by C r e ta n s an d by V e n e tia n
n o b l e m e n a n d th e w ea lth y b o u rg e o isie of C a n d ia . Icons w ere n ow r e g a r d e d as
w o rk s o f a rt w ith th e i r o w n intrinsic aesth e tic v alu e, anil w ere ju d g e d to be p i t
cious th in gs fo r G r e e k p a in t in g (cose p retio se p e r p ittu ra greca).
By th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r y large c o m m e rc ia l c o m m is sio n s a n d
th e m ass p r o d u c t io n o f icons b e lo n g e d to th e p a st, b u t a n ew c o n c e p t o f p a in tin g
a n d a m o r e f a v o u r a b le a tt it u d e to w a rd s p a in te rs an d th e ir w o r k h a d e m e r g e d in
R e n a is s a n c e C re te .
M A R IA C O N ST A N T O U D A K I-K IT R O M IL ID E S
Teaching fellow at the University of A thens

W O R K IN G
O F
A F T E R

D R A W IN G S

P A IN T E R S

T H E

F A L L

IN

G R E E C E

O F C O N S T A N T IN O P L E

I c o n s a n d fresco es a fte r 1453 b e lo n g to th e


last p h a s e o f a p a in tin g tr a d itio n w h ich c an b e tr a c e d b ack in to A n tiq u i ty . T h e
te c h n o lo g ic a l b a c k g r o u n d o f this p a in tin g is accessible, to s o m e e x te n t , to m o d e r n
sch o lars, m ain ly t h r o u g h th e P a in ters M a n u a l by D io n y siu s o f F o u r n a , w h ich was
w ritte n o n M o u n t A t h o s , ro u g h ly b e tw e e n 1730 a n d 1734. D io n y s i u s s M a n u a l
p ro v id e s d e ta i le d in f o r m a t io n c o n c e rn in g th e p ro d u c t io n of d ra w in g s on tra c in g
p a p e r , a n d also o f a specific typ e of i m p r i n te d c a r t o o n , th e so-called a n th iv o lo n ,
w hich w as d r a w n fr o m an ex istin g w o rk , w h e t h e r a d ra w in g , p a n e l or wall p a i n t
ing: '.. . p u t s o m e b lack c o lo u r in to a scallop-shell w ith s o m e garlic ju ice ... an d
mix th e m ; t h e n go o v e r th e fo r m s o f th e w h o le figure o f th e s a in t t h a t y ou a re
co p y in g ... T h e n y o u mix re d co lo u r w ith garlic ju ice a n d go o v e r th e h igh lig hts of
th e face a n d c lo th e s ... th e n w e t a s h e e t o f p a p e r th e s a m e size as the p r o t o t y p e ...
p lace it on th e a r c h e t y p e a n d pres s it d o w n carefully w ith y o u r h a n d . . . Y o u will
th u s h a v e m a d e a p r i n te d cop y in e v e ry w ay identical to th e p r o t o t y p e .
T h e d e s c r ip tio n b y D io n y siu s refers to a fam iliar m e t h o d o f m a k i n g w o rk in g
d ra w in g s , usually in r e d an d black , a n d s o m e ti m e s a c c o m p a n ie d by a b b r e v i a t e d
v e rb a l in d ic a tio n s o f th e co lo u rs to b e u sed ; it w as po ssib le fr o m th e s e to o b ta i n
fu r th e r co p ies by m e a n s o f p ric k in g (p o n c if). Such p ri c k e d c o p ie s w e r e o ft e n e m
p lo y e d by p a n e l p a in t e r s in o r d e r to p r o d u c e a p o u n c c d d ra w in g o v e r th e gesso
g r o u n d p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e p an el. T h is in its tu r n w as incised a n d th e p a in te rs
p r o c e e d e d by a d d in g th e gold leaf a n d successive layers of egg t e m p e r a .
A c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f p a i n t e r s w o rk in g draw in g s h as su r v iv e d . T h e tw o
m o s t im p o r t a n t ( I h o u g h largely u n p u b li s h e d ) collectio ns a re fo u n d at th e B yzanliiu M u s e u m o f A th e n s , w hich o w n s m o r e th an 3,000 d ra w in g s , a n d at th e B e n a k i
M u s e u m ol A llie n s, which lias tw o p a i n t e r s po rtfo lio s. A th ird sm a lle r co llection
ol so m e I M) dr iwings o w n e d b y S. M ilia llria s , is m I o n d o n . I lie B e n a k i M u s e u m
p o rtfo lio s a n p a r t i c u l a r ^ im p o rta n t b e c a u s e th e y a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a c c u
m u la te d over llitee e e u tu i ie s liy suecossive g e n e r a t io n s ol p a in te rs , a n d con sist of
tw o distinctly d i H e i e n l types ol w o rk in g d raw in gs, e ith e r t r e e d r a w n s k e t c h e s o r
p ric k e d c a r t o o n s , fl u first p o rtfo lio consists ol 188 s k e tc h e s , o n m o s t o f w hich
n u m b e r s h ave b e e n w ritten, t he c iilii it ol th e s e '-ketches m ay d a te fr o m c. 1600,
a n d th e r e are sev eral nulu atio n s th at th ey w e re in te n d e d for use in th e m a k i n g of
wall p ain tin g s I he n u m b e r s on I h e u p p e r p art ol th e s e d ra w in g s su g g est t h a t th e y
w e r e a r r a n g e d by s u b |e c t roughly lo llow ing the ico n o g ra p h ic a l la y o u t o f th e
M a n u a l by D io n y siu s o f F o u rn a . I his first p o rtfo lio m u s t th e r e f o r e b e an i c o n o
g rap h ical i n v e n t o ry , a n d this e x pla ins w hy it inclu des a lim ited n u m b e r o f e n g r a v
ings, m o d e l s for capital letters a n d recip es t a k e n from th e M a n u a l o f D io n y siu s.
A m o n g t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e d ra w in g s a re nin e scenes o f an A p o c a ly p s e cycle

54

d a tin g fr o m c. 1600 a n d m ost p ro b a b ly d e riv e d from th e illu s tra te d B ib le s of


C r a n a c h a n d H o lb e in . A n o t h e r rare cycle, ol th e S u n d a y P ra y e r , is c o p ie d fro m
th e illu s tra te d B ible of the V ie n n e s e e n g r a v e r C h r is to p h W eige l (1654-1725),
w h ich s e r v e d as a p a i n t e r s m o d el b o o k in S erbia, llu* d ra w in g s a p p e a r to h a v e
b e e n b o u n d in to a v o lu m e , possibly in llu co u rse ol the e ig h t e e n th c e n tu r y . T h e
latest p a r t o f this p o rtfo lio cont.iins large, uirnjinibcrc d d ra w in g s , o l t e n sig ned by
m e m b e r s o f a w o r k s h o p Iro m CJalatista, n e a r T h e s s a lo n ik i The p a in te rs b o m this
w o r k s h o p a r e k n o w n to have b e e n active o n M o u n t A th o s in Ihe first hall o f the
n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry , l his an d several o t h e r in d ication s imply th it the p o r t f o l i o
m u s t h a v e c o m e from M o u n t A t h o s w hich, iller 1453, was ol eo u rs e a m a j o r
c e n tr e o f a rt, particularly o f m o n u m e n t a l painting.
T h e s e c o n d B en aki M u s e u m p o rtfo lio was a gitt o f th e By/.antinc s c h o la r A.
X y n g o p o u lo s . l i e r e l a te d so m e o f th e d ra w in g s to icons by th e C r e t a n p a in t e r
T h c o d o r o s P o u la k is (1622-1692). T h e p o rtfo lio c o n ta in s so m e 308 s h e e t s , o n to
w hich a re p i n n e d c a rto o n s o f d if fe re n t sizes for u se in icon p a in tin g . T h e c a r t o o n s
a r e in th e fo r m o f e it h e r draw in g s o r p ric k e d c o p ie s , m ostly fo ld e d in to fo u r . A
n u m b e r o f th e c a rt o o n s a r e o n s t a n d a r d p a p e r m e a s u r in g 3 T x 4 2 cm a n d sh o w in g
w a t e r m a r k s w ith th e initials V G (V a n G a n g e lt) . T his p a p e r s e e m s to h a v e c o m e
fr o m A m s t e r d a m .
T h e c a r t o o n s a re a r r a n g e d by s u b je c t; fo r in s ta n c e , s c e n e s fr o m th e O ld
T e s t a m e n t , P r o p h e t s , E v an g elists , p o rt ra it s o f C h ris t a n d th e V irg in , D o d e k a o r to n s c e n e s , a n d scen es fr o m th e life of v ario u s saints. T h e r e a re also t h r e e
c a r t o o n s fo r c h u rc h e m b r o id e r y . T h e e arliest o f th e s e d ra w in g s , su ch as, for e x a m
p le , a p r i c k e d c o p y with th e N ativ ity o f th e V irgin, a re c o n n e c t e d w ith six te e n th c e n tu r y icons. F o u r p ric k e d c a rt o o n s h a v e scenes fr o m th e life o f St. G e o r g e
co p ie d fr o m an icon in K e r k y r a ( C o rf u ) by th e C r e ta n m a s te r M ic h a e l D a m a s k i nos (activ e 1555-1591) a n d T h e o d o r o s P o u lak is, w h o is k n o w n sy stem a tically to
h a v e e x p lo i te d F le m ish en g ra v in g s by J. S a d e le r a n d J. W ierix . It th e r e f o r e s e e m s
th a t th e c o re o f this se c o n d B e n a k i M u s e u m p o rtfo lio r e p r e s e n ts th e e q u i p
m e n t o f s o m e w ell-o rg an ized w o r k s h o p o f ic o n -p ain tin g o f th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u
ry in th e I o n i a n Islan ds, m o s t p r o b a b l y K e rk y ra . T h is island d e v e lo p e d in to a
m a j o r c e n tr e fo r icon p a in tin g a fte r th e fall o f C r e te to th e T u r k s in T669. T w o o f
th e m o s t in te re s tin g a sp ec ts o f this p o rtfo lio are th e c o m p lic a te d p e r m u t a t i o n of
sce n e s fr o m th e life o f v a rio u s saints (p r e s u m a b l y to be e x p la in e d by th e rising
d e m a n d f o r icons w ith such cycles in th e c o u rse of th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y ) , an d
th e g ro w in g in filtra tio n o f W e s t e r n ic o n o g r a p h y , possibly d u e to th e availability of
en g ra v in g s a n d p r i n t e d bo o k s.
A d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a t io n a b o u t the w o rk in g draw in g s o f icon p a in t e r s is f o u n d in
th e V e n e t i a n A r c h iv e s o f C r e te . T h e earliest re f e r e n c e is in the will o f th e o u t
s t a n d in g C r e t a n m a s te r A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s (cat. nos. 32, 33, 35 ), d a tin g fro m
1436. A n g e l o s w ro te it o n th e eve o f his d e p a r t u r e o n a trip to C o n s ta n t in o p l e ,
a n tic ip a tin g the d a n g e rs o f trave lling b y sea. In his will th e p a i n t e r re c o r d e d a
c o llectio n o f d raw in g s , his teseniasm ata (disegni) o r sk ia sm a ta . T h e s e w ere lo lie
given to his u n b o r n child w h ich his wife w as e x p ectin g at th e ti m e , p r o v id e d it was
a b o y a n d p ro v id in g it w ish ed to b e c o m e a p a in te r. O th e rw is e th e d ra w in g s w e ie
to b e g iven to A n g e l o s s b r o t h e r J o h n , also an icon p a in te r. It tr a n s p il e s from
la t e r d o c u m e n t s in th e s a m e archives th a t A n g e lo s s o nly child was a girl a n d ,o
-

55

t h e d r a w i n g s p r e s u m a b l y e n d e d in h is b r o t h e r s h a n d s . I n 1477, w h e n h e w a s
e l d e r l y a n d s ic k , t h e b r o t h e r , J o h n A k o t a n t o s , is k n o w n t o h a v e s o l d 5 4 d r a w i n g s
o f v a r i o u s s a i n t s (e x e m p lo r u m fi g u r a r u m d iv e r s o r u m s a n c to r u m , g re c e d ic ta sq ia sinarit) lo a n o t h e r m a j o r i c o n - p a i n t e r , A n d r e a s R i t z o s , f o r t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m o f
l l ir e e g o l d d n e a t s . T h e t r a n s a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e d r a w i n g s
w e r e to b e e x c lu s iv e l y u s e d b y R i t z o s h i m s e l f a n d w e r e n o t to b e s o l d t o o t h e r
p .m ilt is.
A n g i los w a s a m a j o r f i g u r e in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e C r e t a n S c h o o l , a n d a t le a s t
I(9 w o r k s by h im a r e k n o w n t o d a y . H e a p p e a r s t o h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l ic o n o g r a p h i c f o r m u l a s b a s e d o n L a t e B y z a n t i n e t r a d i t i o n s , a n d a ls o o n a l i m i t e d n u m b i i ol I c i t u r e s d e r i v i n g f r o m I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o t h i c s t y le ,
It>i i n s t a n c e , llie d r a g o n - s l a y i n g s a i n t s m o u n t e d o n r e a r i n g h o r s e s ( c a t . n o . 59 ).
I In f e a r o l lo lu t A k o t a n t o s t h a t h is d r a w i n g s m i g h t fall i n t o t h e h a n d s o f le s s e r
ai lists s u g g e s ts t h a t h e w a s fu lly a w a r e o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e
kn o w nollim g a b o u t th eir precise n a tu r e - w h e th e r, for e x a m p le , th e y w e re fr e e
h inet t h a w i n g s Or p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s . A m o n g t h e s i g n e d w o r k s o f A n g e l o s t h e r e is
o n lv

llu c li n s t 1 n t h r o n e d o n Z a k y n t h o s ( c a t . n o . 33) o f w h ic h a n e x a c t c o p y

is I o n n d in tin
slight

B y z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A th e n s . T h e e x isten ce o f th e tw o p a n e ls

Is lh a l prickti tl c a r t o o n s m a y a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n in u se in t h e firs t h a l f o f t h e

li l l e e n t l i e e i i t m v

In a n y e a s e , a r t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y o b s e r v e d c e r t a i n

fo r m a l ii u n o g r iphit

m i i l a r m e s in th e w o r k s o f A n g e l o s a n d R i t z o s ( s u c h a s t h o s e

hi t w e e n th e ( liiist I n l h i t m c d ol Z-ak.yflthos a n d th a t by Ritv.os o n P a t m o s ) . P e r


h a p s silt'll l e l a i i o n s b e t w e e n i c o n s a r t b e l t e r u n d e r s t o o d in t h e light o f t h e s e ree o it le t l c a s e s ol Lhf t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d r a w in g s .
I he s y s te m a t ic use o f p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s m o s t p r o b a b l y b e g a n in t h e f i f t e e n t h
e e n l u r y , w h e n t l i c i c w a s a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o d u c t i o n o f ic o n s , r e s u l t i n g in t h e d iv i s i o n
o f l a b o u r in p a i n t e r s w o r k s h o p s . These d e v e l o p m e n t s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d i
z a t i o n o f i c o n o g r a p h y t h a t m a y b e o b s e r v e d a r o u n d t h e y e a r 1500. It s h o u l d b e
n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t C r e t a n p a n e l p a i n t e r s w e r e n o t a l o n e in th is w i d e s p r e a d u se
of prick ed c a rto o n s. R e c e n t la b o ra to ry research has d e m o n s tra te d th a t th e ir use
w as c o m m o n a m o n g st E u ro p e a n p a in te rs of th e fifteen th and six te e n th c e n tu rie s ,
in clu d in g V a n d e r W e y d e n , M e m lin c , D a v id , J o o s v an C lev e a n d P a ris B o r d o n e .
A p p r e n t i c e s c o n t r a c t s in t h e V e n e t i a n A r c h i v e s o f C r e t e s u g g e s t t h a t d e s i g n
r e t a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e t r a i n i n g o f C r e t a n p a i n t e r s , b u t t h e s y s t e m a t i c
u s e o f p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s a n d t h e a c c e s s ib i lit y o f e n g r a v i n g s m a y h a v e a d v e r s e l y
a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b il it y in f r e e h a n d d r a w i n g . H o w e v e r , e x c e p t i o n a l l y g i f t e d m a s t e r s
s u c h as D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s a p p e a r to h a v e p r e f e r r e d f r e e h a n d d r a w i n g
t o t h e u s e o f c a r t o o n s . T h i s is t h e c a s e w i t h t w o o f his e a r l y w o r k s , t h e D o r m i t i o n
o f t h e V i r g i n o n S y r o s (c a t . n o . 6 3 ) a n d t h e A d o r a t i o n o f t h e M a g i in t h e B e n a ki M u s e u m , A t h e n s (c a t . n o . 6 2 a ) . C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e p r o v e s t h a t w o r k i n g
d r a w i n g s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m h a n d to h a n d t o b e u s e d b y s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n s
o f ic o n p a i n t e r s . T h i s p r o c e s s m a y a c c o u n t f o r t h e e c le c tic c h a r a c t e r o f P o s t B y z a n t i n e a r t , a n d ju s ti f ie s t h e c la i m t h a t its i c o n o g r a p h y w a s t h e o u t c o m e o f a
c o l l e c t i v e p r o c e s s .
L A SK A R IN A B O U R A S
Benaki M useum , Athens

PLATES

I
C urved w ood en door*
V>

l2Wor I Mis

C a r v e d w o o d e n d o o rs . D etail

C a rv e d w o o d e n d o o rs. D etail

C a rv e d w o o d e n d o o rs. D etail

Ml

2
C h r i s t E m m a n u e l , SS C o s m a s , D a m i a n a n d 1 l i e o d o t c ,
E n d o f t h e 12th c e n t u r v

f/iitgm. iio^ptt-rtcG m <iw

'

5
T h e A s c e n s i o n . M i d d l e o f th e 15th c e n t u r y

",Mu , P -4

6
W;ill p a i n t i n g s fr o m th e C 'h u rc h o t A y i o s N i k o l a o s , in V e r i a , l . a k o n i a . I5J7

8
D o u b le - s id e d Icon. A . T h e V i r g i n H o d e g e t r i a . S ec o n d half o f th e 12th c e n tu r y
-

70

D o u b le - s id e d Icon. B. T h e A k r a T a p e in o sis. Seco n d half o f th e 12th c e n tu r y


71

10

St. G e o r g e . M i d d l e o f t h e 13th c e n t u r y

T h e D o r m i t i o n . F ir s t h a l f o f t h e 13th c e n t u r y

72

II

St. John the H;i|>tist. <. 1300


12
A n n u n c i a t i o n , Nativity, B ap tism .uni I i a n s t lg u r a l io n . E arly 14th centurv
75

13
V i r g i n a n d (

L a t e 13 t h - E a r l y 1 4 th c e n t u r y

14
C h r i s t P a n t o c r a t o r . L a t e 13th - h a r l y 1 4 th c e n t u r y

15
D o u b l e - s i d e d I c o n . B . T h e V i r g i n H o d e g c t r i a . T h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e 16 th c e n t u r y
7S

IS
D o u b l e sid e d Icon.

I l i t V i r g i n I l o d c g c l r i u . B e g i n n i n g o f t h e 14th c e n t u r y
7 )

>

16
S t. P e t e r . 14th c e n t u r v
--

ko -

18
Double-sided Icon. . T he Virgin H odegetria. Second q uarte r of the 14th century

82

IS

Double-sided Icon. B Si. Nijhohis Secniul ; ol I he I lili i r n l u r

19

Double-sided Icon. A. St. George. B. Decorative motif.


First half of the 14th century

20

Christ the W isdom of G od. End of the 14th century

21

21

Double-sided Icon with smaller icon inlaid. A. Christ with Angels, Apostles and Saints.

I >nuhk'-suU <l Icon

14th and 16th centuries


86

I lit* ( niulixiiMi

Kith iv nlui v

22

23

Six scenes fr om the Passion. 14th c e nt u r y

I'he Dominion. > l hi 15th i nltuv

88

N*>

27

26

C h r i s t P a n t o c r a t o r . c. 1400
-

92

I Ik

A k i ,i I ipi-nidsis. I 100

<1 I

2)
I In I 1111y m io I-1iis ii l c n <

v*

I 100

100

34
St. A nn e with the Virgin. Middle of the 15th century

35
Angelos: T he Virgin Kardiotissa. Middle of the 15th century

102

103

36
Si. Anne with the Virgin~15th century
lot

38
S a n c t u a r y D o o r s . SS G e o r g e a n d D e m e t r i u s .
S e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 15 th c e n t u r y
-

106

39

Sanctuary Doors. The Annunciation, SS Peter and lolin lh< I *,


Second half of the 15th century
107

__________________________________________________________________________ ------------

--------------------------------- '

40
T he Virgin Glykophilousa. Second half of the 15th century
108

44
N ikolaos Tzafouris (?): The A kra Tapeinosis. Second half of the 15th century

47
' D onnition of St. Sahbas. 15th ccntury

48
Sanctuary D oors, right leaf. Virgin of the A nnunciation, SS Basil and Nicholas.
Second half of the 15th century

48
Sanctuary D oors, right leaf. Detail

49
Christ iiiul I lie Saimirium Woman. L.isi quarter ol the 15th century

51
T he Miracle at C hon ae. End of the 15th century

52
T h e S e v e n S le e p e r s o l I p lie s o s

IMKi

53

S an ctu ary Doors. A n n u nciatio n an d Saints. 15th ccnturv


122

125

58
Noli Mo T a n g e re . 16th century
127

59
Si (icorge mi llorschiick. Beginning (if the 16th century

60
St. D e m e t r i u s . 16th c e n t u r y

I2X

rf'>

61
T he A kra Tapeinosis. Beginning of the 16th century
130

62a
D o m e n i k o s ( T h e o to k o p o u lo s ) : T h e A d o r a tio n of th e M agi. c\ 1565-1575

(>3
I > m m n ik o s

I'h c o lo k o p o iilo s :

I h i I )o i m iliO ii.

I u

Im ll ol Ih r

K illi i

H im

64

65

E m m a n u e l L am bardos: T h e A d o r a t i o n o f th e M a g i. 16th c e n t u r y

Michael Damaskinos: SS Sergius llacclius and luslimi, I / 1

69
Triptych. End of the 16th century
138

71
Silvestros Thcocharis: Triptych in a portable altar.
Altar: second half of the 15th century. Triptych: first half of the 17th century
- 140

71
S i l v e s t r o s I l i e o c h a r i s : T r i p t y c h . F irs t h a l f o f t h e 17t h c e n t u r y
141

7 2

C a r t o o n of the R es u r r e c t i o n. I7lh c e nt u r y

CATALOGUE

73
C a rto o n o f th e B aptism o f C hrist. 17th cen tu ry

1
C arved w ood en doors
1 2 9 6 or 1305
237X 140 cm
E lasson, L a ris sa . M o n a ste ry o f the
O ly m p io tissa, Sacristy

e n c lo s e d w ithin
d iffe re n t

b o rd ers, each

d esig n .

The

in laid

of a

A n o n y m o u s D e a c o n (E u p lo s)

ivory

F ir st h a lf o f th e 13th c e n tu r y

d e c o r a t i o n is p r e s e r v e d a t a n u m b e r
o f poin ts.
d elicate

T he w ork
and

as a w h o le

refin ed .

T here

is
are

in sc rip tio n s c a rv e d o n th e to p , o u t
er

O n e of the rarest and most r e p r e


sentative exam ples of Byzantine
wood-carving from G re e c e , this door
illustrates the im portance of this art
from the E arly Christian period o n
wards and also its relationship to
Islamic w ood-carving, to which it
had a similar develo pm en t. Both
leaves are divided into three dif
ferently d e c o ra te d parts; the d ec
oration consists o f geom etric motifs

corners

of

each

leaf:

L eft:

[ A N ] E K A 1 / [ N I C ] 0 H C A N ' [AI ] .
R i g h t : E T O Y C 5 / E N ( o r Y ) .
P rovenance. M onastery o f the O lym pioiissa.
F orm erly in corporated into the m;iin, west
en tran ce o f the katholikon.
B ibliography. S otiriou 1927. pp. 327ff. Byzanlinc A rt 1964, no. 127, p. 203. Skouvaras
1967. pp. 23ff. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 20,
pp. 32-35. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 1, pp.
40-41
E. M . C h,

2
C h r ist E m m a n u e l, SS C o s m a s,
D a m ia n a n d T h e o d o te
E n d o f th e 12th c e n tu r y
157X105 cm
Z akynthos. M useum

T he wall painting has been d etach ed


from the prothesis conch of the
Church of the Saviour P an to c ra to r in
the K astro on Z a k y n th o s. which was
c onverted into a C atholic C athedral
(.luring the early years of the R om an
Catholic episcopate on the island
(1207-1212). 11 was rem oved after
the e a r th q u a k e of 1953.
T he sem i-dom e is dec o rate d with a
bust of Christ E m m a n u e l in an atti
tude of p raye r, and below it are SS
Cosm as and D am ian with their
m o th e r T h e o d o te . T he saints are
depicted frontally, as beardless
youths w ho hold the surgical tools
that are their usual attributes. T he
oval faces, with alm ond eyes and
fleshy fea tu re s are softly modelled
with a successive series of green
shadow s that replace the outlines.
T h e d rap e ry is trea ted in a d e c o r a
tive m a n n e r, as a series of triangles
with bright edges, but still retains
som e feeling of volume.
- 146

1 9 6 X 5 8 cm
A t h e n s . B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m , T . 2227

T hese features set the wall painting


within the 'classical m onum ental
style of late C o m n en ia n painting.
T h a n k s to the conservatism of the
provincial w orkshops this continued
to be em p lo y ed until the late 12th or
early 13th century, to which period
this w ork should be dated: the
conversion of the church into a
C atholic C ath e d ra l furnishes a termi
nus ante quern.
Provenance. T he ruined Church of (he Sav
iour in the K astro on Z akynthos. Rem oved
from wall in 1953 (M. C hatzidakis).
Conservation. K. K outsouris (1953-54).
B ibliography. Salvator 1904. pp. 99ff. C h a l/|
dakis 1956. p. 14. V okotopoulos 1970. pp
15Kff. K onom os 1979. pp. 41 ff. Byzantine
A rt. no. 25. pp. 39-40. 41. A ffrcschi e icone
1986. no. 9. pp. 46. 47.
M. (.

Full-length frontal portrait of a


youthful saint-deacon. A small area
of the feet and at the top of the head
is missing. In his left hand, which is
covered by a d e e p red-brow n m a te
rial, he is holding a tall censer, p a in t
ed in ochre to represent gold; his
right arm is held in front of his chest
in a gesture of reverence. D espite
the fact that the wall painting was
exposed to the elem ents for m any
years, the original colours are still
fully preserved in the face: a thick
red-b ro w n outline encloses a b road
light are a of a cold grey colour, with
som e green to nes, on which the flesh
is re n d e re d by m eans of white
highlights. T h e nose is m ade to stand
o u t from the face by the use of a red
shadow to the left and a green
shadow to the right. T he sticharion is
w hite, with gree n , linear folds, sug
gesting that originally the drapery

will have had a more scu Ip un ill


quality. It may be co njectured on lli>
basis of all this that the first painting
was executed in a fresco technique,
while the applied colours that gave il
the sculptural feeling that slill
survives in the face, were painted a
secco (tem p era).
T h e frontal figure is by no m eans
h an d s o m e , but the wilful head, with
its sidelong gaze, and the long,
sturdy neck, give it an air of pride.
All the characteristics of this wall
painting connect it with the m o n u
m ents of a w ider area dating from
the first half of the 13th century,
such as the C hurch of Mileseva, the
C h u rch of the A cheiropiitos in
T hessalo nike, and the neighbouring
C h u rch of Ioannis Kalyvitis on
E u b o e a (1245).
Provenance. T he sanctuary of Ihe ruined
C hurch of A yios G corgios al Ialios O riip o v
B ocolia (1959).
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (195H-59).
Bibliography C hatzidakis 1960 ( I) . QjiiriO
1979. p. 225.

M. C II

C h u rc h F ath er
14th c e n t u r y
200X 77 cm
C r e t e , l r a k l i i m . ('ulli-ctim i of I lit C h u r c h
o f S t. C a t h e r i n e S iniiiton

F ro m the ruined dom e d C hurch of


the Virgin at Patso. T he figure is
depicted frontally, supporting the
the o ry that the side walls of the
S an ctuary w ere dec o rate d with a row
of full-length, frontal r e p r e s e n ta
tions of bishops. In the alternative
iconographic type, the figures on the
side walls are turning so as to offi
ciate in the ce rem o n y along with the
bishops p ainted in the apse. T he
style in which the wall paintings of
the C h urch of the Virgin are exe cu
ted is that of Palaeologan painting
147

w hiili, with stylistic viiPiunis, pent,


liali il C rete lit Ihe beginning ol tIn
I-till le n l m y . I hi brOud figure, with
the neck almost sunk into Ihe stio n g
shoulders, freely m odelled face and
intense gaze, has a lifelike quality
associated with the wall paintings of
M acedonia.
Provenance. T he ruined Church of ihe Virgin
at P atso, A m ari in C rete.
Conservation. A. D asyras.
B ibliography. B orboudakis 1973, pp. 504ff
B orboudakis 1973-74. p. 941. pis. 711 712.
B yzantine A rt 1986, no. 54, pp. 56, 57. A flrcschi e icone 1986, no. 21, p. 58.

5
T h e A s c e n sio n
M id d le o f th e 15th c en tu r y
2 5 0 X 160 cm
A thens. B y z an tin e M u s e u m

Wall painting rem oved from the wall


of the church of the form er M o n a s
tery of the I lo d e g e tria n ea r Apolpcn a on Lefkas. It was pain ted on
the ea ste rn wall of the church, above
the Sanctuary apse; parts of a scene
of the Pentecost (originally situated
above it) an d of a decorative b o rd er
aro u n d the apse were rem oved with
it. It follows the usual iconographic
type: the angels flanking the mandorla of Christ, though reminiscent
of Byzantine m odels, seem m ore
directly influenced by W estern icon
ography. T h e landscape is unusual,
having the th ree rocky hills u su
ally found in scenes of the T ra nsfi
guration; they form a line, curving
dow n tow ard s the centre, as though
to suggest a horizon and a d ep th of
perspective. T h e sam e intention lies
behind the a tte m p t to render the vol
u m es of the m o unta ins by m eans of
gentle transitions from lit to shaded
surfaces, so as to give the feeling of
fo re ground and backg ro und, along
with that of height and depth. T he
trees at th e sides w ere clearly m eant
by the pain ter to be recognizable as
olives (the scene takes place on the
M o u n t of Olives: A cts of the A p o s
tles 1.9-12). T h e aim was to achieve
a realistic effect, and to convey
things as they actually ap p e ared . T he
sam e aim lies behind the way the fig
ures are a rra n g e d , in a kind of p e r
spective, th ough this is not scientifi
cally based, th e re being no vanishing
point; the feeling of d epth is
conveyed by locating the figures in
such a way as to suggest m ov e m en t,
in this case m ov e m en t along two
sides of a triangle (the Virgin and the
angel on the left and Paul and the
o th e r angel on the right). This
artistic intent can also be seen in the
modelling of the exposed parts of the
bodies an d the d rap e ry , w here there
-

148 -

W a ll p a in tin g s fr o m th e C h u r ch

is an a tte m p t to em phasize the


curves and volumes, and in the
m aterial texture of th e objects.
O th e r notable features include the
balance betw een m ove m ent and
rest, the expression of the inner
m o o d of the figures, an d the ju d i
cious use of colour. This wall p a in t
ing from Lefkas reflects two dif
ferent approa ches to the way in
which artistic form is conceived and
ren d e re d . In this it represe nts a
u niqu e m o m e n t in the history of
Byzantine painting, a m o m e n t of
creative contact with W e ste rn art, at
a tim e w hen the p red o m in an t style
was that of Late or International
G othic. In the perio d to which the
wall paintings of the H o d eg e tria
b elong, Lefkas was part of the
D uchy of K ephallonia, which was
ruled by the Florentine family of the
Tocchi. T h e secular and ecclesiastical
aristocracy of C o n stantino ple itself
w e re also familiar with W estern art.
T h e G r e e k artist w ho w ork e d on
L efkas, p erh a p s shortly before the
fall of C o n s tantinople, rem ained
true to traditional Byzantine ic ono
grap h y and the types of the figures
p o rtra y e d , but had assimilated the
new ideas of the art of the W est to a
r e m a rk a b le degree, and p roduce d a
w o rk of high quality which w ent far
beyond the traditional conventions
of Byzantine painting.
Provenance. T he C hurch o f th e H odegetria
n ear A p o lp en a on Lefkas.
C onservation. F. A sim akou. A. M argaritoff
and colleagues. S. V arotsis (1985).
Bibliography. Pallas 1956, p. 292, fig. 6, Pallas
1960, pp. 21 Off. Pallas 1961, pp. 83ff. Pallas
1968. p. 15 R ondoyannis 1973, pp. 27ff.
B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 62, pp. 60-62. Affreschi c icone 1986, no. 23. pp. 59-60, 61.
D. P

o f A y io s N ik o la o s in V e r ia , L a k o n ia
1597
343X 217 cm
Y e ra k i, L a k o n ia . L a b o r a to r y of the 5th
E p h o r a te o f B yz antine Antiquities
( t e m p o r a r y locatio n)

T h e iconography of the wall p a in t


ings rem o v e d from the walls of the
small d o m e d C hurch of A yios N ik o
laos in V eria follows the familiar
rep e rto ire of the period for churches
of this type. T h e Virgin, in the type
of P latytera, is r ep rese n ted on the
vault of the Sanctuary apse, with
the 'M elism o s and the Officiating
Bishops on the wall b en e a th ; the
A n n u n cia tio n is depicted on the
piers, and the D escent from the
C ross is pain ted in the prothesis. T he
S anctuary walls have representatio ns
of bishops. A b o v e the Sanctuary
d o o r of the iconostasis is the
inscription recording the decoration
of the church:
+ ( ) (

Ton
(-)> (| (<) /><>
' ( ( ) ( | ) ,)()|' |
i v i <<>( )
... y, y ,
^( ()( ( )
( ) ( ) (C 1/|"' "....

T o the right and left are Christ and


th e Virgin en th ro n e d ; on the north
wall is the p ortra it of St. Nicholas
afte r w hom the church is n a m e d ; and
o n the lunettes the apostles Peter
a n d Paul. T he p ro m in e n t features of
the d a rk , melancholy faces arc
e m p h asized by delicate parallel
w hite lines, but these do not succeed
in lighting up their countenances.
T h e d rap e ry , which is som etim es
flowing in its tr e a tm e n t, is stiff, with
a n g u la r edges and harsh lighting. An
unsuccessful a tte m p t is m ade to
m a k e the figures stand out from tlieflat background by dividing it into
b a n d s of different colour. There is
no great variety in the colours used,
th o u g h different tones of the sanu
co lo u r have been juxtaposed in a
generally sensitive and carclul laili
ion. This is a conservative style
which reflects the Palaeolouan ail ol
the su rrou nding a n ;i (notably V
raki) and was clcnily, i n l l u i n u d by
portable icons.
Provt'tuim r I lit ( hint li til Ayio* Nikolaos in
V i'i'in. I nkoniti I loin (lie Intel (m io iu I) lnvri
ol wiill | m 11 it *
( onset viithm S ' . < /ilstis, A
Mill is. k /iU n , I* .ind II , III
Viit liiivlolos. Ill '<| (|WH^ H.**).
itihtiitfihijfhy llv/nniim A iI I
. no o7, |>p.
frf A llii'siln i irtini' I9N6. no 2.V pp

fil ttZ
Ai

T h e R a isin g o f L a z a r u s
F ir st h a lf o f th e 12th c e n tu r y

* \

2 1 . 5 X 2 4 cm
A t h e n s . P r i v a t e C o llectio n

This small icon is one from a series of


the twelve principal feasts of the
O rth o d o x C hurch on an iconostasis.
T h e T ransfiguration from the same
series is p reserved in the H erm itage
M u se u m . Both icons are of the same
size and style, an d have th e same
unusual red background. T he m o n u
m ental ch a racter of the com position,
with the d o m ina ting figure of Christ
1

in the ce n tre, the soft modelling, and


the econom ical m a n n er in which
space is indicated, all suggest that
the series should be d a te d to the tirst
half of the 12th century.
Provenance. M ount A thos.
Conservation. Ph. Z ach ario u (1958).
Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1964-65. p. 386, pi
8 7 a ( = Studies chap. X V III). C hatzidakis
1965 (2). pp. X X IV , LXXXII1. no. M .
C h atzidakis 1979 (1), p. 347, pi. X L ( h at/i
dakis-B ahic 1983 (b o th French an d 1 nglish
ed itio n s), p. 154. B yzantine A it 19X6, no. 74.
pp 72, 74. fire sc hi e icone 1986, no. 2(>. p.
63
M C h.

8
D o u b le -s id e d Icon
A.

T h e V ir g in H o d e g e tr ia

B . T h e A k r a T a p e in o s is
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 12th c e n tu r y
115X 77.5 cm
K astoria. Cathedral

This icon is one of the masterpieces


of Byzantine painting, not only for
its sublime artistic quality but also
for the originality of the motif of the
A k ra Tapeinosis (or 'M an of Sor
rows'), which a p p e ars here for the
first time. It is clear from the notches
at the b ottom of the panel that this
was a processional icon.
A. A feature of the icon of the
H o dege tria is the co ntrast between
the
frightened
expression
and
sidelong glance of the Virgin, and
the serenity of Christ, whose w rin
kled forehead gives him a m ature
ap p e aran c e. T h e em ph asis on the
em o tio n s, and the linear natu re of
the com position are both features of
the art of the second half of the 12th
century.

B . T h e po rtray al of Christ in the type


of the A k r a T apeinosis on the o th e r
side is co n te m p o ra ry with the Virgin.
H e r e the groun d is blue, w hereas in
the case of the Virgin it is ochre. T he
ro u g h er modelling and the decidedly
linear tre a tm e n t of the face have
close affinities with works from the
end of the 12th century at K urbinovo
and in the C hurch of the Ayioi A nargyroi at Kastoria. This is o n e of the
earliest k now n scenes of the A k ra
Tapeinosis.
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou.
Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1976. pp. 184ff.. pi.
X X X V II. 20-21. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976. no.
106. p. 77. C hatzidakis 1979(1). I. pp. 358ff..
pi. X L V . 20-21 Belting 1980. pp. 143ff.. figs.
49-50. Belting 1980-81, p. 4. figs. 2-3. Byzan
tine A rt 1986. no. 75. pp. 72-73. Affrcschi e
iconc 1986. no. 27. pp. 64-65.

M. Ch.

wish to p ro duce a work of ail of a


Byzantine kind. The difficulty of
course is w h eth e r such a work ol
m ixed origins m ight as easily bu
explained as the p rodu ct of a B yzan
tine artist influenced by the W est. In
eith er case the historical im portance
lies in this illustration of the infinite
possibilities of th e cross-fertilization
of E a s te r n and W estern E u ro p e p a r
ticularly from the tim e of the
Crusades. T he first publication sug
gested that the icon might have been
pro d u c e d for a pilgrim at L ydda, the
cult site o f St. G eo rg e in the Holy
L and . A n o th e r possible placc of
m a n u fa c tu re to be considered is
Cyprus.
Conservation. S. Mi ha lari as.
B ibliography. C or mack -M i hula i ins IMK-I, pp.
132ff.
It (

10

SI. G e o r g e
M id d le o f th e 13th c e n tu r y
2 6 .8 X 1 8 .8 cm
L o ndon. B ritish M u seu m , M a n d LA
1984, 6-1, 1

This icon (p ainted in egg te m p e r a on


gesso and linen over the wood
su pport) is in fine condition with
only a few paint losses and some
rubbing of the gold leaf webbing
used to highlight g a rm e n ts and o th e r
features. It has a m o u ld e d gesso
b ackground in im itation o f the p r e
cious
metal
reve tm ents
which
som etim es w ere ad d e d to Byzantine
icons and which bec am e even more
p o p u la r in Russian icons. But the use
of such gesso is also found in
W estern E u ro p e a n painting of the
later
Middle
A ges,
and
the
im po rtance of this icon lies in the
150

table to th e Saracens, and he was


rescued and carried to fre ed o m by
the saint just as he was serving a
glass to his captors. H e was tak en on
horseback o v er th e A e g e a n Sea back
to his hom e. W e see the act of rescue
and the flight ov er the sea. This is a
scene w hose popularity was limited
to O rth o d o x Christianity, but there
are tw o unstudied icons of the same
subject in the collection in St.
C a th e rin e 's o n Sinai (one published
in the first study of this icon, and the
o th e r n ote d on a visit by V alentino
Pace but not yet published).
T h e basis for the dating to the m id
dle of the 13th ce ntury and a ttrib u
tion to a F rench artist is the c o m p a ri
son of style with the wall paintings of
the K a le n d a rh a n e Camii in Istanbul
(a cycle of St. Francis of Assisi) and
the m in iatures of the A rsenal Bible
in Paris (Paris, A rsen al, 5211); all
these w orks share such features as
the p ro m in e n t bulging eyes and a
sense of G o th ic swing'. These lea
tures seem to betray an arlislu.
training in the West which have been
modified by travel in lh Last and a

evidence it gives of the constructive


contacts of E astern M e d ite rran e an
and W e ste rn E u ro p e a n traditions in
the C ru s a d e r period. While at first
sight this may resemble a Byzantine
icon with a sta n d ard scene from the
Byzantine life o f the saint, the first
publication cam e to the conclusion
that this was the work of a French
pain ter in the Holy L and working
from B yzantine models.
T h e nam e of St. G eorge can be
discern ed in the red letters in G re e k
to the right of the halo. T h e icono
g raph y can be identified from the
G r e e k text of the posth um ous m ira
cles of St. G eo rg e. T he scene shows
the saint rescuing from captivity
am o n g the Saracens of C rete a young
boy from M ytilene on the island of
Lesbos. T he boy was forced in his
captivity to serve food and drink at

T h e D o r m itio n
F ir st h a lf o f th e 13th c e n tu r y
9 4 X 7 5 cm
Kastoria. Archaeological Collection

T h e body of the Virgin lies on a bier


spread with a richly dec o rate d cloth.
T he apostles stand in two groups at
the ends of the bier, their faces c o n
to rte d with pain an d grief. A n u m b e r
o f bishops and dea co n s stand behind
the bier, and Christ, in the centre of
the com position, is holding the soul
of the Virgin in his hands. A n inter
esting feature is the uncertain a t
te m p t at the perspective of the build
ings at the sides.
T h e painting in this icon is a good
illustration of the tenden cy to a b a n
do n the idealistic values of the
C o m n en ia n style an d establish the
principles of a new conception of art.
151

that a ttac h ed im portance lo hum an


qualities. I his conception is very
clear in the details of the faces, with
their realistic renderin g of hum an
natu re and em otions. The insistence
on the h u m a n , and the wonderful
colours - strong use was m ad e of
pink an d blue - p ro duce a work of
great aesthetic originality. T h e trend
in painting rep rese n ted by this icon
rea ch ed its culmination in w orks of
unrivalled b ea u ty, like the wall
paintings in Sopocani in Yugoslavia.
Provenance. From a church at K astoria.
Bibliography. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976. no.
109. p. 78. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 29. pp.
67-68.
T h . 1*.

11
S t . J o h n th e B a p tis t

candlelight ra th e r than the full light


of day. T h e condition of the icon is
2 5 .1 X 2 0 .2 cm
good. M ost losses are in the gold
L ondon. B ritish M u seu m , M a n d LA
gro u n d and the icon has been ero d e d
1986, 7-8, 1
through w orm dam age , particularly
aro u n d the o u te r edges. T h e re is
I ho figure on the icon is represented
som e loss of paint in the left sleeve.
half-length. T he viewer is presented
O therw ise the losses are due to
with the portrait of a young long
abrasion, as in the inscription and in
haired and b ea rd e d saint. This is a
the original gold w ebbing which
portrait type often used for St. John
overlaid the tunic.
the Maptisl, Inil the fijjure lacks some
T h e saint is evoked as a heroic and
of the o th e r co m m o n visual attrib
noble figure rath e r than as the
utes of this saint, such as, for e x a m
ex tre m e ascetic herm it in the desert.
ple, a cloak of camel hair. T he iden
T he im pression of the light touch of
tification is only confirm ed by the
the painting is on e of great elegance.
writing on the icon. T h e inscription
A small icon of this type might have
in G re e k on eith er side of the gold
been in te n d e d for private devotions
groun d outside the halo is in reel let
at h o m e or in a small chapel. P re su
ters, now ab ra d ed . T h e letters on the
mably it was too small and delicate
left side are legible: O A r i O C (Saint)
to be in te n d ed for p rom ine n t display
and IQ(ANNHC) (the usual a b b r e
in any large church, though as often
viation for Jo hn); but the letters on
in icons it shows the great abilities of
the right are much less distinct. T hey
Byzantine artists to produce m o n u
are to be read as P ro d ro m o s (usually
m ental im ages on w hatever scale
translated as the Forerunner* of
they w ere operating.
Christ), referring to the biblical role
A s usual with Byzantine icons, the
of John.
panel contains no specific in fo rm a
St. Jo hn is holding his right hand
tion ab o u t its d a te , artist or com m is
up in a gesture ol blessing tow ards
sioner. A n y decision about its date
the viewer, l ie holds a scroll in his
and pro v en a n ce has to be deduced
lelt hand, lie w ears a tunic (the
from co m parisons with o th e r, b etter
u n d erg a rm e n t) which is reddish, lit
d o c u m e n te d , works. T he curren t
with blue-grey highlights, and a m a n
a ttribution is to C onstantinople c.
tle (the o v e rg a rm e n t) which is green
1300 (derived from a com parison
with blue-grey highlights. T he main
with the mosaics anti frescoes of the
colours used for the face, neck and
C hurch of St. M ary P am m ak aristos,
hair are various ton es of brown and
now the Fethiye Camii, Istanbul).
c ream , with the paint applied in thin
Conservation. S. M ihalarias.
tra n sp a re n t layers. T he effect of this
Bibliography. C orm ack-M ihalarias 1986. pp.
almost m o n o c h ro m e tre a tm e n t is to
6ff.
suggest that the figure is seen by soft
R. C.
c. 1300

12
A n n u n c ia tio n , N a tiv ity , B a p tism
an d T r a n sfig u r a tio n
E a r ly 14th c e n tu r y
3 8 . 8 X (a p p ro x .) 25.6 cm
L ondon. B ritish M u seu m , M a n d M L 52,
1- 2 , 1-2

I he two small panels fit to gether.


T h e ir surface con dition shows ev-

idence of w ear an d tear and general


flaking and both w ere covered with
d ark varnish w hen acquired by the
M useum in the 19th century. T he
icon passed into the possession of the
D e p a r t m e n t of Medieval and L ater
A ntiq u ities in Ja n u ary , 1852. David
B uck ton (letter) records that it was

b rough t with Syriac MSS from tin


M o n a stery of St. M ary Di ipara iu ,u
the N atro n Lakes in Egypt'. The
m anuscript to which the icon was
attac hed was acquired by the
D e p a rtm e n t of M anuscripts of the
British M useum (now the British
Library) in 1851 (18.812 - 18.821).
S om e scholars have suggested that
p erh a p s the icon was at o n e time in
the possession of the M onastery of
St. C atherine on Sinai, but there is
no evidence for this speculation.
T h e painting is fine and minutely
executed and has rich, bright col
ours, with some use of gold leaf for
highlighting. T h e scenes are identi
fied in a cursive G re e k hand. E ach is
set within a shaped lunette. In the
u p p e r left, the archangel G abriel
an nounc es the com ing birth of Christ
to the Virgin Mary. T he angel
sweeps dow n tow ards her while she
stands in front of a thro ne behind
which rises a house. T he architecture
is draw n to suggest depth and space
in the com position. T h e Virgin holds
a spindle with purple wool for the
veil of the temple.
T h e Nativity to the right is d o m i
nated by the figure of the Virgin and
the crib, but the Christ Child is
receiving the first bath from the m id
wives in the lower left corner, and
Joseph contem plate s the events on
the right. T he figures in the hills
aro u n d the cave at B e thlehem (in
which Byzantine artists always r e p re
sented the Nativity as taking place)
are the she p h erd s to w hom angels
are announcing the birth of Christ.
T he lower left scene is the Baptism.
St. John the Baptist is a tall elo n
gated figure standing on the rocky
b an k of the Jordan. Angels and wit
nesses stand to the right. Christ is
full-length and nude. T h e final scene
of the four is the Transfiguration.
Christ is at the top of M oun t T h a b o r
with the im ages of Moses and Elijah
on each side. Below them two of the
three witnessing apostles (P eter,
Jam es and John) are shown flung
headlong at the shattering vision.
In the first publication of the icon
D alton ( I901J) dated the panel to the
IM

I .'t h i t-nl in v lull lh< I dmlnii Hi I es


fivnl I xli 11<11ion t t I*>,S)
pioposud n iliitiuv in tin Ini I th oi
i,u l y lllli it. 111 111 v I In Inlei diifiuv
is ||r e f e r n the ilnmiiiiit iii iiinu ni
of i In I inn til uni wit I li' up",
ties | ><1 1 1 .i\ ><I in I In i
pf
positions i Miiiu'tfyii|i will li lly/nii
tine painters only clrvc|ci|.r I ullri
the middle ol lln I till ii nlinv illl!
o th e r features ol Ihi io.>n nn In
be most easily paralleled in I lit I lili
century (such as the clnniiilril
form a t of the Baptism and tin ill In
tectural device* of 1 1if
ciation). T h e m iniature qualilt
nl
the icon can be stylistically p irallelid
in the wall paintings of the < luirc li ol
A yios N ikolaos O r p h a n o s at 1hrssa
lonike; this church is datable to
c. 1315, an d the icon might belong to
the sam e d ec ad e . O th e r small icon,*,
with m ultiple festival scenes are
found in the collection of St. l ather
ine on Sinai and in the collection ol
the H e rm ita g e at L eningrad, but
both the exa m ple s which have been
c o m p a r e d with this one seem stylisti
cally s o m e w h at later in the Hy/an
tine perio d. T he function of this type
has not yet been clarified.
T he icon painting is of great quality
and no d o u b t the artist w orked loi
discerning Byzantine patrons who
could afford the best; w hether this
artist was based in Constantinople oi
T hessalonike or was m ore ilineiant
in his commissions is hardly possible
to suggest.
Conservation. S. M ihalarias
Bibliography. D alton 1901. no 9K/ Million
1909. pp. 230ff. D alton 191 I. p II'. pi I 1'-'
Millet 1916. pp. 104. 124, IX4.229.<i7H Altt.t
lov 1917. pp. 79ff D alton 1925. pp .<.111 HI
XLV. L asarcff 1937. p. 2S.V I , 19 1/
1948. pp 222 ami 362. link 27. pi III) I
also the Italian edition ol till. Itonli I ill 411
1967). Bvzalltinc A rl I9.SK. no .'I .1
I(

13
pp. 359ff., pi. X L V I, 22. H aderm ann-M isguich 1983, pp. 10ff.. pi. 1,
106.8X 67.2 cm
1-2) contain in g allusions to the fu
A thens. J .C . C a r r a s C ollection
ture Passion of Christ. T he c o m p o
sition has closer ic onographic affi
P re p aratio n with gesso on canvas.
nities with 13th- and 14th-century
T he w oo den panel has a b road raised
icons in the M onastery of C helandari
fram e. T he large icon, which will o ri
on M o u n t A th o s (Pelekanidis 1977,
ginally have a d o r n e d the iconostasis
pp. 17ff., fig. 1. Tatic - D juric - D orof a church, is quite extensively d a m
devic 1984, no. 5), in the B yzantine
aged. T h e left an d right sides of the
M u s e u m , A th e n s (Chatzidakis 1965
panel and sections of the to p and
(2), pp. X X X f f ., pi. 58) and in Ochb o tto m edges are cut away, and
rid (R ad o jcic 1965, p. L X V , pis. 159,
som e parts of the painting are miss
171).
ing; fortunately these are not crucial
A
limited n u m b e r of colours are h a r
areas of the figures p o rtra y ed , which
m
oniously
co m bin ed in the c o m p o
are in a good state of preservation.
sition. A w arm ochre colour is used
T h e b u rnt reverse side of the panel
to suggest gold on the b ackg ro und
and som e d am ag e d areas of polish
and for the highlights in C h rists
show that the icon was at some stage
him ation; the V irgins m ap h o rio n is
exposed to serious risk of fire. New
a blue-m auve colour, the childs
pieces of w ood have been ad ded to
him ation a dull o range, and there is
the panel to restore it to its probable
som e light green in the V irgins
original dimensions.
h e a d b a n d and C h rists belt. T he
T he rep rese n tatio n is an interesting
m odelling of the faces is soft, even
variation of the type of the Virgin
I lodegetria. T he Virgin, w ho is lo o k and painterly, only the area around
the V irgin s eyes being re n d e re d in a
ing directly at the viewer, is turned
m ore linear m a n n er; the lighting is
slightly to w ards the baby Christ,
allusive,
with broad bright surfaces
w hom she is holding tenderly in both
and brow n shadows that assum e a
arms. H er right arm passes b eneath
greenish colour at the edges, and the
the child's legs to supp ort him, and is
highlights at the p rom ine nt points
bent at the elbow in such a way as to
are r e n d e re d by 'disguised' b rush
fram e the com position. T he child,
strokes; all these are features of the
sitting com fortably in his m o th e r's
painting of the late 13th and early
arm s, is looking to w ards the Virgin
14th centuries. T he lack of gold in
and leaning slightly backw ards, in a
the b ack g ro u n d and in the gold w e b
position not unlike that of the
bing in C h rists garm ents, the limited
A n a p e s o n (Pallas 1965, pp. 1S l f f .).
range o f colours, and the dull light
H e is blessing with his right hand and
ing in the faces probably point to
with his left he holds a closed upright
scroll, s u p p o rted on his leg. T he p o s the no rth of G re ec e, to a good
w o rkshop. T h e facial characteristics
tures and gesture o f the Virgin and
of the ra th e r tall Virgin are in te n tio n
Christ are very different from the
ally lacking in beauty. T he a s y m m e t
severe type of the H o d eg e tria,
rical features, the large sloping eyes,
recalling rath e r the L ate C om n enia n
with their intense gaze, the long
type of the Virgin of the Passion
thick eyeb row s, the aquiline nose
(Sotiriou 1953-54, pp. 87ff., pi. 1.
and
the small full m ou th, are further
Belting 1980-81, pp. 10ff., fig. 16.
indications of a n o rth ern G reek
Stylianou 1985, p. 159, fig. 85), and
origin.
C o m n en ia n rep rese n tatio n s of the
Virgin
G lykophilo usa
(Sotiriou
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou
1956, 1958, pp. 73ff., pis. 54-55, pp.
Bibliography. U npublished.
119ff., pi. 135. C hatzidakis 1979 (1),
M. A .-I.
V ir g in a n d C h ild
L a te 13th - E a r ly 14th c e n tu r y

154

14
C h r ist P a n to c r a to r
L a te 13th - E a r ly 14th c e n tu r y
87X 55 cm
K a sto ria . A rchaeological C ollection

T h e icon of Christ is painted on a


panel with a raised fra m e, the edges
of which are em phasized by a red
b o rd er. G esso on canvas.
Christ is po rtra y ed half-length on a
silver ground. In his left h an d he
holds a richly bou nd G ospel book,
and his right hand is exten d e d in
benediction. H e is wearing a light
brown chiton and a dark blue
him ation. T h e d rape ry hangs in
b ro ad , sw eeping lines, in dee p folds;
it is bro k en by very few angular fea
tures and consists of a series of flow
ing planes that give the figure a feel
ing of volum e. T h e face is p artic
ularly lively and expressive, an effect
achieved by the light lines stressing
the wrinkles on the fo rehead; by the
delicate red lines defining the e y e
lids, ears and the base of the nose; by
the olive green u n d e rp a in t on which
m uch use is m a d e of the brow n skincolour; by the linear highlights on
the foreh ead and aro u n d the eyes;
and by the diffused areas of red on
the cheeks. T he physical type of
Christ, with the oval face, long fleshy
nose, arched eyebrow s and d e e p
ly sh adow ed eyes, derives from 12thcentury m odels (Byzantine Icons
1976, p. 36, fig. 7), which were
revived in the art of the second half
o f the 13th an d the beginning of the
14th cen turies (Io a n n o u 1959, fig.
15. N aum a n n -B eltin g 1966, pi. 37a.
M ouriki 1978, p. 76, fig. 51). T he
basic features o f technique and style
are also related to artistic trends of
the same period: the realistic p o r
trayal o f the figure, which is anticlassical in cha racter, the metallic
gleam in the chiton, the d rapery with
its deep, wide folds, and the almost
sculptural sense of volum e can all be
d e te c te d in the art of the second hall
of the 13th century (( haU-ulakis
1977-79, p 160, pis 47. (ill). Some ol
I SS

the specific technical le atu ic in I hi


ren d e rin g of the face, in , in
rem iniscent of the icon of St I > <it
trius in the M onastery ol Vato|H'di
(Chatzidakis 1972 (2), fig 60). (In
wall paintings of St. D em etrius ill
M akrycho ri, E u b o e a (1302 I Kl.<
I o an n o u 1959, fig. 15. Mouriki I97H,
p. 76) an d the wall paintings in t hi
C hurch o f the Virgin at Kalamoti, on
Chios (betw e en 1295 and 1320, Mini
riki 1978, p. 78, fig. 51). T h e silvei
g r o u n d and halo are related to
certain technical features of My/an
tine painting th at can be detected
from the 12th century onw ards in
icons from Cyprus, V eria, Kastofin
and M ace d o n ia in general. In Kaslo
ria this technique continued to 1>
used w ithout interru ption until tin
15th century. A n o th e r icon in the
K astoria Archaeological Collection
is a ttrib u te d to the painter of tin
icon of Christ - that of SS C'osmii
and D am ian (Affreschi e icone I'Wd,
no. 28, pp. 65-66), which has a mini
b e r of technical and stylistic I'eaUii
in co m m o n with this latter woik
(C hatzidakis 1966 (1), pi. 40 <<. t>)
Provenance. Church o f Ayios N iknl.iu m Ih*
parish of St. L uke. K astoria.
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (*)7')
B ibliography. A ffrcschi c iconc I'JNfi no M
pp. 68-69.
I

15

D o u b le -s id e d Icon
A . T h e V ir g in H o d e g e tr ia
B e g in n in g o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
B. T h e V ir g in H o d e g e tr ia
T h ir d q u a r te r o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
1 1 5 x 8 5
cm
V e r i a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M u s e u m , n o.

1 1 7

. T he Virgin is show n half-length,


in the most co m m o n type of the
H odegetria. She holds herself u p
right and looks directly tow ards the
viewer. She su p p o rts the Christ
Child with her left arm and raises her
right h and to point at him. She is
w earing a purple m a phorion with a
yellow-brown edging. T h ere is a lit
tle blue in her h ea d d ress and right
sleeve. Christ, seated as though on a
th ro n e, extends his h and in benedic
tion. and holds a closed scroll. T he
d ra p e ry of the yellow-brown chiton
and himation is relieved by the use of
ochre to suggest gold w ebbing. T he
delicate physical features of the
faces, with their firm lines and bright
surfaces, attest to the artistic m a tu r
ity of the painter and his d e e p k n o w
ledge of hum an nature. T he fact that
the icon is dated to the beginning of
the 14th century and that it com es
Irom the C hurch of Christos' in
V eria, and a co m parison of the
painting with the wall paintings of

this church both suggest that it is to


be assigned to the oeuvre of G eorgios Kalliergis, the 'best pain ter in all
T h essaly (as he describes himself in
a pain ting in the church).
B.
T he Virgin is shown in much
the sam e form as the one on the o th
er side, and has the inscription
H
riA M A K A P H C T O C .
D espite a
certain roughness in the handling
of the d ra p e ry , the work is im pres
sive for the exceptionally careful
tr e a tm e n t of the faces, with their
c on trasts betw een light and shade.
T h e a n o n y m o u s pain ter of this icon
is though t to be responsible for som e
of the best 16th-century icons and
wall paintings in Veria. A n y r e se m
blance to the C retan painting of this
perio d is m erely superficial; the
roots of the painting r ep rese n ted by
the icon are to be sought in no rth ern
G re ec e.

Provenance. T he Church of C h risto s in


Vcrin.
Conservation A. M argaritoff.
Bibliitgraphy. Byzantine A rt 1964. no. 221. p.
264. C hatzidakis 1965 (1). p 13. pi l l a - 6 .
X yngopoulos 1967. p. 77. fig. 3. T albot Ricc
196H. p. 115. pi. 1 0 1 . Byzantine Frescoes
1976. no. 102. p. 47 Papazotos 1980. pp.
167. B yzantine A rl 1986. no. 79. pp. 76-77.
A ffrcschi e icone 1986. no. 32. pp. 70. 71.
T h . P.

S t. P ete r

This p ortra it icon of St. Peter was


found by chance in the course of the
restoration of a 17th-century icon of
Christ; it lay u n d e rn e a th layers of
w hitewash and varnish on the back
of the icon of Christ. T he cedar
panel was cut transversally during
the restoration. T h e painting is in
egg te m p e ra painted on gesso and a
coarse tabby linen which is laid over
156

the w ood su p port. T he panel has suf


fered so m e w orm dam age. T he icon
has been cut down from its original
size, but originally did probably
show the saint in half-length. A full
description of the restoration of the
panel and the technical aspects of the
icon will be found in the Barbican
ca talogue (1983). Parts of the nose
are repa in ted and the surface of the
painting has suffered some abrasion,
T h e saint can be identified as Peter
on the basis of the portrait type (an
old man with hair and beard cut
short) an d of the text on the scroll
which co m es from the first epistle ol

screen icons from C yprus, including


one of St. Peter (cf. Byzantine Icons
1976, no. 24. from th e C hurch of the
Virgin M ary Chrysaliniotissa. N ico
sia). So far in the literature this St.
P e te r icon from C yprus has been
d a te d to the late 14th century. F u r
th e r research is n ee d ed to resolve
th ese dates and to decide how much
later than the British M use um icon
the panels from Cyprus might be.
I he British M useum icon is an
excellent exam ple of the highest
quality work to he tound in C o n
stantino ple in Ihe 14th c e ntury, and
is im portant lor the study ol the
de v e lopm e nt ol t>hi iconostasis in
B y/an tiu m .
onsvrvation. S . M i l t n l a i i n s .
H ihliogniphy. M ihalaiias I oi mack 1983 (1).
M ihalarias-C onnack 1983 (2), pp. 13011.
W eitzm ann 1983 (1).

R. C.

17

T h e T h re e C h u rc h F a th e rs

16

1 4 th c e n tu r y
6 8 .7 X 5 0 .6 cm
L o n d o n . B ritish M u seu m , M a n d LA
1983, 4-1, 1

St. Peter (cha pter 2, verse 11):


D early Beloved. I beseech you as
strangers and pilgrims, abstain from
fleshly lusts. I h e text may suggest
that the icon was intended for
display in a m on astery, perhaps on
the main icon screen of the church.
The b road and expansive style of the
icon is reminiscent of wall painting,
a n d in the first publication a c o m p a
rison was made lot dating purpose
with the mosaics and Irescoes ol the
Kariye C amii in Istanbul (previously
the Byzantine M onastery ol the
C h o ra ). This d ec o ration is datable to
c. 1315-1321. It was suggested that
the icon was sufficiently close in style
as to need consideration w heth er it
w'as by the sam e artist. W eitzm ann
(1983 (1) accepted this dating to the
first q u a rte r of the 14th century. T he
icon has also som e stylistic co n n e c
tions with a series of sanctuary

1 4 th c e n t u r y
126X90 cm
A thens. B yzantine M u seu m , T . 1031

D ouble-sided icon, with a raised


fra m e and gold b ackground on both
sides. A vertical notch in the centre
of the lower edge of the fra m e ind i
cates that it was a processional icon.
T he painting of the Virgin and Child
on one side is badly dam ag e d . W h at
remains of it has been d e tac h ed from
the panel and is now in conservation,
prior to being replaced. O n the o th e r
side, the T h re e Church 1 athers were
painted in two layers. I lie later ol
them which was probably produ ced
by a north G re e k w orksho p at the
en d of the 17th century, has been
rem oved anti tran slerre d to an other
panel, to reveal the Byzantine r e p r e
sentation.
T he original icon ol Ihe I liree
C hurch F ath e rs is in a good state
of preservation. T h e three frontal,
standing figures are, Irom left to
right, SS G re g o ry , Jo h n Chrysostom

157

an d Basil. A bo v e their hea ds are the


inscriptions with their nam es. In
their left hands, which are covered,
they are holding a closed, b ou n d
b o o k . SS G reg ory and Basil are
blessing with their right hands, while
that of C hrysostom , is held low er, on
the book. T hey are wearing arc h b ish
o p s robes with plain phelonia. O n
the crosses on their o m o p h o r ia are
m o n o g ram s, e.g. () | |
( ) ( ) ( I h e Light ol
Christ Shines on All) and ( )
( ) 1(() li(f.)im|Kt) (H elen
D iscovered a Pillar of C om passion).
Similar m onogram s are to be lound
in wall paintings ol the C h u rch F a
thers in Kastoria (Pelekanidis 1953,
pi 134$, 13(><i and 1456) an d the
M onastery ol C he la ndari on M o u n t
A th o s (D juric 1961, fig. 58), and
also in an icon of St. N icholas in this
sam e m onastery (T a lbot Rice 1963,
fig. 199).
T h e T h re e C hurch F ath e rs w ere r e c
ognized as being of equal status and
having equal authority at the en d of
the 11th ce ntury, and their feast day
was established after they had
a p p e a r e d in a vision to Ioannis Mav-

r o p o u s , B is h o p o f E u c h a it a i ( D r a n d a k is 1969, pp . 13 ff.). T h e y w e re
r a r e ly p o r t r a y e d in p o r t a b l e icons in
th e B y z a n ti n e p e r i o d . T h e o r d e r in
w h ich t h e fig u re s w e r e a r r a n g e d was
n o t c le a rly d e f i n e d . T h e m o d e l fo r
th e ico n , in t e r m s o f p o s t u r e a n d g e s
tu r e s , is to b e s o u g h t in w o rk s like
th e 1 2 th - c e n tu r y m o s a ic in th e
C a p e l l a P a l a t i n a in P a l e r m o ( D e m u s
1949, pi. 2 3B ).
T h e ico n is a n e x c e p t io n a ll y fine
w o r k o f a r t , p r o b a b l y by a C o n s ta n t in o p o l i t a n p a i n t e r , p e r h a p s o f th e
s e c o n d d e c a d e o f t h e 14th c e n tu r y ,
j u d g i n g by its q u a li ty a n d its close
affin ity w ith th e w all p a in t in g s in th e
c h a p e l o f t h e M o n a s t e r y o f C h o r a in
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ( U n d e r w o o d 1966,
pis. 429, 433, 4 7 8 -4 85 ), a n d w ith th e
m o s a ic s in t h e C h u r c h o f th e H o ly
A p o s t l e s in T h e s s a l o n i k e (X y n g o p o u lo s 1953, pis. 2-7, 30, 33, 1 a n d
42, 1. D e m u s 1975, p. 150. S t e p h a n
1986, p a s s im ). F e a t u r e s o f th e
p r e s e n t icon t h a t can b e d e t e c t e d in

all t h r e e w o r k s a re th e o rg a n i c
c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e fig u res, a n d th e
r a n g e o f c o lo u r s u sed : d a r k r e d , p u r
p le , b l u e , light g r e e n , p in k ; the
m o d e l li n g , t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e
b o d ie s , a n d r e n d e r i n g o f t h e in d iv id
u al facial c h a ra c te ris tic s ; th e n ob ility
a n d sp iritu a lity , a n d th e s t r e n g t h ,
v ig o u r a n d p a s s io n in th e i r e x p r e s
sion s. S im ila rly , th e m a in artistic
c o n c e r n in this ico n , as in th e o t h e r
t w o m o n u m e n t s , is in th e e l a b o r a t e
r e l ie f o f t h e fig u re s ( D e m u s 1975, p.
149), a c h ie v e d h e re by th e sensitive
a n d s p o n t a n e o u s b a la n c e o f lin e ar
a n d p a i n t e r l y e le m e n ts .

Provenance. T hessalonike.
Conservation. A. M argaritoff. S. Papageorgiou. T h.
(1984).

Papageorgiou,

A.

Sim andoni

Bibliography. E xhibition for the C en ten ary of


C h .A .H 1984. no. 7. pp. 18-21.

B.

D e c o r a tiv e m o tif

F irst h a lf o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
104X69 cm
Egion. Church of Zoodochos Pigi (Panagia Trypiti)

T h e p a n e l h a s a raised b o r d e r , to
w h ich w a s n aile d a n a d d it io n a l g ild
e d w o o d e n s trip , on ly a sm all p ie c e
o f w h ich surviv es. E g g t e m p e r a o n
g ess o o v e r c a n v a s . T h e re v e r s e side
has a d e c o r a t iv e design c o n sistin g of
th r e e c ro s se s a n d a flo ral m o tif. T h e
sain t is d e p i c t e d fr o n ta lly , h o ld in g a
s p e a r a n d sh ie ld . T h e h e a d o f curly
h a ir , a n d th e y o u th f u l, h a n d s o m e
f e a t u r e s , w h ich a re n o t p e rfe c tly
s y m m e t r ic a l , since his h e a d is t u r n e d
slightly to th e left, a re r a t h e r l o o s e
ly d r a w n . T h e d e lic a te flo ral dec-

n i a l i n n ol Ihc hul e n iileil In low


rid it I , mid I In i o iu wntrii m 1 s ol
th e a rm o tii .11
I>1li ill i|" bn l o r .
in the d e e m Olive el 1 1 I <I III
c o m p o s it io n I hi m in ) ijj'iijl!
affin ities w ith I In n o il ol I
in th e l.cile s iaslieid Miim'iiiii mi
M y t il e n e anil i closely le l n le d IIn
a r t o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
c e r t a i n lack o f c h a r a i t e i , a n d tin lint
t h a t th e ind iv idu al lo i n is >111 mil
p r o p e r l y in t e g r a t e d , su g g ests llial 11
is p r o b a b l y a c o p y o f an o rig in a l
h igh q u a lity p a i n t e d by a p ro vincial
a rt is t (M . C h a tz id a k is ) .

Provenance. P ro k o n isia . T u rk e y (o ra l re p o t l)
Conservation N . K ailas
Bibliography. Byzanlinc A rt I9M . no. 2.,
pp. 272ff. C hatzidakis 1965 (2). p. X X X . |>ls
74-75. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 78, pp. 757
A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 35, p. 74.

M <i

20

D o u b le -s id e d Icon
A . T h e V ir g in H o d e g e tr ia
B.

S t. N ic h o la s

S e c o n d q u a r te r o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
1 1 5 X 6 9 cm
KIkiiIcs. Church of the Eisodia at

Niochori

I Ik i con is d a m a g e d . It is p a in t e d o n
g e ss o on c a n v a s willi a g o ld g r o u n d .
A b rilliant w o r k o f a r t , p r o b a b l y e x
e c u t e d in C o n s t a n l i n n p l c , it e m b o
d ie s t h e b e st tr a d it io n ol Ia la e o lo g a n
p a in tin g .
B o t h s id e s a r e p r o b a b l y to be a t
t r i b u t e d to th e s a m e p a in t e r . D a r k ,
vivid c o lo u r s a r e u s e d . The e v o c a tiv e
lig h tin g a n d t h e m o n u m e n t a l g r a n
d e u r o f th e fig u re s a re p a rtic u la rly
s t r ik i n g f e a t u r e s ; t h e la t te r d e riv e s
f r o m th e size a n d f r o n ta l p o s t u r e of
th e fig u res, a n d su g g ests th a t this
w a s o rigin ally a d e v o t i o n a l , p r o c e s
sio n al ico n , u s e d in a la rg e , im p o r t a n t
c h u r c h , th a t w as possibly d e d ic a te d
to St. N ic h o las .

158

D o u b le -s id e d Icon
A . S t. G eo r g e

M. A.-P.

18

19

Conservation. A. M argaritoff. F. A sim akou


(1964)

Bibliography. A chcim astou 1966. pp. 62ff..


pis. 31-35. insert pis. A-B. C hatzidakis 1968.
no. 186a. p. 24(1. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 80.
pp. 77-78. A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 33. pp.
71-72.

M. A.-P.

C h r ist th e W isd o m o f G od
E n d o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
154 X 100 cm
A t h e n s . B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m , T . 185

A b u s t o f C h ris t in th e ty pe of th e
P a n t o c r a t o r . H e is blessing w ith his
left h a n d , a n d in his right h o ld s an
o p e n G o s p e l b o o k w ith a text.
T h e im p o s i n g figure o f C h ris t is
t r e a t e d in t e r m s o f c o n t r a s ti n g light
a n d d a r k s u r f a c e s , w ith w h ite h ig h
lights o n th e p r o m i n e n t c h e e k - b o n e s ,
a n d o n t h e f o r e h e a d , o v e r th e e y e
b ro w s. T h e b e a r d a n d th e h a ir a re
w o r k e d w ith fine p a ra lle l lines. T h e
v o lu m e s of t h e face s e e m to s t a n d
o u t a lm o s t as t h o u g h in re lie f, d r a w
ing a t t e n t i o n to a n u n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s
t h a t is c o m p l e m e n t e d b y t h e a n x io u s
e x p r e s s io n o f th e face.
T h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e k n o w n in a se rie s
o f P a l a e o l o g a n p a in tin g s o f a s t r o n g
ly an ti-classical c h a r a c t e r w hich a r e
f o u n d at t h e e n d o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
in v a rio u s p a r t s o f th e e m p i r e .

I5>)

a lo n g s id e th e m o r e classical p a i n t m n
o f t h e p e r i o d r e p r e s e n t e d in th e
r i b l e p t o s at M i s tr a ( C h a tz i d a k is I*>7 I
(4). A c h a ra c t e ri s ti c o f w o r k s in tin
style is th e h a lo , p a i n t e d as th o u g h
in relief, as in th e A k r a T a p e in o s i '
(c a t. n o . 27 ), to r e n d e r th e t r u e I f ile I
h a lo e s in 1 4 th -cen tu ry M a c e d o n i a n
ic o n s like th e icon o f ( 'l u isl in I lit
B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m .
C h r is t's a n x io u s e x p re s s io n
mid
p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e s a r e timilul in
t h o s e in a g r o u p o f ico ns d
th e s a m e su b je c t d a t e d lo the
q u a r t e r o f th e 14th e e n t m y , will* li
in c lu d e s th e icon ol < Iiii m In III
N a t i o n a l M u s e u m ol S i r
( B y z a n ti n e A rt I'Uv n o I I 1) uni
esp ec ially th e icon ol t Ii i KI . n n d n
tis (I i f c - g iv e i) m S k o p je p u ln i e d l<\
th e a r c h b i s h o p J o h n (
M l ) I Mill
k o v ic - le p e k *(, p p 1/ MM f(
8; cl a h o ( h a l/ id u k m ll-diir
lig. |>. I'> ),
T h e laig e s l/e nl llil
ailiM n ijijtlilv m u 1

I mi lit
II IlllJlSj

d e c o r a t i o n o f th e ic o n o s ta sis o f th e
C h u r c h o f A y i a S o p h ia in T h e s s a l o n ik e , f r o m w h ic h it c o m e s .
Provenance. T he C hurch o f Ayia Sophia,
T hessalonikc.
Conservation. Ph. K ontoglou (1930), A. M arg aritoff (1959).

B ibliography. Sotiriou 1931. p. 80. Sotiriou


1956. p. 17, pi. X X . C hatzidakis 1960 (2), p.
11, pis. 6-7. C halzidakis 1969, p. 8. C hatzidakis 1974 (3). p. 336. fig. 14. C hatzidakis 1974
(4). p 184. fig. 18. Chatzidakis 1977 (1), pp.
83-84. C hatzidakis-B abic 1983, p. 192.

N. Ch.

23

T h e D o r m itio n
B e g in n in g o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
5 4 . 5 X 3 9 . 5 cm
Athens. K anellopoulos M useum

21
D o u b le -s id e d Icon
w ith sm a lle r ico n in la id
A . C h r ist w ith A n g e ls , A p o stle s a n d

sio n a n d G lo r y o f C hrist. A p o r t r a i t
o f t h e m o n k w h o d e d ic a te d it is p r e
s e r v e d o n th e re v e rse o f th e icon.

S a in ts
B.

T h e C r u c ifix io n

14th a n d 1 6th c e n tu r ie s
9 8 X 7 1 cm

T hessalonike.

M onastery of Vlatadon,
Sacristy

Conservation. Ph. Z achariou.


Bibliography. Xyngopoulos 1948. pp. 114ff.
B yzantine A rt 1964. no. 199. p. 253. T o u rta
1977. pp. 133ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 83.
pp. 82-83. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 36. p.
75.

A . T.

T h is inlaid ico n h a s tw o ro w s o f
d e c o r a t i o n . T h e r a r e c o m p o s it io n is
an a lleg o rical a llu sio n to th e I n c a r
n a t i o n . P a ss io n a n d H e a v e n l y G lo r y
o f C h ris t, a n d re f le c ts th e ic o n o g r a p hic p r e f e r e n c e s o f 1 4 th -ce n tu ry
p a in tin g . T h e p a i n t e r l y m o d e llin g o f
th e fig u re s, w ith soft c h i a r o s c u r o a n d
a few h ig h lig h ts, is typical o f a n u m
b e r o f w o rk s fr o m th e m id d le o f the
c e n l u r y , a n d t h u s p o in t s to th e s a m e
p e ri o d . I'he s c e n e s o n b o th : .ties o f
I hi- large K ith -c e n tu ry p ro c e s sio n a l
li on a re a ls o c o n n e c t e d with th e P a s

22
S ix sc e n e s fr o m the P a ssio n
14th c e n tu r y
Thessalonike.

5 1 X 4 1 cm
M onastery of Vlatadon,
Sacristy

I'he icon d e p ic ts six sc e n e s a r r a n g e d


in th r e e row s: th e L a st S u p p e r a n d
th e W a s h i n g o f t h e F e e t , th e A g o n y
in th e G a r d e n a n d t h e B e tr a y a l, th e
I la g e lla tio n a n d t h e P ro c e s sio n to
C a lv a ry . T h e w o r k h a s a n u m b e r o f
f e a t u r e s ty pical o f th e classicizing
t r e n d in 1 4 th -c e n tu ry p a in tin g . T h e
free m o d e l li n g o f t h e flesh w ith g r a
d a t i o n s o f c o l o u r s u g g e s ts a d a te in
th e th ird q u a r t e r o f t h e 14th c e n tu r y .

160

T h e c h o ic e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f the
sc e n e s , th e ic o n o g r a p h y , a n d th eir
e x e c u t i o n o n a sm all scale a r e all
r e m i n i s c e n t o f m i n ia t u r e s , a n d p r o b
a b ly in d ic a te th e so u rc e s o f insp i
ra t io n o f th e w o rk .
Provenance. T he M onastery of V latadon.
T hessalonike.
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (1977).
B ibliography. T o u rta 1982, pp. 154-179. By
zantine A rt 1986, no. 85. pp. 8(1-81. 83. Arfrc
schi e icone 1986. no. 38. pp. 76-77.
A . T.

T h e c e n tr a l s c e n e o f th e icon d ep ic ts
th e D o r m i t i o n o f th e V irgin . O n the
b r o a d , slightly raise d f r a m e a re r e p
resen tatio n s o f four hym n o g rap h ers
w h o w r o te h y m n s o n th e th e m e o f
th e D o r m i t i o n , a l t e r n a t i n g w ith fo u r
sc e n e s fr o m th e V irg in 's c h il d h o o d .
T h e fo u r p a n e ls at th e c o r n e r s d ep ict
th e M e e t in g o f J o a c h i m a n d A n n e ,
th e B irth o f th e V irg in , th e V irgin
B le ss e d by th e P rie sts , a n d P r e s e n t a
tion o f th e V irg in in th e T e m p l e . T h e
v e rtic a ls o f th e f r a m e h a v e th e fig
u re s o f K o s m a s M a i o u m a on th e left,
a n d J o h n D a m a s k i n o s o n th e rig h t,
t u r n e d to face th e c e n tr a l sc e n e ;
D a m a s k i n o s is w e a r in g th e c h a r
a cte ris tic t u r b a n . B u sts o f J o s e p h
a n d T h e o p h a n e s a r e set a b o v e a n d
b e lo w th e c e n tr a l sc e n e . T h e y are
w e a r in g m o n k ' s h a b its a n d h o ld in g
o p e n scrolls w ith texts.
T h e m a in s c e n e follow s the i c o n o g r a
p h y o f th e M o n a s t e r y o f C h o r a
( U n d e r w o o d 1966, pi. 320). T h e
m a i n ax e s o f th e c o m p o s it io n are
f o r m e d by th e tall s l e n d e r figure o f
C h ris t in a b rig h t m a n d o r l a a n d th e
b o d y o f th e V irg in o n th e b e d . A t
e i t h e r sid e is a c o m p a c t g r o u p o f
a p o s t le s giving r e s t r a i n e d e x p re s s io n
to th e i r grief. A n g e ls a r e w o r k e d in
grisaille o n th e m a n d o r l a . F u r t h e r
e m p h a s is is le n t to th e v ertical axis
by th e inclusio n o f a six -w in ged
s e r a p h in th e m a n d o r l a , h o v e r i n g
a b o v e C h r is t's h e a d . T h e icon d iffers
fr o m its m o d e l in th e fo r m o f th e
b u ildin gs in th e b a c k g r o u n d , a n d in
th e a d d it io n h e r e o f th e an g e ls high
in th e sky. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t is s im i
lar to th a t o f an icon fro m P a tm o s
d a t e d to th e first h a lf o f th e 15th
c e n tu r y ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1), no. 7,
pi. 7), t h o u g h th e r e a re i m p o r t a n t
d if fe re n c e s in th e b u ild in g s in tlu*
161

b a c k g r o u n d il is also In In- In u u d III


th e 15th l e n l m v wall p n m iin i" in lln
C h u r c h ol A \ i o s I , m u m ! " it Vifl
s a m o n e i o , ( n*u ( kiiluk vi - I1* / '
fig. B W 55).
B o t h th e c o m p o s it io n a n d tin lull
b u ild in g s in th e bai k g in u in l Willi
th e i r sm all d e c o ra tiv e I.I......... .m<l
larg e n u m b e r s o f o p e n in g s , h n n i' I lit
w o r k e v e n c lo s e r to I 5 l h i e n t u i s
C r e t a n ico ns like th e o n e by Anil
R itz o s in T u rin (Babic-C h a t / u l a k i s
1983, p. 317). icons in V e n ic e
( C h a t z i d a k i s 1962. nos. 15. Ui p p
3 5 f f . , pis. 14, 15), a n d e sp ecially a
s c e n e o n th e f r a m e o f an icon by
N ik o la o s R itzo s in S a r a j e v o (M abie
C h a t z i d a k i s 1983, p. 321). w hich
e v e n h a s the sm all tr e e s th a t can be
s e e n b e h in d th e wall in the back
ground.
A f u r t h e r p o in t o f sim ilarity is tint r e a t m e n t o f th e b e d . w ith th e typical
d e c o r a t e d b a n d a r o u n d the ed g e.
F in a lly th e p recisio n o f th e d ra w in g
o f th e fig u re s, a n d th e lin e a r, g e o
m e t r i c a l h a n d lin g o f th e d r a p e r y can
also be f o u n d in th e a b o v e m m
ti o n e d w o r k s by C r e t a n p a in t e r s
T h e r e s e e m s , h o w e v e r , to b e a closet
c o n n e c t i o n w ith P a la e o l o g a n m o d
els. T h e sm all sc e n e s o n th e Irani'
such as th e B irth a n d th e P r c s e n ta
tio n o f th e V irgin (cf. ( h a t / i d a k i \
( N . ) 1983. n o . 3) s e e m to be i m a w m e
o f th e ic o n o g r a p h y th a t w as lo i n u i
la t e d in C r e t e in th e se c o n d hall ol
th e 15th c e n t u r y : in its place we littd
t h e ic o n o g r a p h y a ss o c ia te d with tin
c a p ita l in th e 14th c e n li u v ( i l
L afo n tain e-D o so g n e
|9(iS,
pp
172-181). T h e flawless tc c h m i|in
th e p a in t in g o f th e Ia n
n't,ill*
m i n i a t u r e s in m a n u s i u p l llhnul
n a ti o n s fro m th e e n d ol II I Mil
c e n t u r y , like the ( a i i l m u / r n innmi
script ( P a r . gt
I -I. I.illuil
1959. pi. 190), anil the m i n inl
l lie b u ild in g s , the i r l n l i w 'h liinn
n u m b e r ol d a s s u i / ll(imi priinl
ed in m o n o i limm - III tin I> I'
g r o u n d like i h r Uni.M'l in I n im
m a n d o l i n , mil the ij m a l l < mu*

oil I lie a rc h ite c tu re recall the p a in t


ing o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e ( M o n a s te r y of
C h o r a ) o r o f M istra (C h u rc h o f the
Ic rib le p to s an d C h u rc h o f th e Panta n a s sa). Finally, the extensive texts
relatin g to th e D o rm itio n o f th e V ir
gin 0 1 1 the scrolls held by th e hym nog r a p h e r s reveal th a t the p a in te r was
a m an o f lea rn ing . T h e icon m ay be

c o n s i d e r e d to be on e o f th e best
e x a m p l e s of early 15 th-century Pala e o lo g a n a rt , fo r e sh a d o w in g m a n y
of th e charac teristic fe a tu re s of C r e
tan painting.

l'hessalonike.

9 0 X 7 1 cm
M onastery
S a c r isty

of Vlatadon,

A w ork o f high qu ality e x e c u te d in


the spirit o f C o n s ta n tin o p o lita n
pain ting . F r o m a stylistic p o int of
view , the icon has very close affini
ties with th e wall painting s recently
u n c o v e re d in the nav e an d the so uth
ch ap el o f th e k a th o lik o n of the

N. C h .

M o n a s te r y o f V la ta d o n . It was p r o b
ably p r o d u c e d by th e sa m e w o rk s h o p
a n d , like the wall pain tin gs, m u s t have
b e e n p a in te d in the p e rio d 1360
1380, n o t in the 15th c e n tu r y , as was
p re v io u sly th o u g h t to be th e case.

Conservation. N. Nomikos (1985).


Bibliography. Stoyoglou 1971, pp. 132ff.
Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 84. p. S3. Affrcschi c
iconc 1986. no. 37. p. 76.
C h M .- T .

25

S t. N ich o la s
L ast q u a rte r o f the 14th cen tu ry
1 29 X 7 8 cm
K a s t o r i a . A r ch aeo lo g ical Collection

-M3* \JLw.

T h e saint is d e p ic te d frontally at half


length, w ea rin g b is h o p 's rob es. H e
m a k e s a b e n e d ic tio n an d holds a
closed b o o k .
A lth o u g h large a re a s o f co lo u r have
b een lost, th e size o f the saint an d
the w a rm t h o f th e colouring still
m a k e this an im pressive w ork. The
design is v ig o ro us, but th e s a in ts
lace has a tr a n s lu c e n t qu ality , as
I hough lit by an in n e r light, and
ev o k e s in th e b e lie v e r a feeling o f
tranquility a n d security. T h e firm
in' >s o f line a n d th e calc ula ted use of
thinly ap p lied layers o f colo u r, w ith
out any s u d d e n , a b r u p t tran sition s,
em p h as ize th e s a i n ts h u m a n quality.
This w o rk has m a n y affinities with
tlic m o n u m e n ta l p ain tin g o f th e e a r
ly P a laeo lo g an p e ri o d , at the e n d of
] 62

C h rist P a n to cra to r
c. 1400
2HX26 cm
Alliens. Ity/.antlnn M u s e u m , T . 185

Bibliography Byzantine A rt 1964. no. 197. p.


252. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 40. pp. 80. 81.

24

T h e V irg in H od egetria
S econ d h a lf o f the 14th cen tu ry

26

th e 13th c e n tu ry . T h e revival o f the


v alu es an d ac h ie v e m e n ts o f the
p a in tin g o f th a t p erio d at a tim e after
th e m id d le of the 14th c e n tu ry is an
in dic atio n o f the general co n c ern to
u n d e r p i n religious values at a histo ri
cal p e rio d o f crisis and political in sta
bility in B yz antium .
T h e su g g es tio n that th e icon o f St.
N ich o las sh o u ld be d a te d to the final
q u a r t e r o f th e 14th c e n tu ry is
s u p p o r te d by a c o m p a r iso n with
m o r e a c c u rate ly d a te d w orks o f art
fro m th e se c o n d half o f th e 14th
c e n tu r y , such as th e wall p aintings in
the M o n a s te r y of th e P a n to c r a to r on
M o u n t A tlio s (1360-70), o f the
C h u rc h of P r o p h e t Elias in Thessalon ik e, a n d of th e C h u rc h of St.
A n d r e w n e a r S k o p je (1388/9).
Provenance. From a church in Kastoria.
Conservation. Ph. Z achariou.
Bibliography. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976, no.
1 10. p. 78. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 41. pp.
80. 82.

Th. V

The p a in tin g is d a m a g e d . C h ris t, in


Ihe type o f th e l a n t o e r a i o i , has the
title O CC2-THI (' The Sav io u r'). I he
a u s t e re figure, with its d a rk colo u rs,
illu m in a te d by Ihe gold lighl ol the
g r o u n d , lias all the force ol ils m o n u
m e n ta l m o del.
A w o rk of artistic quality with the
h a llm a r k s o f th e p aintin g o f th e turn
o f th e 14th c e n tu r y , it h as certain
stylistic fe a tu re s in c o m m o n with
a n icon o f th e Virgin in th e Sinai
M o n a s te r y , w h e re similar sm all-scale

icons o f C hrist an d th e V irgin a re to


be fo u n d (S otiriou 1956, 1958, no.
226, pp . 198ff., an d nos. 227-229, pp.
199ff.).
Provenance. Acquired in 1985.
Conservation. Th. Papageorgiou (1985).
Hihliogniphy. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 87. p.
85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 43, pp. 82. 83.
M. A . - P .

27

size the u p p e r m o s t p o in ts of t h e v o l
u m e s a n d surfaces an d c re a te a d r a
m atic lighting effect. Sim ilar s c u lp tu
8 7 X 6 8 .5 cm
ral q ualities can also be seen in the
A th en s . P r i v a te Co llection
m o d e llin g o f the arm s o f th e cross
a n d th e tab let at the to p , an d in the
h alo . T h e closest r e p r e s e n ta t io n of
T h is icon is p a in t e d directly on
th e A k r a T a p e in o sis in te r m s of
w o o d , an d h as a fra m e in low relief.
ic o n o g r a p h y a n d p o rt ra it u re is th at
T h e figure of C hrist is d e p ic te d h a lf
o n th e diptych at M e t e o r a (cf. also
len g th , with his a rm s fo ld ed , o n an
th e wall pain tin g in C re te 1401/2,
o c h r e g ro u n d . In the relation sh ip o f
B o rb o u d a k is 1>71 pi. 535t); c o m p a
th e h e a d to the sh o u ld e rs an d th e
rison ol the tw o show s how in th e
a rr a n g e m e n t ol the curls ol hair, this
p re s e n l w ork th e fe atu re s b e c o m e
ty pe is th e successor to the earliest
h a r d e n e d as a result ol the m o re lin
kn o w n type (cl. cat no. 8), lo unil in
e a r t r e a tm e n t, and d e m o n s tr a t e s
icons of the 13th a n d 14th c e n tu ries
ho w o n e an d Ihe sam e scen e, s ta rtin g
(in the M o n a s te ry o f l a l a m a , in
with residual classicizing fe a tu re s, is
R o m e an d in manuscript.) (H elling
t r a n s f o r m e d into an anti-classical
1981, figs. 57, 58. 73 e tc.). It is f u r
g e n re . T h e e ru d ite c o n te n t of th e
t h e r related to the icons ol this
inscrip tion s is o f significance, as is
p e rio d th r o u g h th e d ram atic co n trast
th e eq u ally e ru d ite calligraphy. All
b e tw e e n the s tro n g , health y body
the fe a tu re s of this w o rk po int to
and the e m a c ia te d a rm s, an d the
w e ste r n M a c e d o n ia a b o u t 1400 (cf.
e m p h a s is on the a n a to m y ol the
th e icon fro m P o g a n o v o w ith the
c h e st, a f e a tu re which m ay b e in
sa m e inscrip tion . M ilosevic 1980. no.
t e n d e d to suggest th e sw ollen llesli o f
th e c o rp s e . T h e icon has an alm o st
27).
e x a g g e ra te d exp ressiv e n e ss, d u e in
Bibliography. Byzantine Art 1986. no. 86. pp.
p a r t to th e m o de lling , with its small
83-85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 42. pp. 80.
clusters of w hite lights on th e b r o w n
82-83.
M. C h .
ish-grey u n d e r p a i n t, w hich e m p h a
T h e A k ra T a p ein o sis
1400

2 8

T h e R a isin g o f L a z a ru s
c. 1400
5 6 X 4 8 cm
K a s t o r i a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o llectio n

T h e icon is p a i n t e d o n a p a n e l w ith
a ra ise d f r a m e , w hich h a s a red
b o r d e r . T h e c o m p o s it io n con sists o f
tw o
c a re f u lly
b a la n c e d
groups,
lin k e d by the g e s t u r e s o f C h ris t a n d
o f th e .lews, a n d by th e p o se a n d g e s
tu r e o f M a r y a n d M a r t h a , w h o a re
s h o w n in th e f o r e g r o u n d . C h rist is
p o r t r a y e d m o v i n g to th e right at th e
h e a d o f a g r o u p o f a p o s tle s w h o
a c c o m p a n y h im , w ith th e a p o s tle
P e t e r in th e f o r e g r o u n d . L a z a r u s is
d e p i c t e d o n t h e rig h t, in a t o m b w ith
a p e d i m e n t , th e c o v e rin g slab o f
w h ich h a s falle n a w a y to th e rig h t; h e
is w r a p p e d in a w in d in g - s h e e t, th e
e n d o f w hich is h eld by a y o u n g
slave. B e h i n d th e slav e, a n d n ex t to
L a z a r u s , is a g r o u p o f J e w s, o n e o f
w h o m m ak es a gesture, a n o th e r
t o u c h e s his b e a r d , a n d a th ird h o ld s
his h a n d to his n o se ag ain st th e sm ell
o f th e o p e n t o m b . T h e sisters o f
L a z a r u s a r e s h o w n k n e e li n g in w o r
sh ip b e f o r e C h ris t. T w o ro c k s rise in
sta g e s in th e b a c k g r o u n d a n d lean
o u t w a r d s , re v e a l in g th e city of
B e t h a n y in th e d is ta n c e . T h is sim p le
i c o n o g r a p h ic s c h e m e is a revival
o f 1 4 th -c e n tu ry C o m n e n i a n ty p es
O H a d e rm a n n -M i s g u i c h
1975, figs.
5 7-5 8), a n d is clo s e to th e spirit o f
th e s c e n e s o f th e F o u r G o s p e ls fro m
th e M o n a s t e r y o f Iviron (M illet
I9)(>, |'ij>. 2 12 ), in th e C h u r c h o f
'< h risto s ' at
W iia
( Ic lc k a n id is
1973, lig. 20), in ( retail m o n u m e n t s
fr o m th e e n d o f th e 14th c e n tu r y
( K a lo k y r is 1973, figs. 28-29) a n d in
St. S o p h ia in T r e h i z o n d (M illet 1916.
fig. 231). t h e p r e s e n t icon differs
fro m w o r k s o f th e so -calle d M a c e d o
n ia n S c h o o l, su c h as th e p a in tin g s at
A r il je ( Z iv c o v ic 1970, fig. 19), in the
C h u r c h o f St. C l e m e n t at O c h r id
( M ill e t- F r o lo w 1962, pi. 3, 3), a n d in
th a t o f A y io s N ik o la o s O r p h a n o s in
T h e s s a l o n i k e ( X y n g o p o u l o s 1964,

164

2 9

pi. 2 0 ), in th a t L a z a r u s is n o t sh o w n
rising f r o m a s a r c o p h a g u s p la c e d
h o r i z o n ta l ly o n th e g r o u n d , bu t
f o llo w s a n e a r l ie r m o d e l a n d s t a n d s
u p r i g h t in a t o m b built in th e f o r m o f
a t e m p l e w ith in th e ro ck. T e c h n ic a l
d e ta i ls , like th e silver g r o u n d a n d th e
silver h a lo e s a r e sim ilar to f e a t u r e s
f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in icons in K a sto ria , V e r i a a n d M a c e d o n i a in g e n e r a l .
T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e c o m p o s it io n
is s i m p l e a n d c o m p a c t , w ith th e v o l
u m e s o f th e d e ta ils sy m m e tric a lly
b a l a n c e d , a n d th e style is s im ila r to
th a t o f w o r k s o f th e C r e t a n S ch o o l in
t h e 15th c e n t u r y ( C h a tz i d a k is 1977
(1), p p . 77 ff.). T h e te c h n ical a n d s ty l
istic c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f th e icon o f th e
E n t r y in to J e r u s a l e m (cat. n o. 29)
a r e als o f o u n d in th e icon o f th e
R a is i n g o f L a z a r u s , b o th b e in g fr o m
th e s a m e w o r k s h o p , w hich w as also
r e s p o n s i b l e fo r th e d e c o r a t i o n o f th e
C h u r c h o f th e A y io i T r e is in K asto ria (1 4 0 1 ); in artistic te r m s , th ey
b o t h b e lo n g to th e anti-classical c u r
r e n t o f B y z a n ti n e p a in tin g in th e late
P a la e o l o g a n p e rio d .

Provenance. Church of the Ayioi T reis, Kastoria.


Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (1973).
Bibliography. T sigaridas 1972, p. 572, pi.
512a. A ffresehi e icone 1986. no. 44, pp.
84-85.
E. N . T.

T h e E n tr y in to J e r u sa le m
c. 1400
5 7 X 4 9 cm
K a s t o r i a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o llectio n

T h e icon o f th e E n t r y into J e r u s a l e m
is p a i n t e d o n a single p a n e l w ith a
r a is e d f r a m e , w hich has a red
b o r d e r . G e s s o o n c a n v a s. C h ris t is
d e p i c t e d s ittin g o n an ass, m o v i n g to
t h e righ t. H e is h o ld in g a clo sed
scroll in his left h a n d , a n d his right
h a n d is e x t e n d e d in b e n e d ic tio n . H is
h e a d is t u r n e d to th e g r o u p o f a p o s
tles fo llo w in g h im , a n d he is ta lk in g
to P e t e r , w h o g e s tic u la te s v i g o r
o u sly . C h r is t a n d th e a p o s t le s s t a n d
o u t a g a in s t th e m a s s o f th e M o u n t o f
O liv e s th a t rises a b r u p t ly in th e
b a c k g r o u n d . O n th e rig h t, in f r o n t o f
t h e g a te in t h e wall o f J e r u s a l e m , a
c r o w d o f J e w s , b o th m e n a n d
w o m e n , has c o m e o u t o f t h e city to
re c e iv e C h ris t. In f r o n t o f th is g r o u p
o f J e w s , a child is h o ld i n g a p a lm
b r a n c h , a n d a n o t h e r is s h o w n in th e
b r a n c h e s o f a tr e e . T h e c ir c u la r b u i l d
ing th a t can be se e n in th e city o f
J e r u s a l e m ca n b e id e n tif ie d as th e
church o f th e R esurrection. T h e
c o m p o s it io n inv o lv es o n ly a lim ited
n u m b e r o f fig u re s, a r r a n g e d in a
s y m m e t r ic a l
and
b a la n c e d
w ay
a r o u n d th e c e n tr a l fig u re o f C h ris t,
a n d follow s an a u s t e r e ic o n o g r a p h ic
s c h e m e th a t is th e su c c e s so r in th e
14th c e n tu r y to th e ic o n o g r a p h ic t r a
d itio n o f th e M id d le B y z a n ti n e
p e r i o d ( H a d e r m a n n - M i s g u i c h 1975,
fig. 61). A sim ila r ic o n o g r a p h ic
s c h e m e in th e 14th c e n tu r y is to be
s e e n in t h e C h u r c h o f A y io s N i k o
lao s
O rphanos
in
T h e s s a l o n ik e
( X y n g o p o u l o s 1964, fig. 23 ). th e
C h u r c h o f C h r is to s ' in V e r ia (P elek a n id is 1973, pi. 21 ), in th e M o n a s
t e r y at M a r k o ( M i ll e t- V e l m a n s 1969,
fig. 166), a n d in 1 5 th - c e n tu r y m o n u
m e n t s in th e re g io n a r o u n d O c h r id
(S u b o t ic 1980, figs. 43 a n d 111. pi.
46). A n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s a re also
s h a r e d w ith th e icon o f th e R aisin g ol
L a z a ru s : th e realistic p o r t r a y a l ol the
WvS

fig u re s, t i n m i I i i i m u o l H u n j j i i a .
th e Obvioir. uliensi ii Ihr i> io ii|ir nl
a p o s t le s anil lews, til nimli lime nl
t h e laces w ith th e n s l u in g in i ii i.i i.
b e t w e e n light anil -<hinlr u h ir tin
d o m i n a n t e o lo u i s in tin h.dil imii i"j
o f t h e g r o u n d a n d the o i l i n ' tin
fle sh , w ith reil the . widi
11 1
fu s e d c o lo u r. O t h e r Ic iilu ies m m
m o n to th e tw o icon*, w hich in tin
w o r k o f th e s a m e artist, m e the use
o f silver fo r th e b a c k g r o u n d nml
h a l o e s - a local f e a t u r e of icons lio in
K a s t o r i a a n d M a c e d o n i a in g c n e ia l
t h e sim p le t r e a t m e n t o f the d r a p e r y ,
in w'hich th e d o m i n a n t c o lo u r s a n
b l u e - g r e e n , re d a n d d a r k b lu e , a n d
t h e use o f g re y - g re e n for th e ro cks
a n d re d f o r th e b u ild ing s. These tw o
ic o n s , t o g e t h e r w ith fo u r m o r e front
t h e K a s to r ia A rc h a e o lo g i c a l C ollcc
tio n ( t h e N a tiv ity , th e P r e s e n t a t i o n
in th e T e m p l e , th e T r a n s f ig u r a t io n
a n d th e D o r m i t i o n ) . all o f w hich
c o m e fr o m th e D o d e k a o r t o n ol tin
C h u r c h o f th e A y io i T r e is , m a y In
a t t r i b u t e d to a local w o r k s h o p w hich
in 1401 c o - o p e r a t e d w ith o t h e r ai lists
to d e c o r a t e th e c h u rc h (Tsig.u ul.r.
1980-81. p. 286). A t a b o u t litis
p e r i o d , o r p e r h a p s a little ca rlit i , tin
s a m e t e a m p r o b a b l y w o r k e d o n ill
d e c o r a t i o n of th e C h u r c h ot tin V n
g in F a n e r o m e n i in K a s to r ia (m i|iu li
lis h e d ). T h e icon o f the I nil \ into
J e r u s a l e m m ay b e a ss ig n e d to tin
anti-classical c u r r e n t ol th llv/iin
tin e p a in t in g o f th e late I'a la e o lo ^ m i
p e r i o d by v ir tu e ol tin l clinl ill nml
stylistic f e a t u r e s th at it slum. with
th e R a is in g o f I a/.aru! b o th | H u m
e x h ib i t a style c o m m o n ly lo u m l mil
o n ly in th e m o n u m e n t s ol tin i ll\ 11
K a s t o r i a , but a ls o in lliosi ol lln
s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a ( P u s p i i . I >< hi III
e t c . ).

I* n n 'r m in r c

< h im h o t

tin

li> l

l u i ii .

o n s t 't v n t m n

Itih h ifffftt ft h i

pp

I'll / ,u Iiiiiihim I' <1


M i l l Hi I I I i

I I Hi ll

|'M h

Kit I
I

3 0

T h e N a tiv ity
Ik -gin n in g o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
6 6 .5 X 6 4 cm
l . o n d o n . M . P e r a t i c o s C o lle c tio n
( f o r m e r l y V olp i C o llectio n)

T h e s c e n e u n fo l d s in f r o n t o f a n d
a r o u n d a to w e r i n g r o c k , in w h ic h is a
ca v e w ith th e c rib a n d a n im als . T h e
V irgin re c lin e s in f r o n t o f th e cave o n
a p a ll e t, w ith h e r h e a d t u r n e d t o
w a r d s t h e b a t h o f th e ch ild , a t th e
left. T h e s e c o n d a r y e p is o d e s t a k e
p la c e in sp a c e s f o r m e d by th e g e n tle
slo p e s o f th e hills, c r e a t in g a feeling
o f d e p t h . A t th e b o t t o m left is th e
b a t h i n g o f th e ch ild , w ith t h e m i d
wife w h o s e g a r m e n t s leave h e r a r m s
b a r e ; o n t h e r ig h t, J o s e p h is sitting in
th e f o r e g r o u n d , ta l k in g to a s h e p
h e r d d re s s e d in a s h e e p s k i n th a t also
co v e rs his h e a d . B e h i n d a n d to th e
left o f t h e c e n t r a l ro c k a p p e a r th e
M a g i , riding o n h o rs e s. T h e y a r e
b a la n c e d o n th e rig h t by an an gel
ta lk in g to a s h e p h e r d . A th ird s h e p
h e r d sits c ro s s -le g g e d n e x t to h im ; h e
is w e a r i n g a r e d c l o a k a n d t h e c h a r
a c te ris tic c a p o f le a v e s , a n d is p la y
ing th e flu te. T w o g r o u p s o f an g els
e m e r g e f r o m b e h i n d th e c e n tr a l ro c k
w ith th e i r h a n d s ra i s e d in p r a y e r . A t
th e f o o t o f th e hill o n t h e rig h t, s h e e p
ca n be se e n d r i n k i n g fr o m a s t r e a m .
T h e p a in t in g in th is icon recalls th e
fi n est m o m e n t s o f C o n s ta n t in o p o l itan a rt. T h e flesh is m o d e l le d v e ry
ca re fu lly w ith b r o w n a n d d a r k - g r e e n
b r u s h s t r o k e s , d e n s e w h ite h igh lig hts
o n th e p r o m i n e n t s u rfa c e s, a n d
w a r m p in k t o n e s o n th e c h e e k s ,
re callin g th e wall p a in tin g s in th e
C h u r c h o f th e P e r i b l e p t o s at M istra .
T h e flo w in g d r a p e r y o f th e g a r m e n t s
w o r n by th e a n g e ls , th e V irg in ,
J o s e p h a n d t h e m id w ife is b r o k e n
in to
sm a ll,
elegant,
geom etric
s h a p e s , re ca llin g m i n ia t u r e s from
th e e n d o f th e 14th c e n tu r y , such
as th o s e in th e C a n t a c u z e n m a n u
scrip t
(T alb o t
R ic e
1959,
pi.

166

X X X I X ) . T h e skill w ith w h ich th e


b l i g h t , light c o lo u r s a re c o m b i n e d so
as to s u g g e s t th e re la tiv e im p o r t a n c e
o f th e ev en ts depicted, d em o n strates
t h a t th is w a s th e w o r k o f a n u n u
sually skilful p a in t e r . R e d is u s e d in
t h e V i r g i n s p a lle t, th e g a r m e n t s o f
th e s e r v a n t , o n e o f th e M agi o n th e
left, a n d t h e s h e p h e r d p la y in g th e
f l u te , a n d u n d e r n e a t h th e s h e e p s k in
w o r n b y th e s h e p h e r d n e x t to
J o s e p h ; d e e p b lu e in t h e V i r g i n s
d r e s s in t h e m i d d le , a n d in p a r t o f
t h e a r c o f h e a v e n a t th e t o p o f th e
c o m p o s i t i o n ; a n d light g r e e n h e r e
a n d t h e r e in th e c o s t u m e s o f the
a n g e ls ; all t h e s e t o n e h a r m o n io u s l y
w ith t h e light b r o w n o f th e l a n d
sc a p e .
T h is t r a n q u i l , yet rich la n d s c a p e
re v e a l s t h e in f lu e n c e o f Ita lia n p a i n t
in g; it is c o m b i n e d h e r e w ith th e n a t
u ralistic r e n d e r i n g of t h e a n im a ls
a r o u n d t h e m a n g e r th a t is k n o w n
fr o m a g r o u p o f C r e t a n ico ns fr o m
th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
w ith sim ila r ic o n o g r a p h y . T h e g r o u p
i n c l u d e s icon s in V e n ic e a n d L e n
i n g r a d , a n d in th e B y z a n ti n e M u
s e u m , A t h e n s ( F e l ic e t ti -L ie b e n fe l s
1956, pi. 129 B . C h a tz i d a k is 1974
(1 ), p p . 203 ff., pis. X X X I , X X X I I .
C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1 ), p p . 88ff. E x h i
b it io n fo r t h e C e n t e n a r y o f C h . A . E .
1984, n o . 13). T h e inclusion o f tw o
p e t d o g s is also Ita lia n in o rig in an d
reca lls t h e s im ila r use o f a n im a ls tha t
a r e n o t ju s tifie d b y th e i c o n o g r a p h y
in p a i n t i n g s by P is a n e llo ( B e r e n s o n
1968, II, fig. 544). T h e an im a l
s c r a tc h i n g its e a r in th e lo w e r right
c o r n e r is also to be f o u n d in th e
N a tiv i ty in th e C h u r c h o f t h e P an tan a s s a a t M i s tr a ( C h a tz i d a k is 1981,
fig. 65). T h e p r e s e n t icon a p p e a r s to
b e e a r l i e r t h a n th e s e . Its ico n o g rap h ic m o d e l will h a v e b e e n closely
r e l a t e d to th a t o f th e P e r i b l e p t o s at
M i s tr a ( C h a tz i d a k is 1981, fig. 47).
e v e n in d e ta ils suc h as t h e d re s s anil
p o s t u r e o f th e m id w ife , w h o is
h o l d i n g th e in fa n t in h e r a r m s anil
te s ti n g th e t e m p e r a t u r e o f th e w atci

w ith h e r rig ht h a n d . T h e Ita lian


in f lu e n c e , c o n f i r m e d by th e L a tin
in s c rip tio n in a b a n d o n th e a rc o f th e
sk y , su g g e s ts th a t th e p a in t in g , w hich
w as th e w o r k o f a fine a rtist fa m ilia r
w ith th e p r e c e p t s o f P a l a e o l o g a n a r t ,
w a s i n t e n d e d f o r a n Ita lia n c u s

t o m e r , p e r h a p s a Veuiirtflft mi
C rete.
B ibliography. G arrison 19-li. p I II mi
"
C hatzid ak is 1962. p. 30. I.itwuelT
|< I1
fig. 51. Lazarev 1967. pp. *10717 I i Mu
C h atzid ak is 1974 (1). p. 120. pi XXXII '
C hatzid ak is (T h .) 1982. no. 10.

N. < ll

31

S t. M a rin a
F ir st h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
114.5X 66 cm
A t h e n s . B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m , T . 85

F r o n t a l , h alf -le n g th p o r t r a i t of St.


M a r i n a o n a g o ld g r o u n d , w ith h e r
left h a n d in a g e s t u r e o f p r a y e r . S h e
is h o ld in g a sm all g o ld cross in h e r
rig h t h a n d . B o th t h e b e a r i n g a n d th e
a u s t e r e , n o b le fa c e o f th e sa in t a re
r e m in i s c e n t o f t h e figu re o f th e V i r
gin. T h e d a r k u n d e r p a i n t h a s a few
w h ite h ig h lig h ts o n th e n o se a n d
c h e e k s , in th e m a n n e r o f P a l a e o l o
g a n ic o n s, like th e icon o f C h r is t in
L e n i n g r a d ( W e i t z m a n n 1983, p p . 82,
83). H e r d re s s , h o w e v e r , p o in t s t o a
l a t e r d a te . T h e re d m a p h o r i o n is
t r a c e d in s t r a ig h t fo ld s o f a d a r k e r
t o n e a n d h a s no sen s e o f v o l u m e ; it is
like th a t o f St. A n n e in th e 15thc e n t u r y ico n o f th e B e n a k i M u s e u m
( c a t. n o . 34). T h e lu x u r io u s d re s s
e m p h a s i z e s th e a ris to c r a tic o rig in s o f
th e sa in t. T h e r e d m a p h o r i o n h a s a
d e c o r a t i v e g old b a n d w ith a frin g e at
th e to p , a n d th r e e p ie ce s o f g o ld

e m b r o i d e r y , o n e o n th e f o r e h e a d
a n d o n e o n e a c h s h o u l d e r . I lei
h e a d b a n d h a s p s e u d o - k u f ic du eo
r a t i o n e m b r o i d e r e d in g o ld , of t i n
t y p e f o u n d m ain ly in I t a lo - C r e la n
ico n s o f th e 15th c e n tu r y ( C h a t / i d a
kis 1974 (1 ), p. 180). B e n e a t h tin
d r e s s , c a n b e s e e n a c h e m is e w o r k e d
in g o ld , c o v e ri n g h e r b r e a s t, fa s te n e d
in t h e c e n t r e by f o u r sm all b u llo u s .
E a c h sle e v e is a d o r n e d w ith tw o
g o l d - e m b r o i d e r e d b a n d s . T h e s e fen
t u r e s o f h e r d re s s a r e to be fo u n d in
1 5 th - c e n tu r y V e n e t i a n c o s t u m e , a l s o
w o r n in C r e t e ( M a lte z o u I9K(>, pi
I X ) , a n d s u g g e s t th a t th e icon was
t h e w o r k o f a C r e t a n p a i n t e r ol tin
first h a lf o f t h e 15th c e n tu r y . I III*
la r g e icon w as p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d t o
d e c o r a t e t h e ic o n o s ta sis o f a c l m u l i
d e d i c a t e d to St. M a r in a .
Provenance. P resented to the ( litisl At
chaeological Society.
C onservation. A. M arg.irito!! (I*JMI)
B ibliography. Sotiriou 19.11, p
SottHim
1962. no. 85. C hatzidakis I9(tf i mi Ml
B abic-C hatzidakis 1983. p. l.9 A lin * III >
icone 1986, no. 49, p. 89,

N < It

32

A n g elo s: S t. T h e u d o re th e T iro
15th c e n tu r y
1 2 2 X 6 8 .5 c m
A thens. B yz antine M u s e u m , L o v erd o s
C o l l e c t i o n , 285

T h e s ain t is s h o w n as a w a r r i o r ,
heav ily a r m e d a n d o n f o o t , slaying a
d r a g o n , a g a in s t a gold b a c k g r o u n d .
H e s ta n d s o n a h u g e scaly d r a g o n
( t h e right leg , w h ic h is b e n t at th e
k n e e , b e a r s all th e w eig ht ol the
lire) a n d raises his lo n g s w o rd th r e a t
167

e n i n g l y . 1 l e h o l d s h i s s e i i l ' l i m d in In
l e f t h a n d . A r i c h c h l a m y i . Iihiiji
h i s s h o u l d e r s a n d lall. I n I In
e n d in a p o i n t . A lU i

lull

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ilil
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Ic o n o g r a p h ic a l ly , th e icon b e lo n g s to
a ( ' r e t a i l g r o u p f r o m th e 15th c e n
tu r y s h o w in g w a r r i o r sa in ts o n fo o t
slayin g d ra g o n s . T w o o f t h e m a re
sig n e d hy A n g e lo s : th e icon o f St.
I a n o u r i o s fr o m P a t m o s ( C h a t z i d a
kis 1977 (1 ), no. 69, pi. 27) a n d th e
icon fr o m F o l e g a n d r o s w ith th e
sa m e s u b j e c t ( V a s s i la k e s - M a v r a k a kcs 1981, p. 231, pi. 576). E v e n c l o s e r
in i c o n o g r a p h ic t e r m s a r e th e icon
o f St. G e o r g e fr o m P a t m o s , d a ti n g
fro m th e 15th c e n t u r y a n d a t t r i b u t e d
to a C r e t a n w o r k s h o p (C h a tz i d a k is
1977 (1), no . 24 , pi. 26), a n d th e C r e
tan icon in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m from
th e s a m e p e r i o d . T h e e p i s o d e in
w h ich h e kills th e d r a g o n w as ass o ci
a t e d w ith St. T h e o d o r e at a v e ry
e a rly d a t e . A l r e a d y in th e

by G r e g o r y o f N y ssa t h e r e is a
r e f e r e n c e to th e sain t stru g g lin g w ith
d e m o n s (


,
... ... P. M i g n e , P a tr o lo g ia
G r a e c a , vol 4 6, col. 746). T h e e p i
s o d e w a s d e s c r i b e d in d e ta il in the
10th c e n t u r y , a n d esp e c ia lly in 11thc e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t s , in w hich th e
s a in t is r e p r e s e n t e d as slaying a
d r a g o n s o m e t i m e s o n fo o t a n d
so m etim es on h o rse b ack (D e le h ay e

1909). A p a in t in g o f th e s ain t slaying


a d r a g o n o n fo o t m a y well lie b e h in d
t h e d e s c r ip ti o n by Io a n n i s M a v r o p o u s ( D e L a g a r d e 1882, pp . 119 ff.),
in w h ic h St. T h e o d o r e is o n fo o t.
T h e s a i n t is also p o r t r a y e d o n f o o t in
a n e n a m e l fr o m L e n i n g r a d d a ti n g
f r o m t h e 13th c e n tu r y ( B a n k 1977,
n o . 124), in w hich th e h o rs e is tied to
a t r e e , in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t h e n a r r a
ti ve in an A r m e n i a n m a n u s c r ip t fr o m
t h e 10th c e n tu r y . T h e ic o n o g r a p h ic a l
ty p e o f th e slay ing o f th e d r a g o n in
w h ic h t h e fig u re is s h o w n s t a n d in g
o n th e d r a g o n is k n o w n in th e W e s t
f r o m t h e 10th c e n t u r y , m a in ly in
s c e n e s r e l a t e d to St. M i c h a e l s s t r u g
gle w ith th e dev il; it w as r e v iv e d in
th e 14th a n d 15th c e n tu r ie s in a large
n u m b e r o f sc e n e s w ith a p r e f e r e n c e
f o r St. G e o r g e as a d ra g o n - s la y e r .
T h e in f lu e n c e o f this revival o f th e
subject on
1 5 th - c e n tu r y
C retan
p a i n t i n g s o f m ilitary sa in ts killing
d r a g o n s is c le a r in this s c e n e , in
w h ic h t h e W e s t e r n in f lu e n c e s a re
o b v io u s .

C onservation. S. B altoyannis. Th. Papageorgiou (1980).


Bibliography. C hatzidakis (N .) 1983. no. 8. p.
24. A ffrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 55. pp. 96-97.

Ch. H.

3 3

A n g e lo s: C h r ist E n th ro n ed
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
1 0 5 . 5 X 5 9 cm
Zakynthos. \lu s e u m

The g r e e n m a r b l e t h r o n e a n d f o o t
sto o l, w hic h a r e typical f e a t u r e s o f
C r e t a n ico ns o f th e 15th c e n tu r y ,
th e ty p e o f th e P a n t o c r a t o r , a n d th e
h a n d li n g o f th e d r a p e r y , a re all to be
fo u n d in th e w o r k s o f o t h e r p a in t e r s
ol th e p e r i o d , such as A n d r e a s Ril/ o s a n d th e a n o n y m o u s p a i n t e r o f
P a tm o s no . 34. ( C h a tz i d a k is 1977
( I ) , pp. K4ff.). T h e s i g n a tu re
( h a n d o f A n g e l o s ) is in
th e b o t t o m r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r . A f e a

16H

tu r e o f t h e icon is th e re la tio n s h ip
b e t w e e n th e size o f C h ris t a n d th a t ol
t h e t h r o n e . T h is icon w a s th e m o d el
fo r la t e r w o rk s n o ta b ly th e icon by
E m m a n u e l T z a n e s in th e B y z a n tin e
M u s e u m , w h ich d a te s fr o m 1666.
Provenance. Church of A yios Spyridon
Flam bouriaris on Z akvnthos (retrieved in
1953).

Conservation. Z akynthos M useum La horn


lory.
Bibliography. D randakis 1962. pi. 386. lo t
the d ate of the p ain ter, cf. V assilakes-M avin
kakes 1983. pp. 290ff. Babic-C hatzidakr.
1983. p. 314. colour plate on p. 360. Byzanlini
A rt 1986. no. 100. pp. 99. 101. Affrcschi
icone 1986. no. 53. pp. 94. 95.

M. ( li

34
S t. A n n e w ith th e V irg in
M id d le o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
106X76 cm
A thens. Benaki M useum

St. A n n e is d e p ic t e d h a lf-le n g th
h o l d i n g th e V irgin in h e r left a r m ,
j u s t as th e V irgin h o ld s C h r is t in
icon s o f th e H o d e g e t r i a ( X y n g o p o u los 1936, p. 41). W ith h e r rig h t h a n d ,
th e V irg in is o ff e rin g h e r m o t h e r a
fl o w e r , a s y m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
C h ris t d e r i v e d fr o m h y m n s su c h as
th e
' (T h e
U n f a d i n g R o s e ) . T h e c o m p o s it io n ,
m o r e o v e r , h a s an o b v io u s d o c tr in a l
c o n t e n t a ls o f o u n d in o t h e r ico ns o f
th e p e r i o d t h a t m a y be r e g a r d e d as
v a r i a ti o n s o f th e s a m e s u b j e c t
(L afo n tain e-D o so g n e
1965.
p p.
134ff. C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1), p. 117).
T h e ic o n o g r a p h y is k n o w n in th e
m i d d le o f th e 15th c e n tu r y in th e
illu s tra tio n s o f th e m a n u s c r ip t ( d a t e d
to 1480) o f th e C r e t a n s c h o la r J o h n
P l o u s ia d i n o s ( W e i t z m a n n 1973, p p.
30-31. fig. 44. C h a t z i d a k i s ( T h . )
1982, n o . 9). It o c c u rs also in an icon
o n P a t m o s d a t i n g f r o m th e b e g in n i n g
o f th e 17th c e n t u r y ( C h a tz i d a k is
1977 (1 ), p. 115, n o . 67 , pi. 126; cf.
also B a lt o y a n n i 1985, no. 32, p p .
38-39. pi. 34).
T h e d r a p e r y o f th e b rig h t re d
m a p h o r i o n w o r n by St. A n n e h a s
ve ry light, b r o a d , g e o m e t r i c fo ld s, as
in th e 1 5 th -c e n tu ry icon o f St.
M a r i n a in th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m
(B a b i c - C h a t z i d a k i s 1983, fig. p.
329). T h e r e d c lo th o v e r th e ro o fs o f
th e b u ild in g s in th e P r e s e n t a t i o n of
th e V irg in to the T e m p l e by A n g e l o s
( C h a t z i d a k i s ( N . ) 1983, n o. 3, p p .
18-19) is p a in t e d in a sim ila r m a n n e r .
T h e d a r k u n d e r p a i n t o f th e fa ce, th e
b r o w n flesh a n d t h e s p a r in g b u t
e ffectiv e use o f w h ite hig hligh ts
recall th e te c h n i q u e u se d by this
p a i n t e r in th e icon o f th e K a rd io tis s a
(cat. no. 35); th e p a in tin g o f th e
h a n d , w ith th e d e lic a te fin g ers, is a
f u r t h e r p o in t o f sim ilarity with this
icon. F in a lly , th e p o s t u r e mid p i o

1(1*1

p o r t i o n s o f th e figures in l i u l l i l l n
w o r k s h a v e affinities llml >
t h a t th e y w e re p a in t e d by th mimi
a rtis t. T h e icon also r e s e m b le s I In
icon fr o m Z a k y n t h o s (cat n o too
n o t on ly in its d o c tr in a l c o n t e n t , bui
a ls o in its te c h n ical e x e c u tio n
T h e p a n e l b e a r s th e fo rg ed sig nalim o f E m m a n u e l Tzanes.
Conservation. L aboratory of the llennkl Mu
scum (1982-83).
B ibliography. X yngopoulos 1936, no
pp
40-41, pi 20. Lafoniaine-DosogiK 19(>,V pp
134-135. fig.79. C hatzidakis 1979 (2), p I W
fig. p. 131. D clivorrias 1980, lig. 62 lluhlt
C h atzidakis 1983. p. 314. fig. p. 3(6 (I I hi
recognition that the inscription is '<)
C hatzid ak is (N .) 1983, no. 11. p. 2(i
N ( It

37
S t. D e m e tr iu s
c. 1500
9 2 x 4 6 cm
A lliens. l i. A n d r e a d i s C o lle c tio n

T h e saint is d e p i c t e d s t a n d in g fullface in m ilita r y d re s s. H e h o ld s a


lan ce in his right h a n d a n d a sw o rd in
his le d . Ilis sh ie ld can be se e n
b e h in d his left s h o u l d e r . H e w e a rs a
red a n d g r e e n c lo a k , w h o s e o u t e r
s u r fa c e is p a i n t e d so as to give th e
im p re s s io n o f h e a v y fabric. The
t h o n g s b in d in g his legs, th e sleev es,
a n d th e w h o le o f th e lo w e r p a rt o f his
c o s t u m e a r e t r e a t e d w ith sim ilar
r e a lism . T h e c o n c e r n fo r a c c u r a t e
d e ta il is c le a r in t h e g old w e b b in g
w ith
w h ic h
th e
b r e a s t- p l a te
is
d e c o r a t e d , a n d t h e d r a p e r y in th e
l o w e r p a r t o f his c o s t u m e ; this has
th e tw o a t t a c h e d e m b r o i d e r e d p a n e ls
w ith th e p s e u d o - k u f i c d e c o r a t i o n
usually f o u n d o n this k in d o f
c o s t u m e in th e 15th c e n t u r y ( C h a t z i
d a k is 1977 (1), p. 118, pi. 27. C h a t z i
d a k is ( N .) 1983, n o . 6, p. 22). T h e
h a lo h a s a n in cised floral d e c o r a t io n .
G o l d g r o u n d w ith a b r o w n a r e a at
th e b o t t o m . Slightly ra ise d fr a m e .
The facial f e a t u r e s a n d d re s s o f the
s ain t h a v e affin itie s w ith an icon

d e p ic t in g St. F a n o u r i o s w hich is
a t t r i b u t e d to th e p a i n t e r A n g e lo s
( C h a t z i d a k i s ( N .) 1983, no . 12, pp .
2 6 f f .). T h is is th e o n ly o n e o f th e
ico n s w ith w a r r i o r sa in ts (ico n s o n
P a t m o s , in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m , a n d
in o t h e r co lle c tio n s; cf. X y n g o p o u l o s
1936, n o . 5, pi. 7b. C h a tz i d a k is 1977
(1), pis. 26, 27. 204. V a ssilak esM a v r a k a k e s 1981, pis. 5 2 a -b , 5 7 a -b ,
58, 59) t h a t h as so m a n y p o in ts o f
sim ila rity w ith th e p r e s e n t w o rk . T h e
stylistic d e ta ils , su c h as th e soft
s t r a p s b in d i n g th e legs o f th e sa in t,
w h ich a r e so sim ila r to th o s e o f St.
T h e o d o r e by A n g e lo s (cat. no. 32)
s u g g e s t t h a t this icon w as also by
h im . W e m a y n o te th a t St. D e m e
tr iu s 's h a ir falls in sm all cu rls b e h in d
his e a r s , j u s t like th a t o f St. F a n o u
rios. It m a y be c o n j e c t u r e d fr o m a
n u m b e r o f tr a c e s o n t h e g o ld g r o u n d ,
n e a r th e lan ce a n d th e le t te r in g in
th e in s c rip tio n , th a t this w as o rig i
nally a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f St. F a n o u
rios h o ld in g th e c ro ss, b u t t h a t it w as
la t e r a d a p t e d as a p o r t r a it icon o f St.
D em etriu s.
B ibliography. C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982. no. 3.
C hatzidakis (N .) 1983. no. 13. p. 27. A ffrcschi
c iconc 1986. no. 58. pp. 100-101.

N. Ch.

3 8

S a n c tu a r y D o o rs
SS G e o r g e a n d D e m e tr iu s
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
1 2 7 . 5 X 6 5 . 7 cm
T in o s . E v a n g e l i s t r i a M u s e u m

T h e S a n c tu a r y D o o r s fo rm a f l a m
b o y a n t ' a rc h th a t d iv id e s th e p a in te d
d e c o r a t i o n fro m th e c a r v e d w o o d e n
sectio n al th e to p ; th is is d e c o r a t e d
willi foliage scrolls a n d m ultifoil palm e t l e s , th e le av e s o f w hich a re
r e m in i s c e n t o t G o t h i c a rt in te x tu re .
T h e to p p a rt o f th e v ertical jo in tc o v e r is m issing, a n d a strip at least
t h r e e c e n t i m e t r e s w id e h a s b e e n cut
a w a y fro m th e b o t t o m o f th e d oo rs.

172

T h e left d o o r h a s a s c en e o f St. G e o
rg e slay in g th e d r a g o n , w hile o n th e
rig h t. St. D e m e t r i u s is p o r t r a y e d
c ru s h in g a s c o r p io n , s h o w n larger
th a n lite-size. T h e tw o sa in ts, in s y m
m e tric a lly b a la n c e d c o n t r a p p o s t o ,
a re w e a r i n g e l a b o r a t e m ilitary d re ss,
w hich is b a s e d o n P a la e o l o g a n
m o d e ls . T h e y a re d re s s e d in a sh o r t
c h ito n w ith le a t h e r m a n i p le s , a n d a
b r e a s t - p l a t e . w h ich is s u p p l e m e n t e d
by a d o u b l e ro w o f le a t h e r w ings'
in th e a r e a o f th e pelvis a n d on
th e u p p e r a rm s . T h e r e is a d o u b le
m e ta llic strip w ith m o n o c h r o m e
d e c o r a t i o n a r o u n d th e ir c h e st an d
n e c k . T h e sain ts a re w e a r in g h o s e .

a n d th e lo w e r p a r t o f th e leg is
w o u n d a r o u n d w ith l e a t h e r b a n d s .
T h o s e w o r n by St. D e m e t r i u s a re o f
soft w h ite l e a t h e r , a n d h a v e th e c h a r
acte ris tic re d line t h a t c a n b e s e e n in
th e ico n o f St. F a n o u r i o s o n P a t m o s .
St. G e o r g e s s w o r d is also to be
f o u n d in ico n s by A n g e l o s , a n d St.
D e m e t r i u s h a s a s a b r e in a le a t h e r
s c a b b a r d w ith go ld o r n a m e n t a t i o n .
T h e s a m e ty p e o f s w o r d a n d th e
s a m e g e s t u r e s o c c u r in tw o icon s of
St. F a n o u r i o s a n d St. D e m e t r i u s
a t t r i b u t e d to A n g e l o s (cat. n o . 37).
A t th e t o p o f t h e d o o r s , th e h a n d
of G o d e m e r g e s fr o m a p a in t e d blu e
a rc a n d h o ld s o u t a c r o w n to e a c h o f
th e tw o m a r ty r s . T h e h a lo e s a re
b o r d e r e d by a ro w o f im p r e s s e d
r o u n d e l s , as in th r e e icon s f r o m Spilia, K is s a m o s ( B y z a n ti n e A r t 1986,
no s. 105-107) w h ich a re t h o u g h t to
be th e w o r k o f A n d r e a s R itzo s.
T h e ty p e o f t h e s t a n d in g , d r a g o n sla y e r s a in t o c c u rs in late P a l a e
o lo g a n w o r k s , like t h a t in th e kat h o l i k o n o f t h e M o n a s t e r y o f V la ta d o n in T h e s s a l o n i k e ( M a v r o p o u l o u T s io u m i 1985, pi. 3). A n u m b e r o f
o rig in a l v a r i a ti o n s o f this t h e m e a re
t o b e f o u n d in ico n s a t t r i b u t e d to th e
p a i n t e r A n g e l o s ( C h a tz i d a k is 1977
(1), p. 7 6, n o . 24). T h e ty p e s h o w in g
St. D e m e t r i u s a n d th e s c o r p io n is
m u c h r a r e r , a n d is cle a rly in s p ire d by
t h e m ira c le o f th e s c o r p io n w h e n th e
s a i n t w a s in p ris o n (cf. X y n g o p o u l o s
1970, p. 21). T h e tw o p r o m i n e n t m i l
ita ry sa in ts a r e c o m m o n l y f o u n d
t o g e t h e r , t h o u g h n o t w ith t h e t r i u m
p h a n t c h a r a c t e r th e y h a v e h e r e ,
t h a n k s to th e in clu sio n o f th e d r a g o n
a n d th e s c o r p io n .
It is p o ss ib le to d e te c t in b o t h sain ts
f e a t u r e s ty pical o f th e a rt o f A n
g e lo s , w h o s e w o r k has r e c e n t ly b e
e n d a t e d to th e first h a lf o f th e
15th c e n t u r y (V a s s i la k e s - M a v r a k a k e s 1981, p p. 290-298). A l t h o u g h th e
d r a w in g is fin e , th e fig u res h e r e a re
h e a v ie r a n d lac k th e g ra c e o f a u t h e n
tic p ie c e s b y A n g e l o s , su ch as th e
icon o f St. F a n o u r i o s o n P a tm o s .
T h e light a n d s h a d o w in th e face of
St. G e o r g e , e sp e cially th e lo ng
s h a d o w cast by the n o s e , willi its

173

w h ite b o r d e r a n d I lie denm wlilli


h ig h lig h ts, a re reuiinis n i l nl win I
by A n d r e a s R itzos (cl < Im l/liluki .
1977 (1 ), p. 60). The s a m e is i m
>1
t h e g e o m e t r i c t r e a t m e n t ol tin
d r a p e r y , w h ic h e x te n d s to I lie liosr
o f St. G e o r g e . T h e S a n c tu a r y iloiu.
f r o m T in o s sh o u ld t h e r e f o r e l<
a t t r i b u t e d to a very g o o d I retail
w o r k s h o p t h a t c o n t i n u e d to use llii
v o c a b u l a r y o f A n g e l o s , a n d possibly
to t h e w o r k s h o p o f A n d r e a s K n / o s
w h ic h in h e r i t e d A n g e l o s s w o rk in g
d r a w in g s ( C a t t a p a n 1973, pp. ..M
26 2). If th is is t r u e , th e T in o s d o o i s
t h e P a t m o s d o o r s (cat. no. 3 9), a n d
t h e d o o r s in th e E c o n o m o p o u l o s
C o ll e c ti o n (B a lt o y a n n i 1986 (2), pi
10-11) a re th e e a rlie s t k n o w n S a m
t u a r y D o o r s by th e C r e t a n School
Bibliography. K outclakis 1981. p. J /
tine A rt 1986, no. 109, pp. 109-111 A l l i o i l ti
c iconc 1986. no. 6 ). pp. 105-107.

3 9

S a n c tu a r y D o o r s
T h e A n n u n c ia tio n , S S P e te r a n d
J o h n th e T h e o lo g ia n
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
I65X J4 cin and 144X 38.5 cm
Inliniis, ( Jfora. Church o f Ayios Georios Apiirlhiunon (or Dimarchias)

1 1 1 i I>111 1 1 to A n d r e a s R itzo s. O n e
ol (In m ost im p re s s iv e S a n c tu a r y
d o o r s Iro m th e I x h c e n tu r y , a n d a
g o o d e x a m p l e ot C r e t a n w o o d -c a rv mu Iro m this p e r i o d There a re o b
v iou s I.ate G o t h i c f e a t u r e s in the
s h a p e o f th e c a r v e d a p e x a n d th e
bust o f th e p r o p h e t D av id c a r v e d in
th e r o u n d at th e to p . T h e e x c e p
tio na lly g ra cefu l
fig ures in the

A n n u n c i a t i o n , set a g a in s t a rich
a r c h i t e c t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , th e m o n u
m e n t a l fig u re s o f th e a p o s t le s a n d
t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s ti c d r a p e r y , a n d n o t
leas t th e fine e x e c u t io n , all su g g est
t h a t th e d o o r s s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d
to t h e C r e t a n p a i n t e r A n d r e a s R itzo s
(1451- ).
Provenance. A ccording to trad itio n , the doors
arc from the iconostasis of the katholikon of
the M onastery of St. John the T heologian, the
lem plon icons from which w ere executed by
A ndreas Ritzos.
Conservation. T h. P apageorgiou. E. Balis
ftihlit/yniphv. C hatzidakis 1977 (1). no. II.
pp. (ilfl.. pis. HO and 81. Byzantine A rt 1986.
no. 108. pp. 108, 109. A ffrcschi c iconc 1986.
no. 00. pp. 103-104.

M. Ch.

4 4 .5 X 3 6 .5 cm
London. M . P eraticos Collection

T h e V irg in is p o r t r a y e d at h alf-le n g th
h o ld in g th e child in b o t h a r m s o n h e r
left side. S h e is tu r n i n g h e r h e a d an d
h e r c h e e k t o u c h e s th e fa c e o f C h ris t,
w h o is t u r n e d t o w a r d s h e r w ith his
b a c k to t h e v ie w e r , as in th e ty p e o f
th e V irgin K a r d io t is s a (cat. n o . 35).
H is right h a n d g ra s p s t h e e d g e o f th e
V i r g i n s m a p h o r i o n , at h e r n e c k , a n d
his left h a n d s t r e t c h e s d o w n a n d
h o ld s a c lo s e d sc ro ll, as is o f t e n the
c a se in icon s o f th e V irg in p r e f ig u
ring t h e P a ss io n (a n e a r l i e r e x a m p l e
is th e 1 2 th - c e n tu r y icon in th e B y z a n
tine M u s e u m , cf. C h a tz i d a k is 1979
(1), p p . 359-360).
S im ila r ic o n o g r a p h y is to b e f o u n d
in a n icon in L e n i n g r a d (F elic ettiL ie b e n f e ls 1956, pi. 11 1 D ), in w h ich ,
h o w e v e r . C h r is t's scroll is o p e n at
th e tex t .. ( T h e
Spirit o f th e L o r d ' . .) ( L u k e 4 .1 8 ); this
recalls a well k n o w n se r ie s o f C r e t a n
icons ol th e V irg in G ly k o p h i l o u s a ,
w ith Italian in f lu e n c e s (C h a tz i d a k is
174

1974 (1 ). p. 202 a n d n o s. 112, 113).


A f u r t h e r a llu sion to th e P assio n can
be se e n in th e g a r m e n t s w o rn by
C h ris t: a c h it o n tie d w ith a sa s h an d
tw o v e rtic a l s t r a p s , as in th e icon of
th e K a r d io t is s a (cf. H a d e r m a n n M isg u ich 1983. p. 14).
T h e tw o a n g e ls p a in t e d in m i n ia t u r e
at th e u p p e r c o r n e r s w ith th e i r c o v
e r e d h a n d s in a n a t t i t u d e o f p r a y e r ,
a n e l e m e n t th a t o c c u rs in o t h e r r e
p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e V irg in G l y k o
p h il o u s a (C h a tz i d a k is ( T h .) 1982.
no s. 6, 2 3 ), a r e also r e l a te d to this a s
p e c t o f th e c o m p o s it io n .
T h e ico n is in a v e ry g o o d s ta te of
p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d h as a g o ld b a c k
g r o u n d . T h e h a lo h a s a d e lic ately
incised flo ral d e c o r a t i o n , sim ila r to
t h a t in a n o t h e r icon o f th e V irgin
G l y k o p h i l o u s a in a p riv a te collectio n
in L o n d o n ( C h a tz i d a k is ( T h .) 1982,
no. 6 ). a n d in an icon o f th e V irgin
H o d e g e t r i a in th e B y z a n tin e M u
seum of A th en s (L overdos Codec
ti o n , A ff r e s c h i e ic o n e 1986, n o. 59)
T h e p r e s e n t icon h as a n u m b e r ol
f e a t u r e s in c o m m o n w ith th e s e tw o
th a t s u g g e s t th ey a re all th e w o rk ol
th e s a m e p a in t e r : th e excellent
te c h n i q u e r e f le c t e d in th e m o d e llin g

319) su g g e s ts that lliey s h o u l d In


a t t r i b u t e d , if n ot to the p in n lci him
self, at least to his w o r k s h o p
Bibliography. Fine Icons l W0. no (if, liji V
C hatzid ak is (T h .) 1982. no. V

N ( h

41

N ik o la o s L a m b o u d is:
T h e V ir g in E le o u sa
15th c e n tu r y
6 7 X 4 7 .5 cm
Athens. Private Collection

( l<JW>-jp.

4 0

T h e V ir g in G ly k o p h ilo u s a
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c en tu r y

o f th e flesh , in th e d r a p e r y a n d in th e
g o ld w e b b in g , a n d th e fine d ra w in g
o f th e tw o a n g e ls p a in t e d in m i n i a
tu r e . A c o m p a r i s o n o f th e s e icons
w ith th o s e o f th e V irg in o f th e P a s
sion p a i n t e d by A n d r e a s R itzo s
(C h a tz i d a k is ( T h . ) 1982, fig. pp . 318,

T h e V irgin is p o r t r a y e d in th e ty p e of
th e H o d e g e t r i a . h o ld i n g C h ris t in h e r
left a r m a n d le a n in g g en tly to w a r d s
t h e ch ild , w h ile he lifts his h e a d
to w a r d s his m o t h e r , in a c o m p o s it io n
o f m u t u a l t e n d e r n e s s a n d affectio n.
T h e r e a r e m i n i a t u r e p o r t r a it s o f th e
a r c h a n g e l s M ic h a e l a n d G a b r i e l in
t h e to p c o r n e r s . G o ld g r o u n d a n d
fine g o ld d e c o r a t i o n o n th e d re s s. A
d e li c a te p a t t e r n o f floral t r a c e r y is
s t ip p l e d o n t h e h a lo e s . T h e icon is o f
t h e s a m e ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e as th e
V irg in E l e o u s a in th e M o n a s t e r y o f
G o n i a in K is s a m o u , C r e t e , w hich
m a y be a t t r i b u t e d to A n d r e a s R itz o s
( B o r b o u d a k i s 1985, no. 17, pp.
126ff.), a n d o t h e r icon s also by R i
tz o s a n d h is circle ( C z e r w e n k a - P a p a d o p o u l o s 1984. p p . 203ff., figs. 1,
3-4, 6-8): it h a s all th e h a ll m a r k s o f a

C r e t a n m a s t e r p i e c e o f th e late l >lh
c e n t u r y , w ith s t r o n g ro o ts in 1nliu o
lo g a n a r t a n d e l e m e n t s o f W e s t e r n
se n s itiv ity in t h e m o d e llin g . O il the
f r a m e , at th e b o t t o m is th e signn
tu r e :
C n A P T lA T O Y . T h is is lit
o n ly k n o w n w o r k by this h it h e r t o
u n k n o w n p a i n t e r fr o m S p a r t a , w h o
p r o b a b l y w o r k e d in C r e te .
I In
fa m ily is k n o w n fr o m the N t h ecu
tu r y u n d e r th e n a m e L a m b o n d i o 1
( Z a k y t h i n o s 1975, pp . 9811
MM
114, 2 15 ), a n d th e 1 5 th - c e n lm v
sc r ib e
( M a l t .
L a m b o u d i s th e P e l o p o n n e s i a n ) w h o
w o r k e d in F lo r e n c e a n d f'cr rm a in
Ita ly ( L a m b r o s 1907, pp. I7(>fl / h
k y th i n o s 1975, p p . 215 an d 1 Ml) w n t
p r o b a b l y also a m e m b e r o f it
P rovenance. A cquired at S o lh efV s ( I'W M
B ibliography. S o thebys ( ;it;tlo^iir ol Iimh
L o n d o n 1984. no. 30. pp. I t I** (Ion *tu
tio n ). B yzantine A rt 1986. no I I 1', |>| I I I
116. A ffrcschi e icone I9H(, im , ||<
117-118.

42

N ik o la o s T z a fo u r is : V ir g in a n d C h ild
15th c e n tu r y
5 6 .5 X 4 5 cm; 1 0 6 X 8 5 cm (with frame)

Athens. P. K anellopoulos Collection

T h e V irg in is p o r t r a y e d in th e fa m il
ia r W e s t e r n ty p e o f th e M a d r e d ella
C o n s o l a z i o n e , as p a i n t e d by th e C r e
ta n artists o f t h e 15th c e n t u r y ( C h a
tz id a k is 1977 (1 ), p. 91). C h a r a c t e r
istic f e a t u r e s o f this ty p e in clu d e the
p la c in g o f th e child in a p o sitio n th at
p ro v i d e s a n e l e m e n t o f c o n l r a p
p o s t o . th e s p h e r e in his left h a n d , his

175

w estern-style shirt, tin Iminl


w ith pseudo-kulii d e i o i . i l t o n
the edges of the < i i h o li m i p l m i i o n
w orn by the Virgin innl iiIm n .ill
the I.ate G othic sI%< In w-lili h tin
tw o f i g u r e s are p niiH , d A i m
v*11
le a v e s a n d th e sy m lio li ol

iln

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sion is p a i n t e d o n tin i vt m nl t i n
icon, on p i r p i i n I
nil
g e s s o , a n d a I n t l u I n n fjCHimi In ; | "

tal l e l l i i N c a n lie n i m l i o u t it <i


b o tto m , u I v 111 (.< i.ifi I h e l l i i n n |li<
Inmotis I i'th i i ill i n \ t f # l n (*!}!*
N lk ohio1.
l/'ilo n ilM
Mi 1 1 1 ( -

N tC O l.O Z . A F U K I ( . . ) A D I ( . . ) O T U
B R I O . lie d a m a g e d a r e a a ft e r th e
w o rd / M l I III. w hich h a s s p a c e fo r
o nly tw o le tte r s , p r e s u m a b l y c o n
ta i n e d th e y e a r M D (1500) a n d th e
sm all s p ace a ft e r A D I will h a v e c o n
ta in e d th e (.late, sin ce th e n a m e of
tin m o n t h O c t o b e r c a n be r e c o g
nized in the w o r d O T U B R I O .
A c c o r d in g to d o c u m e n t s p r e s e r v e d
in the a rc h iv e s in V e n i c e ( C a t t a p a n
1972, pp. 202ff. C h a t z i d a k i s 1974
( I ) , p. 183), T z a f o u r i s lived a n d
w o r k e d in th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th
c e n tu r y , a n d w as n o lo n g e r alive in
1501. H e is k n o w n fr o m f o u r icons
b e a r i n g his s i g n a tu r e : an icon o f th e
A k r a T a p e in o s i s in V i e n n a (K re id lP a p a d o p o u l o s 1970, p. 605, pi. 39.
C h a tz i d a k is 1974 (1 ), p. 184); th e
B e tra y a l in th e M e t r o p o l i t a n M u
s e u m , N e w Y o r k ( W e h l e 1940, p. 1.
C h a tz i d a k is 1974 (1 ), p. 187); the L e
n in g r a d tr ip ty c h ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1974
(1), p p . 18 4 ff.); a n d th e icon o f
th e V irg in a n d C h ild in T rie s te
( B ia n c o F io rin 1983, p. 164, fig. 1).
All f o u r c o m b i n e I ta lia n f e a t u r e s
w ith th e e x p re s s iv e m e a n s o f 15thc e n tu r y
C retan
p a in tin g .
U n til

r e c e n t ly , w e h a d no in f o r m a t io n
a b o u t th e ic o n o g r a p h ic a n d stylistic
f e a t u r e s o f th e fifth icon by T z a f o u
ris d e p ic t in g th e V irgin w h ic h , a c
c o r d i n g to B e tt in i , w as o n c e sold
in V e n ic e (B e tt in i 1940, p. 72, no. 1.
C h a t z i d a k i s 1974 (1), p. 184). O n th e
b a c k it h a d a n in s c rip tio n id e n tic a l to
th e o n e o n t h e p r e s e n t icon . In th e
s p a c e b e t w e e n A D I an d O T U B R I O .
B e ttin i r e a d th e n u m b e r IV , w hich
w a s still p r e s e r v e d at th a t d a te . T h e
fact t h a t t h e in s c rip tio n is id e n tic a l in
w o r d in g m a k e s it c e rt a in th a t the
icon e x h i b i t e d h e r e is th e V en ic e
icon , w h ich s o m e h o w c a m e in to the
h a n d s o f th e A t h e n i a n c o lle c to r.
Sty listically, it b e lo n g s to th e well
know n school o f Italo-C retan p a in t
ings, a n d to a large g r o u p o f icons
p o r t r a y i n g th e V irg in a n d C h ild in
th e ty p e o f th e M a d r e della C o n s o la z io n e ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1 ), p. 91)
w h ich h a v e th e s a m e f e a t u r e s . T h is
icon n o w fu r n is h e s th e d e fin itiv e
s o l u ti o n to t h e p r o b l e m o f th e orig in s
a n d d a t e o f th is g ro u p .
Bibliography. B altoyanni 1986 (1). no. 10.
A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 62. pp. 107-108.

Ch. B.

4 3

T r ip ty c h
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
2 5 x 4 3 .5 cm (open); 25X 15 cm (closed)
London. Private Collection

T h e c e n tr a l p a n e l h a s a s c e n e o f the
V irgin a n d C h il d , in t h e ty p e o f th e
M a d r e d e ll a C o n s o l a z i o n e (cf. cat.
no. 42). O n th e in s id e o f th e left
w ing is d e p ic t e d th e E m b r a c i n g o f
P e te r a n d P a u l. T h e a p o s tle s are
p a in t e d full-len gth in an a u s t e r e style
o f B y z a n tin e o rig in s. T h e s u b j e c t,
w hich o c c u rs in th e p e r i o d b e fo r e the
fall o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e (K r e i d l- P a p a d o p o u l o s 1970, p p . 92ff. K reid lIii p a d o p o u lo s 1980-81. p p . 339ff.,
pis. 97 b, 9 8 a ), w as r e p e a t e d by C r e
tan p a in t e r s in th e 15th c e n tu r y , as in
th e / . a k y n t h o s icon by A n g e l o s , n o w
lost ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1), n o te s 2,
8 ), a n d th e icon in th e M o n a s t e r y o f
-

176

th e H o d e g e t r i a in C r e t e (B y z a n ti n e
A r t 1986, no. 104); it is also f o u n d in
th e 16th c e n t u r y , in an icon in th e
G r e a t L a v r a o n M o u n t A t h o s (B ab ic - C h a t z id a k i s 1983, fig. p. 336) an d
a n o t h e r in l o a n n i n a
( B y z a n ti n e
A r t 1986. n o . 145). In th e s e , th e p o s
t u r e s o f th e fig u re s, th e t r e a t m e n t o f
th e d r a p e r y , a n d e v e n th e c o lo u r s,
a re fa ith fu l r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f th o s e in
th e s c e n e o n t h e trip ty ch . T h e tw o
a p o s t le s s e e m to h av e b e e n a p a r t ic
u larly p o p u l a r s u b j e c t, w hich was
given d e fin itiv e fo r m in this p e rio d
a n d is f o u n d in v a ri a ti o n s like th ose
o n th e r o u n d ico n in th e K rim b a s
C o ll e c ti o n ( C h a tz i d a k is ( N . ) 1983,
no. 15, p. 2 8 ), a n d o n th e f r a m e o f an
icon by N i k o l a o s R itz o s in Sariije
vo ( B a b i c - C h a t z i d a k i s 1983, fig. p.
321). T h e re v e r s e o f this p a n e l h as n
fu ll-le n g th f r o n ta l p o r t r a i t o f St

G e o r g e w e a r i n g m ilita r y d re s s , in
a c c o r d a n c e w ith 1 5 th - c e n tu r y C r e t a n
ic o n o g r a p h y , as also s e e n in an icon
in th e f o r m e r L i c h a c h e v C o lle c tio n
(F e lic e t ti - L ie b e n f e l s 1956. pi. 108b).
O n t h e in side o f th e rig h t w in g a re
d e p i c t e d tw o a n o n y m o u s C a th o lic
s a in ts , b e a r d l e s s , w ith s h o r t h a ir a n d
to n s u r e . T h e y a r e w e a r in g rich red
s t ic h a ri a w ith g o ld e m b r o i d e r y , a n d
ea c h is h o ld i n g a b o o k in his left
h a n d ; in th e righ t h a n d , o n e figure
h o ld s a c e n s e r a n d th e o t h e r a b a n
n e r. T h e style a n d th e s u b j e c t e c h o
th e I ta lia n c h a r a c t e r o f th e s c e n e on
th e c e n tr a l p a n e l. T h e g e n e r a l f e a
tu r e s , a n d p a r t ic u l a r ly th e re la x e d
p o s t u r e o f t h e s a in t o n th e right
recall th e fig u re o f th e d e a c o n S t e
p h e n o n a p a n e l o f th e p o ly p ty c h by
L o r e n z o V e n e z i a n o in V e n ic e (1371)
( K a ft a l 1978, fig. 1227) H e is n o n e
th e le s s to b e id e n tif ie d w ith St.
D a n ie l o f P a d u a , w h o is f r e q u e n t l y
p o r t r a y e d h o ld i n g a l a b a r u m (K a fta l
1978, p p . 2 5 4 f f ., n o. 80. fig. 304).
T h e o t h e r d e a c o n is p r o b a b l y to be
id e n tif ie d w ith e i t h e r St. S t e p h e n o r
St. L a u r e n c e (K a fta l 1978, pp.
9 4 6 ff., no. 283 . p p . 587ff., fig. 741).
T h e b a c k o f t h e rig h t leaf is
d e c o r a t e d w ith a cro s s o n a s t e p p e d
p lin th p a i n t e d in g o ld o n a b a c k
g r o u n d c o v e r e d w ith flo ral scrolls.
B e t w e e n th e a r m s o f th e cro s s are
th e a b b r e v i a t i o n s IC XC NK ('J e s u s
C h r is t C o n q u e r s " ) , X ( T h e
L ig h t o f C h ris t S h in e s o n A l l ') , T
( T h e P lace o f t h e Skull is P a ra d is e
N o w ') . S im ila r d e li c a te d e c o r a t i o n is
t o b e f o u n d o n a tr ip ty c h in R a v e n n a

a t t r i b u t e d to a iMli i Vein
t i a n - F e r a r r e s e sc h o o l (Piivim 197
p. 93, n o . 154), w inch is e x m l l y 11s a m e s h a p e as this m u O tliii I n p
ty ch s s h a p e d like this, with ii Mill lop
a n d b a s e , in clu d e a C r e t a n w o ik
fr o m th e s a m e p e r i o d in a L o n d o n
co lle c tio n ( B y z a n ti n e G r e e k am i
R u s s ia n Ico n s 1979, p. 43, no. 29)
a n d a tr ip ty c h in th e V a tic a n (H etlini
1933. pi. X X I I ) .
T h is tr ip t y c h r e p r e s e n t s th e tw o pal
allel styles a d o p t e d by C r e t a n painl
e r s in th e 15th c e n tu r y , w ith th e Ita
lian m a n n e r o n th e c e n tr a l p a n e l m d
th e rig h t w in g , a n d tr a d it io n a l ( le
ta n style o n b o th sides o f th e Ii II
w ing. T h e carefu l e x e c u tio n o f llie
flesh a n d d r a p e r y , th e brillian ce ol
t h e re d in th e c lo t h e s , an d the c o m b i
n a ti o n o f b r o w n a n d b rick red in llie
h i m a t i a o f P e t e r a n d P a u l, indii ite
t h a t all t h e s e sc e n e s w'ere th e w o rk ol
t h e s a m e p a i n t e r , w h o se talen t lot
d r a w i n g a n d c o lo u r recalls th e a il ol
N ik o la o s T z a fo u ri s . T h e typo lo gical
a n d stylistic re s e m b la n c e o f l In
M a d r e d e ll a C o n s o la z i o n e in I In
c e n t r a l p a n e l to th e sig ned icons bv
T z a f o u r i s in T r ie s te (B ia n c o l io n n
1983) a n d th e K a n e llo p o u l o s Colit
tion ( A ffr e s c h i e ico ne 1986, n o < )
f u r t h e r s u p p o r t th e a tt r i b u ti o n ol tin
tr ip ty c h to th e C r e t a n p a in tc i (< lin
tz id a k is 1974 (1 ), pp . 1X3 IHH il
B ia n c o F io r in 1983. p. 169)

Bibliography. Fine Icons 1981. no Mfi < IntUI


d akis (T h .) 1982. no. 22. ( /hlnkU |N I
1983, no. 38. pp. -4-4-46.
N i h

4 4

N ik o la o s T z a fo u r is (?):
T h e A k r a T a p e in o s is

14th

a n ti

1981, pp .

15th

cen lu iu

I I Kit )

.............

1Is n I nl t or i h i p

S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y

I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g is e l e n i n n l m i l \ f t m i i

77X 5 6 .5 cm

t h e e x t e n d e d ai m s , n m l 11* p> i >|" 1

Patm os, Chora. M onastery of Zoodochos


Pigi

tive

in

tin

sarcoplui^u

c o p i e d by I lu-itphaii
tery of A napalvi

T h is B y z a n ti n e s u b j e c t is h e r e r e n
d e r e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith W e s t e r n
m o d e l s , in th e ty p e th a t w as f o r m u
la t e d in Italy , a n d m o r e specifically
in F l o r e n c e a n d V e n ic e , d u r i n g Ihi
177

dakis

19 7 4 ( I ). |>

bi l l a l s o f r o m

III

s i,f o i l W llll ( m l l l l
I In ' l o p o l I Ii

nm iil

In l i n M

(I

>I
. |

n m l

11i

"

Imki
' \

o l

Hi

ipllm l l i i l l e l -

i ii . I * | i l l l '

III llllll l ul l I M III lu ll lin

- >1 ( ! 1

H i :! Itn :il

of th e torsi), th e r e n d e r in g o f the
flesh in soft m o n o c h r o m e to n e s , the
w o n d e r f u l p re c isio n in th e incised
d esig n of th e h a lo , a n d th e m i n u te
d e ta il in th e d r a w in g o f th e h a ir a n d
th e c ro w n o f th o r n s ; all th e s e are
c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f th e m i n ia t u r e p a i n t
ing ol th e C r e t a n p a i n t e r N ik o la o s
/a f o u r i s ( a t t e s t e d 1489-1500), to
w h o m th e icon is a t t r i b u t e d . It h a s a

p a r t ic u l a r ly close affinity w ith th e


s i g n e d w o r k by him in V i e n n a
( K r e i d l - P a p a d o p o u l o s 1970. p. 30,
fig. 39).
Conservation. S. Baltoyannis (1964).
B ibliography. Byzantine A rl 1964. no. 213. p.
260. C hatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 40. pp. S9ff..
pis. 33 and 101. Byzantine A rl 19S6. no. 111.
pp. 111. 112. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 63.
pp. 108-109.

M. C h.

45

P ie ta
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 1 5 t h c e n t u r
7 1 X 58 cm
Athens. Benaki M useum , 3050

E g g t e m p e r a o n w o o d . T h e V irg in is
sittin g o n a ro c k a n d h o ld in g th e
b o d y o f C h r is t o n h e r k n e e s . T h e
s u b j e c t is Ita lia n in o rig in (cf. th e
P ie t a by G i o v a n n i B ellini in V e n ic e )
a n d id e n tic a l v e rs io n s o f it a r e f o u n d
in a g r o u p o f C r e t a n icons fr o m th e
s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e 15th c e n t u r y (icon
by A n d r e a s P a v ia s in R o s s a n o , icons
in th e P. K a n e l l o p o u l o s (B a lt o y a n n i
1986 (1), no. 8) a n d D. E c o n o m o
p o u lo s C o ll e c ti o n s (B a lt o y a n n i 1986
(2 ), pis. 16-17), ico n fo r m e r l y in th e
C h u r c h o f S a n t a M a r ia d e lla M iser ic o rd ia in V e n ic e , a n d o t h e r icons in
S p lit, S a r a j e v o , in th e N i k o l e n k o
G a lle r y ( l e o n e s 1975, fig. 9) a n d
e l s e w h e r e ) . T h e C r e t a n artist has
b o r r o w e d n o t o n ly th e o v e ra ll
c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t also a n u m b e r o f
ic o n o g r a p h ic d e ta i ls fr o m V e n e tia n
p a in t in g b o t h o f th e 14th c e n tu r y (cf.
th e a t t i t u d e o f th e V irg i n 's h e a d , a n d
th e h e a d d r e s s c o v e ri n g h e r h a ir a n d
th r o a t in a c o m p o s it io n by P a o lo
V e n e z i a n o d e d i c a t e d to t h e D o g e Fr.
D a n d o l o in 1339. n o w in V e n ic e )
(R izzi 1972) a n d o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
(cf. th e b a r e ro c k in th e T r a n s f ig u
r a tio n by G i o v a n n i B ellin i in th e
C o r r e r M u s e u m in V e n ic e a n d th e
sim ila r d e ta il in th e P r a y e r in
G c l h s e m a n e by A n d r e a M a n t e g n a in
th e N a tio n a l G a l l e r y in L o n d o n ) .
I he icon has a n u m b e r o f ic o n o g r a
p h ic a n d stylistic f e a t u r e s in c o m m o n
w ith th e A k r a T a p e in o s i s by N i k o

178

laos T z a f o u r i s (s e c o n d h a lf o f the
15th c e n t u r y ) in V i e n n a , a n d is p r o b
ab ly to be a t t r i b u t e d to th e s a m e
p a in t e r .
T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s MP . in G r e e k ,
d o n o t p ro v id e a n a n s w e r to th e
q u e s t io n o f th e n a tio n a lity o f th e c u s
t o m e r f o r w h o m th e icon w as i n t e n d
e d , sin ce w e k n o w o f an icon w ith a
s u b j e c t t a k e n fr o m Italian p a in t in g ,
s u i ta b l e fo r a C a th o l ic c u s t o m e r ,
w h ic h h a s a G r e e k in s c rip tio n (cf.
A ffre s c h i e ico n e 1986, no. 75). It
t h u s b e l o n g e d e it h e r to a C a th o l ic
c u s t o m e r o f G r e e k e d u c a t i o n , o r to
a n O r t h o d o x w ith W e s t e r n tastes.
T h e p r o b l e m o f th e c u s t o m e r s for
w h o m icon s in th e G r e e k m a n n e r
a n d in th e Italian m a n n e r w e re
i n t e n d e d is th u s a c o m p l e x o n e th at
n e e d s to be c o n s i d e r e d in th e light o f
a w ide v a r i e ty o f ev id e n c e .
C onservation. K. M ilanou (19X2).
Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1973. pp. fiSKff..
figs. 52-53. C hatzidakis 1974 (2). pp. 10..
fig. 81. P rijatclj 1974. pp. 55ff. Chatzidakis
(N .) 19X3. no. 45. p. 52. A ffrcschi c iconc
19X6. no. 65. pp. 11(1-111.
. V.

4 6

M a d r e d e lla C o n so la z io n e
w ith S t. F ra n cis
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
6 0 x 5 2
cm
Athens. Byzantine M useum , T. 233

A few sm all p ie c e s o f th e w o o d p a n e l
a n d s o m e p a in t at th e e d g e s a re m iss
ing. G e s s o o n c a n v a s. G o ld g r o u n d
a n d h a lo e s , th e l a t te r d e c o r a t e d in a
p o in tille t e c h n i q u e w ith a stylized
floral d esign .
T h e V irg in is d e p i c t e d in th e well
k n o w n I ta lia n ty p e o f th e M a d r e
d e lla C o n s o l a z i o n e as r e n d e r e d by
t h e C r e t a n p a i n t e r s o f th e 15th c e n
tu r y (cf. c a t. no . 4 2 ), h o ld in g C h ris t
in h e r rig ht a r m ; th e l a t te r is m a k i n g
a b e n e d i c t i o n a n d h o ld i n g t h e s p h e r e
o f th e w o rld in his left h a n d . T o his
left is a fu ll-len g th p o r t r a i t o f St.
F ra n c is o f A ssisi, w ith th e s t ig m a ta ,
o n a s m a ll e r scale. H e is facin g th e
V irgin a n d C h ild , a n d h o ld s a cro ss
in his left h a n d a n d a clo sed bible in
his rig ht. T h e p o s itio n o f th e sa in t,
his gaze d ir e c te d t o w a r d s C h ris t, a n d
th e cro s s th a t he is h o ld in g , suggest
w ith a s u b tle s y m b o lis m th e m iracle
o f th e s t ig m a ta fr o m th e w o u n d s of
th e c ru c ified C h ris t th a t St. F ran cis
r e c e i v e d in a vision (th e th e m e is
f o u n d in I t a l o - C r e t a n icons o f th e
15th c e n t u r y , cf. P a v a n 1979. n o.
157, p. 95, C h a t z i d a k i s ( N .) 1983,
n o. 37, p. 44) a n d a n ti c ip a t e s th e f u t
u r e su ffe rin g o f Je s u s .
T h e p r e s e n c e o f th e sain t o f A ssisi,
w h o d o e s n o t a p p e a r in o t h e r Italo C r e t a n ico n s o f th e M a d r e d e lla C o n
so l a z io n e , a n d th e e s t a b li s h e d fact
t h a t th e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m icon
c a m e fr o m C r e t e , m a k e it ve ry p r o b
a b le th a t it e i t h e r a d o r n e d a c h u r c h
o f th e F r a n c i s c a n s o n th e islan d , o r
w a s o w n e d by a m e m b e r o f th e
V e n e t i a n o r C r e t a n nobility.
T h e ty p e o f th e M a d r e della C o n s o
la z io n e w as p a r t ic u l a r ly p o p u l a r in
C r e t a n p a in t in g a n d m et the r e
q u i r e m e n t s o f b o th C a th o l ic a n d

I7>>

O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s until tlu I /tli


c e n tu r y . T h is is a t t e s t e d by th e uiclii
val s o u r c e s , w h ich re f e r to c o u n t li ,s
ic o n s o f th e V irg in p a in t e d a /<; ,
lia n a , a n d by th e large n u m b e r ol
t h e m th a t su rv iv es in G r e e c e an d
e ls ew 'h e re, a m o n g s t w h ich a re two
s i g n e d icons by i m p o r t a n t I7 th -cen
tu r y a rtists. E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (in
a p r i v a te c o lle c tio n in A t h e n s , un
p u b l i s h e d ) a n d V ic to r (in th e Moil
a s t e r y o f A y io i T h e o d o r o i o n Kei
k y r a , u n p u b li s h e d ) .
T h e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m ico n, o n e ol
t h e fin e st a n d e a rl ie s t, s t a n d s out
fr o m t h o s e c o n t e m p o r a r y w ith it loi
its sp iritu a lity a n d th e se v e r e c lu J
a c t e r o f th e fig ures. Its typ olo gic al
f e a t u r e s a r e a k in to th o s e ol tin
M a d r e d e lla C o n s o la z i o n e by N ik o
laos T z a f o u r i s , k n o w n fr o m eailic i
w r it te n s o u r c e s , w h ich w as re cen t
ly d i s c o v e r e d by C h . B a lt o y a n n i ill
th e P. K a n e l l o p o u l o s C o lle c tio n in
A t h e n s (cf. cat. n o . 4 2 ), a n d also to
s im ila r icon o f th e V irgin sign ed Us
N i k o l a o s T z a f o u r i s , re c e n tly di
c o v e r e d in a p ri v a te c o llectio n in I
e s te (B ia n c o F io rin 1983. p p Id til
fig. 1).
N o t a b l e f e a t u r e s of the icon in. hide
t h e e x c e p t io n a ll y fine tc chn n|iii' mid
t h e m a t u r e use o f colon* t In I u>ii
o f C h r is t w ith his red liin iallo n. t In
p a r t ia l lightin g o f th e flesh <>
to t h a t o f th e V irgin in III t w o li Ol
by T z a f o u r i s ; th e soil I ill C io ij l ll
d r a p e r y , stro n g ly lit ill the pi'uloi nl
th e fo ld s o f th e m a p h o i i o n w m fl )n
th e V irg in ; th e soli slvli . d fnld*
c r o w n in g h e r la c e , n mi tin l i h t h
V irg in a n d in a n o lh i I I r o n l>\ l i
fouris in Vii mill ( Ki t nil I*|n ln |.....
los 1970, pp. (> I a n d 1 I
fig. 39): a n d I lit pt'i hi I i i! . n nl
th e line go ld di o i i i i i m ili'l.ill
lilt c h ild 's sliu i I In \ |iln ill ilm
li o n , th e liiloi'i a n d I iiiiu l
Icallii'i I>i1111id bllili
l a k c n tojiv tin i III
* l\lM |i
n ul
ly pologK nl li ill in < nl llil" li mi un

gest a ilatc in th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e
15th c e n t u r y , a n d an a tt r i b u ti o n to
th e w o r k s h o p o f N ik o la o s T z a f o u r i s ,
t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t to the h a n d o f
th e artist h im s e lf (cf. B ia n c o F io rin
I9N3, p. 167, fig. 8 , w h o e r r o n e o u s l y
id en tifie s th e s a in t w ith St. A n t h o n y
of Padua).

Provenance. C rete. D onated by I. F rangoudis


in 1897 to the C hristian A rchaeological So
ciety (X A E 2338).
C onservation. T h. Papageorgiou (1974). A.
Sim andoni (1986).
B ibliography. C hatzidakis 1977 (2). p. 688,
fig. 49. B ianco Fiorin 1983. p. 167. fig. 8.
A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 67. pp. 113-115.
M . A .-P .

4 7

T h e D o r m itio n o f S t. S a b b a s
15th c e n tu r y
6 7 x 5 7 cm
Lelkas. Collection in the Public Library

A m u lti-fig u ra l c o m p o s it io n w ith
sc c n e s f r o m t h e life o f th e h e r m it s in
th e w ild e r n e s s . It follo w s th e ty p e o f
th e D o r m i t i o n o f E p h r a i m th e S y
ria n . w h ic h o c c u rs in a large n u m b e r
of icons f r o m th e 15th c e n tu r y . A

4 8

S a n c tu a r y D o o r s , r ig h t le a f
V ir g in o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n , S S B asil
a n d N ic h o la s
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
123X 49 cm
Patm os. M onastery o f St. John the
T heologian, New Sacristy

T h is s a n c t u a r y d o o r is a n o t h e r e x a m
ple (cf. c at. nos. 38 a n d 39) o f C r e t a n
w o o d - c a r v i n g w ith p u r e V e n e t i a n
L a te G o t h i c tr a c e r y a n d floral
m o tifs. A t th e t o p , th e V irgin sittin g
in fr o n t o f a G o t h i c b u ild in g is r e n
d e r e d in th e I t a l o - C r e t a n m a n n e r ,
w h ile the fig u re s o f SS B asil a n d
N ic h o la s at th e b o t t o m h ave a less
r e f in e d sty le , in w h ich t h e r e a re n o
Italian in flu en ce s.

Provenance. T he C hurch o f Christ D im archias


or M cgalis Portas in C h o ra. Patm os.
( om crvation. Ph. Z achariou (1977). F. G alakou ( 1987).
Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 38,
pp. 87IT.. pi. A and pp. 98-99 Byzantine A rt
1986. no 113. pp. 112. 114-115. Affreschi c
iconc 1986. no. 68. pp 115. 116.
M . Ch.

180

ty p ical e x a m p l e o f C r e t a n p a in tin g
t h a t strictly follow s th e tr a d it io n a l
style.

Provenance. Lcfkas.
C onservation. F. A sim akou (1967).
Bibliography. C hatzinikolaou 1966, p. 371.
C hatzidiikis 1974 (1). pp. 190ff. Byzantine A rt
1986. no. 130. p. 128. Affrcschi c iconc 1986.
no. 86. pp. 134. 136.

N. T.

49
C h r ist a n d th e S a m a r ita n W o m a n
L a st q u a r te r o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
3 8 .5 x 4 8 cm
Athens. K anellopoulos M useum

C h ris t is s e a t e d b e f o r e a well in th e
f o r e g r o u n d , w ith th e S a m a r i t a n
w o m a n s t a n d i n g o p p o s i te him . T h e
l a n d s c a p e is filled w ith p i c t u r e s q u e
e p i s o d e s set in d if fe re n t p la n e s (fo r
t h e i c o n o g r a p h y , cf. M ille t 1916, pp .
6U2ff.). O n th e left tw o g r o u p s o f
a p o s t l e s a r e w a lk in g t o w a r d s C h rist.
O n th e right th e r e is a g r o u p o f p e o
ple g a t h e r e d b e f o r e th e g a te of th e
city w h ich h a s th e in s c rip tio n S A M A T I E . T h e r e is a s im ila r s c e n e on th e
left d e p ic t in g th e city o f J e r u s a l e m ,
w ith th e in s c rip tio n J E R U S A L E M .
T h e m o n k s o n th e rig ht a n d m a n y o f
th e o t h e r fig ures a r e p a i n t e d o n a
sm all scale, w ith g r e a t a t t e n t i o n to
d e ta il (su ch as th e tw o fig u res in the
m i d d l e g r o u n d w a lk in g t o w a r d s a
sm all b u ild in g on a hill, a n d th e m a n
d i s m o u n t i n g fr o m his h o rs e b e h in d
th e city o n th e rig h t). D e e r a n d o t h

e r a n im a ls can be se e n s c a n n e d
a m o n g s t th e tr e e s a n d h ushe s.
T h e c o m p o s it io n is in f lu e n c e d by
14th- a n d 1 5 th -c e n tu ry I u scan p.mil
ing: th e t r a d it io n a l gold b a c k g r o u n d
h as b e e n r e p l a c e d by a la n d s c a p e
w ith b lu e sky a n d sm all c l o d s in Ilu
d i s ta n c e , as f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in tin
p a i n t i n g o f G e n til e d a F a b r i a n o ; a n d
th e cities recall th o s e in th e wall
p a in t in g s o f A m b r o g i o L o r c n / c l l i
(C a rli 1957, pis. 72, 83). T h e flaw
in g o f th e faces in d i c a te s a k n o w
le d g e o f P a l a e o l o g a n p a in t in g ; but
th e c o m b i n a t i o n o f this w ith ta m iliai
ity w ith Ita lia n a rt su g g ests that
th e icon w as p a i n t e d in th e m ix ed
c u lt u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f 1 5th-ccnlu
ry C r e t e . T h is is a p a in t in g o f tin
h ig h e s t qu ality .
Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1974 ( I) , |>l
X X X IV . C hatzidakis 1974 (2). p. 1 13. . Hll
C hatzidiikis (Th ) 1982. no. 19. C h a t/itln k r
(N .) 1983. no. 48. p. 55. Byzantine A ll I'JMO
no. 112. pp. 112. 113. A ffrcschi e icone, no
66. pp. 112-113.
N. ( li

5 0

T h e E n tr y in to J e r u sa le m
L a st q u a r te r o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
4 9 .1 X 48.3 cm
Athens. P. K anellopoulos Collection

T h e c o m p o s it io n is d iv id e d in to tw o
e q u a lly b a l a n c e d p a r t s by a tall tr e e
w h ic h rises o u ts id e th e w alls o f J e r u
s a l e m . C h r is t, th e m a in fig u re , is
s h o w n o n th e left, sittin g o n th e ass
a n d m o v i n g to th e rig h t, a c c o m
p a n i e d by th e tw e lv e a p o s t le s in a
com pact group. T he background
co n sists o f a r o c k y l a n d s c a p e , in
w hich is set a d e p ic t io n o f a s m a lle r
w a lle d city; f r o m it a re d e p a r t i n g a
n u m b e r o f fig u re s p a i n t e d in m i n ia
t u r e , o n e o f t h e m m o u n t e d o n a w h ite
h o r s e . O n th e rig ht o f th e p a n e l rise
th e w alls of J e r u s a l e m , w ith th e d if
fe r e n t b u ild in g s pre cisely d ra w n .
B e f o r e th e w alls o f th e city, tw o
d e n s e g r o u p s o f Je w s a p p e a r Irom
INI

tw o g a te s to m e e t C h r i s t , >11it' I
sm all fig u re s a r e le a n in g mil n v ri I In
wall. Y o u n g ch ild re n a n s i a l l c i d
t h r o u g h o u t th e c o m p o s it io n
n
g a g e d in lively activities s o n n mi
c li m b i n g tr e e s to cut pa lm l> mu In
o t h e r s a re s p r e a d in g th e n i Im ln >>
th e g r o u n d , a n d at tin liollon i *In i
still a r e w re stlin g a n d pliivinji mi >
hill in fr o n t ol a I In i
co w s in fro nt ol this lotinln ln nml
t h r e e m o r e o n a low plait' ui il I In
right a d d a bueolii rlt lilt ill I III
s c e n e w hic h is noi | it I til I In liinll
tio n a l ic o n o g r a p h y I hi unlui all m
m a n n e r in w hich 11it s itn
iin n .i
recalls w in k s l i m n li t t|tin.......... .....
(Beicnson
'arbitrary

IVfiK

be cinnpiu
animal,
111r

11p

in

l>\

i
, n

1. 1
iti

I w i t h lltitl n l Hi

i hul

( ielan m m
i le f

II

in l u s l o n i n l l n
m hiilni
i nl l i i m

11 ill

tnlni -

il i n J i l l ; n

11 <11it 11 |mlM|]Hj> I*

d a k is 1974 ( I ) , pp. 203-204). T h is


ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e o f th e E n t r y in to
J e r u s a l e m w as p o p u l a r in C r e t a n
p a in t in g , as w a s th e ty p e f o u n d in a
n u m b e r o f o t h e r icon s (cf. C h a t z i d a
kis ( N .) 1983, n o . 28. V o k o t o p o u l o s
1978-79, pis. 116, 117, 121). It also
o c c u rs in th e 1 5 th - c e n tu r y wall p a i n t
ings al S k l a v e r o c h o r i , a n d in an icon
in th e M o n a s t e r y o f D io n v s io s fr o m
111* s a m e p e r i o d (C h a tz i d a k is 1969
70. figs. 122, 130).
I'he i c o n o g r a p h ic m o d e l f o r th e
c o m p o s it io n is t o b e so u g h t in Misira , in th e w all p a in tin g s o f th e
C h u r c h o f th e P e r i b l e p t o s , a n d p a r
ticu larly t h a t o f th e P a n t a n a s s a
(1430) ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1981, figs. 52,
67, 68). C lo s e s im ilarities ca n be
d e t e c t e d in th e n a r r a t i v e a sp e c t o f
th e c o m p o s i t i o n , th e v e ry ro ck y
l a n d s c a p e , a n d th e g ra p h ic d etails o f
th e e p is o d e s w ith c h il d r e n , a m o n g s t
w h ic h is th e sp in a rio (th e b o y r e m o v
ing a t h o r n f r o m his fo o t) (M o u rik i
1970-72, p p . 5 8 f f . , pis. 23 a-b). T h e
s im ila ritie s e x t e n d to o t h e r details,
like th e m i n i a t u r e fig u re s o f w o m e n

le a n in g o u t fr o m th e w alls o f J e r u
s a l e m , a n d th e fo r m o f th e sp rin g.
F in a lly ,
th e
large
num ber
of
c lassicizing m a s k -m o t if s e x e c u t e d in
g risaille o n t h e b u ildin gs is a n o t h e r
f e a t u r e o f th e p a in t in g o f th e P a n t a
n ass a ( M o u r i k i 1980-81) th a t is also
f o u n d in t h e E n t r y into J e r u s a l e m .
T h e o b v i o u s links b e t w e e n th is icon
a n d its m o d e l in th e P a n ta n a s s a
illu s tra te j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d w as
C onstan tin o p o litan m odel am ongst
th e le a d i n g p a in t e r s w o r k i n g in d if
f e r e n t p a r t s o f G r e e c e in th e 15th
c e n tu r y .
T h e c o m p o s it io n o f th e icon is m o r e
strictly o r g a n i z e d , a n d th e g r o u p s of
a p o s t le s a r e t r e a t e d in a m o r e
c o m p a c t w a y ; th e r e n d e r i n g o f th e
d e ta ils o f th e h u m a n figu res a n d o f
th e b u ild in g s reflects th e a c a d e m ic
c h a r a c t e r o f C r e t a n icon s p r o d u c e d
in t h e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y .
B ibliography. C hatzidakis 1969-70. p. 325, fig.
129. C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982.no. 11 C h atzid a
kis (N .) 1983. no. 27. Affrcschi c iconc 1986,
no. 82. pp. 132. 133.

N. Ch.

51

T h e M ir a c le at C h o n a e
E n d o f th e 15th c en tu r y
37X 30 cm
K ephallonia, Lixouri. lakovatios Library

T h e ico n d e p ic t s th e m iracle o f th e
A r c h a n g e l M ic h a e l at C h o n a e , a
s u b j e c t a lr e a d y k n o w n fr o m th e
M e n o l o g i o n ' o f B asil (c. 980).
M ic h a e l is u sin g a p o le to d iv e r t th e
w a te r s o f th e riv er th a t h a d b e e n
t u r n e d to t h r e a t e n his c h u rc h by evil
p a g a n s ( H e l l e n i z o n t e s -). T h e m o n k
A r c h i p p o s is p o r t r a y e d o n a s m a lle r
scale at th e rig h t, b o w in g in an a tt i
tu d e o f p ra y e r , in g r a t it u d e fo r th e
in t e r v e n t io n by th e A r c h a n g e l. E a c h
ol the tw o b a l a n c e d fig u res is set
b e f o r e a s o a r in g m o u n t a i n p e a k . A n
im p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f th e ic o n o g r a
p hy is th e d o m e d c h u rc h a n d th e
b u ild in g w ith a p itc h e d r o o f n e x t to
il; this is lo b e fo u n d in an icon in the
I o v e r d o s C o ll e c ti o n in th e B y z a n
tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s , p r o b a b l y

52
T h e S e v e n S le e p e r s o f E p h eso s
c . 1500
42 .5 X 3 4 .5 cm
Athens. City o f Athens M useum

T h e S e v e n S le e p e r s o f E p h e s o s a re
d e p ic t e d insid e a cav e th a t t a k e s u p
th e e n ti r e s u r fa c e o f th e ico n , lea vin g
o n ly a sm all a r e a o f g o ld b a c k
g r o u n d . T h e i r p o s t u r e s recall th o s e
o f th e a p o s t le s in th e tr a d it io n a l
ic o n o g r a p h y o f th e P r a y e r in G e t h s e m a n e (M ille t 1916. pp. 654ff., figs.
65 9-6 62 ), as fo r e x a m p l e in th e
C h u r c h o f A y io s Io a n n i s K o u d o u m a s in C r e t e ( B o u g r a t 1982, fig. 27).
T h e s a m e s u b j e c t , well k n o w n in
B y z a n ti n e p a in t in g (cf. th e V a tic a n
'M e n o l o g i o n ' o f Basil I I ), is also
f o u n d in 15th- a n d 1 6 th -c e n tu ry
W estern
e n g ra v i n g s
( M a s s ig n o n
1961. p p . 12 ff.. 2 0 f f ., pis. V I, 1. V I I .
1-5). a n d in 1 5 th - c e n tu r y C r e t a n
icon s (cf. an icon fr o m S inai. M a s s i
g n o n 1961, pi. V I I , 2). It also o c c u rs
in th e w all p a in t in g s by T h e o p h a n e s

in t h e re f e c to r y o f th e Cireui I tivm
(M ille t 1927, pi. 147, 2) a n d in I Hi
a n d 1 8 th - c e n tu r y icons in tin Iten nk i
M u s e u m a n d th e L o v e r d o s C ol
le c tio n .
T h e ico n is th e w o r k o f a m a j o r ( t
ta n p a i n t e r ; th e d r a w in g is u n u su a lly
p re c is e a n d th e p a i n t e r has a rau
s e n s e o f c o lo u r . P a r t ic u l a r ly s trik in g
is th e tr a n s l u c e n t q u ality o f the w hite
a n d b lu e - g r e y t o n e s , a n d th e bo ld
c o m b i n a t i o n s o f d if fe re n t h u e s ol
r e d . T h e sm all b a s k e t o f olives h a n g
ing in t h e cave is well m o d e l le d
d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t th e artist w a s
f a m il ia r w ith I ta lia n p a in tin g . It m a y
b e s u g g e s te d th a t th e icon is to be
d a t e d to c. 1500. O n th e r e v e r se is a
cro s s s t a n d in g o n a s t e p p e d plm lli
p a i n t e d at a la t e r d a t e (1639).
Conservation. S. Stasinopoulos.
B ibliography. C hatzidakis (T h .) 1982, no M
C h atzid ak is (N .) 1983. no. 35. p. 42 lly/m i
tine A rt 1986. no. 129. pp. 126-127 A lin hi
e iconc 1986. no. 85, pp. 134. 135.

N. <

5 3

f r o m t h e 16th c e n tu r y (X y n g o p o u lo s
1959, p p . 26ff., pi. 7. C h a tz i d a k is
1977 (1 ). p p . 7 I f f . . pi. 20). T h e icon
fo llo w s a P a la e o l o g a n m o d e l , b u t has
lost th e s e n s e o f d r a m a t h a t is a f e a
t u r e o f th e s e sc en es (cf. th e icon of
t h e G r e e k O r t h o d o x P a t r i a r c h a t e in
J e r u s a l e m ( C h a tz i d a k is 1965 (2), p.
X X X I I I , fig. 69). T h e b a la n c e d
c o m p o s i t i o n in th e p r e s e n t w o r k , th e
r e s t r a i n t o f th e figures a n d th e p r o
n o u n c e d classicizing g ra c e o f th e
a r c h a n g e l all p o in t to th e w o r k s h o p s
o f C r e t e in th e 15th c e n tu r y . M o r e
spe cific ally , th e g e o m e t r i c t r e a t m e n t
o f th e d r a p e r y , w ith its slightly s c u l p
tu r a l q u a li ty , th e rich r a n g e o f d e l
icate c o lo u r s a n d the soft m o d e llin g
o f th e h a n d s a n d faces su g g e st th at
t h e icon w a s th e w o rk o f an out
s t a n d i n g late 1 5 th -cen tu ry artist.
B ibliography. K onom os 1966. p. 15. fig. 14
V o kotopoulos 1969. p. 285. Byzantine A il
19X6. no. 127. pp. 12-1. 126. Affrcschi c iconc
1986. no. 84. pp. 132-133. 135.

D l<

S a n c tu a r y D o o r s
A n n u n c ia tio n a n d S a in ts
15th c e n tu r y
142X78 cm
A thens. Byzantine M useum , T. 737

T h is is th e o rig in a l s c e n e , r e v e a l e d in
1980 in th e l a b o r a t o r y o f th e B y z a n
tin e M u s e u m by th e r e m o v a l o f th e
m o r e r e c e n t r e p a i n ti n g . T h e A n
n u n c i a t i o n o c c u p ie s m o s t o f th e a r e a
o f th e tw o d o o r s , a n d in c lu d e s th e
fi g ures o f th e p r o p h e t s Is a ia h a n d
D a v id , b u sts o f w h o m a r e p a i n t e d o n
a s m a ll e r scale. A t th e to p o f th e
d o o r s t h e r e a r e tw o o t h e r sa in ts , w h o
h a v e b e e n id e n tif ie d as St. N i c h o
las a n d t h e a p o s t le A n d r e w . A t th e
b o t t o m is th e f a d e d in s crip tio n ALT I
C1C T O Y T O Y 1-.

ic o n , w h o w as also called A n d ie w
Ic o n o g r a p h ic a l ly it is r e l a te d lo I lit
m i n i a t u r e by P lo u s ia d m o s in < oil
Sin. 1234. w h ich is daU d lo I lii'i
( W e i t z m a n n 1973, p p
H
pi
X X X I ) ; to th e A n n u n c i a t i o n in llii
m a r g in o f th e icon by N ik o ln o Hi
tz o s in S a r a j e v o (C h a l / n l . iki I ' 1
(1 ), pi. 2 02 ); to th e satin m u in lin
m a r g in o f th e Menaki M i i m m i i i i i i h i i
o f th e V irg in (X yngopotiliin I'M1 pi
5 4 ); a n d to a series ol l i o n . <ittI
S a n c t u a r y d o o r s ( I'im i
p. 51) th at follow a InI...... I- in
m o d e l , t r a n s f o r m e d .iflil .n l i i p l i m
t h e p r i n c i p l e s o l ( re Inn p iiln lin
T h e sty lish
to th e

m l i i l l o n f h i p ol lin

a b o v e w i n k s p o in t', m

I ill

c e n t u r y ( r e t a i l p a i i i l l u i ' \MI II > > I n n


H c t c r i s t i c i v l e t tii K i n

111 I **

T O Y [ ) | |.

w h ic h e x p la in s th e inclusion o f th e
a p o s t le A n d r e w : he w as th e p a t r o n
sain t o f th e m a n w h o d e d ic a te d lhis

t h e s e m e l o I I m i n i ill ill llit p i iliil

1K.1

In l i n

di

W e s le t n eltim nl

i n g o l t III p e l toil in < n l >


w 11 llii

lo lu in n

mi

lm

) In

u t m o m i l !

flo w e r p o t s e p a r a t i n g th e tw o fig
u r e s , w hich s e e m s r a t h e r d e t a c h e d
a n d u n c o n n e c t e d w ith th e c o m p o
s i ti o n , h a s b e e n s h o w n to be c o n n e c t
e d w ith th e c o l o n n a d e th a t w as in v a
riab ly in c lu d e d in s c e n e s o f the
A n n u n c i a t i o n p a i n t e d by th e S ie n
n e se artists o f th e 14th a n d 15th c e n
t u r ie s ( B a l t o y a n n i 1984, p. 58). A
n u m b e r o f stylistic f e a t u r e s , suc h as
th e d i a p h a n o u s , li g h t- c o lo u re d ey es
ot th e a n g e l, th e o v e r - s w e e t face of
th e V irgin a n d th e realistic e x p r e s
sion o n th e fac e o f D a v i d , also have
th e i r o rig in s in W e s t e r n art.
T h e A n n u n c i a t i o n , th e s u p r e m e
s y m b o l o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n , h e re
g a in s in m e a n i n g b y v irtu e o f its
b e in g p a in t e d o n th e le a v e s o f the
S a n c tu a r y d o o r s . T h e sig nificance o f
th e c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n th e S a n c
t u a r y d o o r s a n d th e A n n u n c i a t i o n
( C h a tz i d a k is 1973, col. 343) is p e r
h a p s i n d i c a te d by th e fact t h a t th e
e v id e n c e f o r th e first use o f th e s ce n e
o n su ch a d o o r p o in ts to a d a t e in the
12th c e n t u r y ( W e i t z m a n n 1964-65,
p p.
17-18), w h e n th e d o c tr in a l
m e a n i n g o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n w as
w id ely d is p u te d ( B a b ic 1968. pp .
368-386). It is also k n o w n th a t o n e of
th e m o s t f r e q u e n t m e t a p h o r s a n d
sim iles u se d in B y z a n ti n e h y m n o g r a -

p h y a n d h o m ilie s re la tin g to th e V i r
gin is th e G a t e ' o f E z e k ie l ( T h is
g a t e shall be c lo s e d ') (E z e k ie l
X L V . 2 ) ; a t a v e ry early d a t e this
c a m e to b e r e g a r d e d as a p r e f ig u
ra t io n o f th e ro le o f th e V irgin in the
I n c a r n a t i o n . O n e o f th e a p p lic a tio n s
o f th is s y m b o li s m , w h ich w a s diffi
cu lt to r e n d e r ic o n o g r a p h ic a lly , w as
to p a in t a s c e n e o f th e A n n u n c i a t i o n
o n th e S a n c t u a r y d o o r s . T h is i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n f u r t h e r a c c o u n t s fo r the
in clu sion o f Is a ia h , w h o is also to be
f o u n d in W e s t e r n sc e n e s o f the
A n n u n c i a t i o n , in f lu e n c e d by th e
L a ti n M e d i t a t i o n e s V ita e C h ris ti' o f
P s e u d o b o n a v e n t u r a ; a c c o rd in g to
this te x t , at th e tim e o f th e A n
n u n c i a t i o n th e V irgin w as re a d i n g
th e p r o p h e c y o f Isaiah ( R o b b 1936.
p. 4 8 5 ) : E N
A C T P I 1
KAl

KAAECOYCl

TO

; this is also

th e te x t o n th e scroll h e ld by th e
p r o p h e t in th e icon.

Provenance. M essina. Italy.


Conservation. S. Baltoyannis. S. V arotsis. A.
S im andoni. G. Skaraki (1981).
Bibliography. Baltoyanni 1984. pp. 43-72.
A ffrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 87. pp. 136-138.
C h . B.

54

TIu- H o sp ita lity o f A b ra h a m


15 1li c e n tu r y
7 2 X 5 7 cm
A t h e n s . Ily/.iiiiliiie M u s e u m , T . 911

T h e s c e n e is a n illu s tra tio n o f G e n e


sis (1 8 .1 -1 5 ). d e s c r ib in g th e d in n e r
given by A b r a h a m to th e t h r e e
a n g e ls n e a r t h e o a k o f M a t u r e . It
in c lu d e s t h r e e a n g e ls s e a t e d a r o u n d
a s q u a r e ta b l e l o a d e d w ith d is h e s a n d
f o o d , A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h , tw o tall,
n a r r o w b u ild in g s a t th e sid es, an d
tw o leafy tr e e s le a n i n g in w a rd s , all
a r r a n g e d in a c lo s e d c o m p o s it io n ,
d e v e l o p e d v ertic a lly a r o u n d th e fig
u re o f th e c e n tr a l an g e l. T h e tw o -lin e
in s c rip tio n o n th e g o ld g r o u n d b e
t w e e n th e tw o t r e e s r e f e rs to th e

184

t h e o lo g ic a l c o n t e n t o f th e scen e: [H
EN

TH

C jK H N II

TOY

[T |H C [ A P ]X IK H C T P IA A O C -

o f th e r e f in e d circles o f artists a n d
p a t r o n s in th e c a p ita l at this p e r
iod w e r e c e n t r e d o n th e revival o f
a n ti q u it y , a n d c a n be d e t e c t e d in
th is icon in a v a ri e ty o f w ays. W e
m a y n o t e , fo r e x a m p l e , th e classical
p r o p o r t i o n s , th e e le g a n t p o s t u r e s
a n d th e re f in e d faces o f th e a n g e ls ,
th e
"p a tria rc h a l'
appearance
of
A b r a h a m , a g a in fo llo w in g a n c ie n t
ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e s , a n d a ls o a n u m
b e r of d e ta ils , su c h as th e c a r a f e c o v
e r e d by a n u p t u r n e d glass on th e
t a b l e , w h ic h c a n b e s e e n in a wall
p a in t in g fr o m H e r c u l a n e u m , th e lion
m a s k w ith fo liage c o m i n g o u t o f its
m o u t h , e x e c u t e d in grisaille o n th e
f a c a d e o f th e b u ild in g o n th e rig h t,
a n d th e re d c lo th o n th e r o o f o f th e
o n e on th e left. T h e m o n u m e n t a l
size o f t h e fig u re s a n d th e r e d u c e d
scale o f th e a c h it e c tu r e a n d tr e e s in
th e b a c k g r o u n d , th e r e t u r n to a f la t
t e r c o n c e p t io n o f s p a c e , a n d th e dry
m o d e llin g o f t h e flesh a n d d r a p e r y
a re s o m e o f th e f e a t u r e s th a t p ro v i d e
a r g u m e n t s fo r d a ti n g this icon to th e
p e r i o d a f t e r 1453. T h e B y z a n ti n e
M u s e u m icon p a n e l b e e n d a t e d
v a rio u s ly to th e 15th c e n tu r y (S o t i
rio u 1931. p. 7 4), to th e first h a lf o f
th e 16th c e n t u r y , in re la tio n to th e
e a rly c r e a t i o n s o f th e C r e t a n S ch o o l
(C h a t z i d a k i s 1961. no . 3, w ith c o lo u r
p la te . C h a r a l a m p o u s - M o u r i k i 1962
63. p p . 8 7 f f .), o r m o r e precise ly to
th e m i d d le o f th e 16th c e n tu r y , w hile
still b e in g c o n s i d e r e d a C r e t a n w o r k
(C h a tz i d a k is 1969, fig. p. 45). H o w
e v e r . th e view th a t this icon w as th e

w o r k o f th e C r e t a n School cun In
q u e s t i o n e d a fte r th e p n b ln iitJnn nl
p e r t i n e n t d o c u m e n t s in llu V e n n
a rc h iv e s by C a t t a p a n , a n d I In i I| h
c o v e r y o f h it h e r t o u n k n o w n p n l n u u l
m a t e r i a l a ss ig n ed to this sch o o l I h.
re s u lt is t h a t th e d a te s th a t h a v e b e e n
s u g g e s te d fo r th e m a j o r i ty o f ic o n 1,
f r o m th is circle h a v e to b e ra is e d , by
a c e n t u r y in s o m e cases. T a k i n g tinr e c e n t d is c o v e rie s in to a c c o u n t , it
m a y be s u g g e s te d th a t th e B y z a n lin e
M u s e u m icon o f th e H o s p ita lity ol
A b r a h a m s h o u l d b e p la c e d in llu
s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e 15th c e n tu r y ,
S o m e r e s e r v a ti o n is also n e e d e d as lo
its p re c i s e re la ti o n s h ip to th e ( icliin
S c h o o l, a t least u ntil th e stu d y o f (he
d a t e d 1 5 th - c e n tu r y e n s e m b le s o f wall
p a in t in g s is c o m p l e t e d , a m o n g )
w h ic h t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f th e Pan
t a n a s s a a t M is tr a is o f special
i m p o r t a n c e (c. 1428). T h e B y z a n tin e
M u s e u m icon has close ic o n o g r a p h ic
a n d stylistic affinities with tw o m n i i
icon s d e p ic t in g th e s a m e s u b j e c t . in
t h e H e r m i t a g e a n d th e N a i h o m n
M u s e u m , w hich w e re p r o b a b l y painl
e d e a r l i e r , t h o u g h still in th e I Mil
c e n tu r y . T h e s a m e ic o n o g r a p h ) nl
t y p e , w ith m i n o r v a ria tio n s , is In
q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d in la te r painim^
m o s tly icons.
Provenance. A cquired 1111 Z akynlhns
Conservation. A. MargaritoM.
Bibliography. Sotiriou 1931, p
>I < Itu
izidakis 1961. no. 3. with culom pliil 1 <
lam pous-M ouriki 1962-63, pp, H711 1 IhiIcIiIh
kis 1969. fig. p. 45. Affrcschi * ( ini
H8. pp. 138-140.

I M

N t . P H C I C . T h e f r e q u e n t o c c u rr e n c e

o f this O ld T e s t a m e n t scen e fr o m the


B ible in th e B y z a n ti n e a n d PostB y z a n ti n e p e r i o d s is a c c o u n t e d for
by th e fa ct th a t it s y m b o liz e s the
I loly T rin ity .
The i c o n o g r a p h y o f th e H o s p ita lity
o f A b r a h a m w a s e s ta b lis h e d in E a rly
C h r is ti a n ti m e s , b u t th e ic o n o g r a p h ic
ty p e in t h e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m p a n e l
w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y f o r m u l a t e d in
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e d u r i n g th e P a laeo lo g a n p e r i o d , as m a y be in f e r r e d fro m
a n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s in m a n u s c rip t
m i n i a t u r e s , ico ns a n d wall p ainting s.
T h e p re v a i li n g a e s t h e ti c p r e f e r e n c e s

55
S t. N icholas

c. 1500
9 0 X 5 6 cm

Islan d in I he I akt n l liiiin illHii l> I


1' ,
A ffrc s c h i e icone l'*Hl> n n
119).

I o a n n i n a . C h a p e l o f t h e B i s h o p 's P a l a c e

T h e se v e r e m o d e l li n g , th e d r a p e r y
a n d th e c o n s e r v a ti v e ic o n o g r a p h y
su g g e s t th a t this icon b e lo n g s lo the
s a m e g r o u p as th e icon s fro m llu
M o n a s t e r y o f the 1 Icousa o n tIn185

/'ro ve m tn te

llu > IIt I I

1 lit.

Hit-

M u t u l

iti

I ilkr

nl

Iikhiiiiim

( i>n\rrvaUifH < h < Id I I*> '!


/iihtufinipliv I i h m l i i p l t i I l n p H i i l i * I '
I M v /iiiililii S 1 1 I'Ollt n n I 1 |
Allirsi 111 i l i h i m I ' I M l i lit: ' |i i

i i

5 6

S t. N ic h o la s w ith sc e n e s o f h is
m ir a c le s
c . 1500
92X 62 cm
Ioannina. Chapel of the Bishop's Palace

iM flJ

G esso on canvas. G o ld ground.


F r a m e w ith m o u l d in g s . B u s t o f St.
N ic h o la s , willi C h r is t a n d th e V irg in
in m i n ia t u r e a b o v e h im , o fferin g him
th e g o sp e l a n d o m o p h o r i o n . T h e
n a r r o w h a n d b e lo w e n c lo s e s th r e e
sc e n e s o f his m ira c le s p a i n t e d o n a
s m a ll e r scale in a c o n t i n u o u s c o m p o
sitio n : th e s a in t sav in g th e th r e e
in n o c e n t s fr o m t h e s w o r d o f th e
e x e c u t i o n e r , p r o v i d in g d o w rie s fo r
th e t h r e e d a u g h t e r s o f t h e i m p o v e r
is h e d n o b l e , a n d r e s c u in g a sh ip
in d a n g e r at sea. T h e h a lo e s h a v e
r o u g h p o in tille d e c o r a t i o n , a n d vivid
c o lo u r s a r e u s e d . T h e d a r k u n d e r
p a in t o f th e face s c o n t r a s t s w ith th e
flesh t o n e s a n d w h ite h igh ligh ts. T h e
sc e n e s o f t h e m i r a c l e s c o n ta i n m a n y

w e s te r n e l e m e n t s o f Ita lian o rig in .


T h e s e a s c a p e in th e m ira c le o f th e
sh ip is p a r t ic u l a r ly im p re ss iv e fo r this
p e r i o d . T h e icon is p a i n t e d in th e
m a n n e r o f C r e t a n p a in tin g o f th e
15 th-16 th c e n t u r i e s , an d th e m o d e l
f o r th e s a in t is to be fo u n d in icons by
A n d r e a s R i t z o s (C h a tz i d a k is 1977
(1), pi. 2 0 3 a . B y z a n ti n e A r t 1986,
no . 107, p. 108). A n u m b e r o f e l e
m e n t s , h o w e v e r , su g g e st th a t it
s h o u ld b e a t t r i b u t e d to a w o r k s h o p
in I o a n n i n a . A n ic o n o f th e V irg in in
th e M o n a s t e r y o f t h e E l e o u s a o n th e
Is lan d in th e L a k e o f I o a n n i n a m a y
b e a t t r i b u t e d to th e p a i n t e r o f St.
N ic h o la s .
Provenance. T he M onastery of the E leousa on
the Island in the L ake of Ioannina
Conservation. C h. A rchim andritis (1974).
Bibliography. A cheim astou-P otam ianou 1973
74, p. 613. B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 123, pp.
122-124. A ffreschi e icone 1986. no. 80, pp.
129, 130.

M. A.-P.

5 7

S t. N ic h o la s w ith s c e n e s fr o m his life


c. 1500
41 X 3 6 c m
A th e n s . U. A n d r c a d is C o lle c tio n

E g g t e m p e r a o n w o o d . The c e n tra l
s c e n e is a p o r t r a y a l o f St. N ic h o las
e n t h r o n e d . In th e b o r d e r s u r r o u n d
ing it t h e r e a r e tw e lv e s c e n e s from
th e life a n d m i ra c l e s o f th e saint.
S ta r ti n g in th e t o p left c o r n e r , an d
p r o c e e d i n g left to r ig h t, th e s e are:
t h e b ir th o f th e s a in t; his e le c tio n as
b is h o p ; t h e sain t r e s c u in g th e th r e e
d a u g h t e r s f r o m p r o s t i t u t i o n ; the
s a in t re s c u in g t h e t h r e e in n o c e n ts
fr o m t h e e x e c u t i o n e r ; th e sain t d e
s t r o y in g th e id ols in th e te m p le ; th e
m i ra c l e o f th e sh ip ( t h e c a lm in g of
t h e w a v e s ); t h e t h r e e g e n e ra ls in
p ri s o n ; th e s a i n t a p p e a r i n g in a
d r e a m t o C o n s t a n t i n e t h e G r e a t ; th e
s a in t a p p e a r i n g in a d r e a m to th e
g e n e r a l ; th e t h r e e g e n e r a l s o ffe rin g
gifts to C o n s t a n t i n e th e G r e a t ; th e

186

D o r m i t i o n o f th e sa in t; a n d th e t h r e e
g e n e r a l s o f f e r in g gifts to St. N i c h o
las. T h e s e e p i s o d e s f r o m t h e life an d
m ira c le s o f t h e s a in t a re n o t in th e
c h r o n o l o g ic a l o r d e r o f th e sy n a x a ria
(lives o f t h e sa in ts) . T h is is also tr u e
o f o t h e r ico n s o f St. N ic h o la s ro u g h ly
c o n t e m p o r a r y w ith this o n e (ico n on
P a t m o s fr o m 1430-60, a n d a late
1 5 th - c e n tu r y icon fr o m K a s to r ia )
a n d also o f e a r l i e r icon s (icon fro m
S in a i, fr o m th e e n d o f th e 12th c e n
tu r y ).
T h e icon h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to a
C r e t a n p a i n t e r a n d is d a t e d to c.
1500. C e r t a i n P a la e o l o g a n i c o n o g r a
p h ic f e a t u r e s m a y h a v e b e e n t r a n s
m i tt e d t h r o u g h t h e w o rk s of 15thc e n t u r y C r e t a n p a i n t e r s such as
A n g e l o s A k o t a n t o s (cf. th e ty p e of
t h e t h r o n e in t h e D e e s is icons by this
p a i n t e r in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f V i a n n o u
a n d th e K a n e l l o p o u l o s C o lle c tio n )
a n d A n d r e a s R itz o s (cf. t h e ty p e ol
th e t h r o n e in t h e ico n o f C h ris t on

P a t m o s , a n d th e a rc h i te c t u r e in th e
C h ris to lo g ic a l sc e n e s in th e icon o f
t h e V irg in E n t h r o n e d in th e B e n a k i
M u s e u m ) . H o w e v e r , th e flow ing
d r a p e r y o f th e s a in t's g a r m e n ts ,
ty p ical o f C r e t a n ico ns in t h e Italian
m a n n e r (e .g . cat. n o . 45), d e m o n
s t r a t e t h a t I ta lia n f e a t u r e s c o u ld find
t h e i r p la c e e v e n in a n ico n like this.

w h ic h o th e r w i s e follo w e d llie ( iie ek


m a n n e r , in t e r m s o f hot Ii
p h y a n d style.

Bibliography. C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982. no .M


C hatzid ak is (N .) 1983, no. 33, p. 41. .
S evccnko 1983. A ffrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 81,
pp. 130-131.
. V.

58

N oli M e T a n g e r e
16th c e n tu r y
1 2 0 x 8 2 cm
Zakynthos. M etochion of the M onastery
of St. Catherine Sinaiton

T h e icon d e p ic t s th e a p p e a r a n c e o f
C h r is t to M a r y M a g d a l e n e a f t e r th e
R e s u r r e c t i o n , as n a r r a t e d in the
G o s p e l o f St. J o h n ( X X V I I I . 14-17).
T h e L o r d t u r n s b a c k to M a r y , w h o
h a s fallen to h e r k n e e s , a n d s tr e tc h e s
o u t his h a n d to s t o p h e r to u c h i n g
h im . T o th e left, t h e r e is a c a v e in th e
s id e o f a s t e e p m o u n t a i n w ith th e
o p e n s a r c o p h a g u s in w hich th e
s h r o u d lies, a c c o r d i n g to th e te x t of
th e G o s p e l.
T h e Z a k y n t h o s ico n b e lo n g s to a
v a r i a ti o n o f th e N oli M e T a n g e r e

t h a t w a s p r o b a b l y c re a t e d in C r e t e in
th e 15th c e n tu r y a n d is f r e q u e n tl y
f o u n d in w o r k s by th e C r e t a n
S c h o o l. A strik in g f e a t u r e o f it is the
d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n th e t r e a t m e n t o f
C h r i s t 's g a r m e n t s , w h ich a r e b a s e d
o n B y z a n t i n e m o d e l s a n d h a v e still
a c c e n t u a t e d d r a p e r y g le a m in g with
g o ld , a n d th e so ft, flow ing d r a p e r y ol
t h o s e o f th e k n e e li n g w o m a n , w hich
w e r e in s p ire d by L a te G o t h i c art
T h e icon s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to a
C r e t a n a rtist o f th e b e g in n in g o l tin
16th c e n tu r y .
Conservation. M. Rousca-Bnrb.i
Bibliography C hatzidakis 1967. p. 27. |il I III
B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 135. pp. 1 '2 . I 'I
A ffrcschi e iconc 19X6. no. 91. pp. 1-1. I I '

l> I

5 9

S t. G e o r g e o n H o r se b a c k
B e g in n in g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
65X 51 cm
London. M. P eraticos Collection

St. G e o r g e is m o u n t e d o n a w h ite
re a r in g h o r s e , w ith th e u p p e r p a r t o f
his b o d y t u r n e d t o w a r d s th e v iew er.
W it h his lan ce he is s trik in g a d a r k ,
t h r e a t e n i n g d r a g o n w h o s e tail is
w o u n d a r o u n d th e h o r s e 's h in d legs.
T h e tin y p rin c e ss raises h e r h a n d s in
s u p p l ic a t io n t o w a r d s h e r sav io u r.
T h e d ra g o n - s la y i n g s c e n e ( A u f h a u se r , 1913. p p . 113-129) is c o m p l e te d
by a s u m m a r i ly d r a w n castle with
to w e r s at th e c o r n e r s . O n to p o f it
s t a n d th e king a n d q u e e n , a c c o m
p a n i e d by c o u r t i e r s a n d t r u m p e t e r s ;
th e k in g h o ld s o u t th e keys of tin
IS7

c a stle t o th e c o n q u e r o r ol tin
dragon.
T h e tiny w h ite - c la d lig u ie o n lh<
r u m p o f t h e h o rs e relur^ lo iiiioiIh i
o f St. G e o r g e ' s m iracle s III is ill
y o u t h o f M y tile n e d e l i v e i n l li m n
c a p tiv ity by th e saint ( A 11111<ii>> i
1913, p p . 100-1(13). In hr. li mil i"
th e glass a n d tile wi i ol wlm Mini
h e w a s h o ld in g at the mom nt ol tin
m i ra c u l o u s in t e rv e n t io n Al III I >|
left, t h e h a n d ol t mil hi
blessing.
'I'he

b a sil

c o m p o '.il Ion

d r a g o n slayer
occu rs

w ith

*>1111 on
.lli'lit

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ill-

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ic o n s , 11*.i in 11v o l
V o m e r . Iv K\ 111

Iii 11:
>l
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in
nil

I'alm o. A n l io n nl Hi ( : m |!W

c h u r c h o f th e G r e e k c o m m u n it y in
V e n ic e in fact su g g e s ts th a t icons like
t h e s e m a y h a v e s e r v e d as p r o s k y n e ta r ia o f th e p a t r o n s ain t (C h a tz i d a k is
1962, p p . 38-39). It h as re c e n tly b e e n
s h o w n by P. V o k o t o p o u l o s a n d M .
V a s s ila k e s t h a t t h e s e icon s w e r e
b a s e d o n a n a r c h e t y p e by the f a m o u s
C r e t a n p a i n t e r A n g e l o s , w h o lived in
th e first h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
( V a s s i l a k e s - M a v r a k a k e s 1981, pp.
29 0-2 98 ), th e f i g u re s o f th e d r a g o n

a n d th e h o r s e b e in g in s p ire d by an
e a r l i e r w o r k by P a o lo V e n e z i a n o
( H o r s e s o f S an M a r c o 1979, p. 83.
fig. 109).
T h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e r id e r, th e
d e c o r a t i o n o f his le a t h e r cu irass an d
a c e r t a i n stiffn ess in th e d ra w in g ,
d a t e th e w o r k a f t e r A n g e l o s 's d e a t h ,
p o ss ib ly to th e b e g in n in g o f th e 16th
c e n tu r y .
Bibliography. U n p ublished.

L. B.

60
S t. D e m e tr iu s
16th c e n tu r y
108X 82 cm
Kerkyra. M useum of the Antivouniotissa

T h e p a t r o n s a in t o f T h e s s a l o n ik e is
p o r t r a y e d m o u n t e d o n a h o rs e , a
ty p e in s p ir e d b y m o d e l s fr o m th e I t a
lian R e n a i s s a n c e . H e is b ein g b le sse d
by th e h a n d o f G o d , w hile th e city o f
T h e s s a l o n i k e (as w e a re in f o r m e d by
th e in s c r ip t io n ) rises in th e b a c k
g r o u n d . p r o t e c t e d by v ery high
walls. T h is ty p e o f the saint o n
h o r s e b a c k , in w hich th e h o rs e is
sh o w n fr o m th e s i d e , m o v i n g slowly

f o r w a r d , w h ile th e sa in t is t u r n e d
t o w a r d s t h e v ie w e r, w as p r o b a b l y
c r e a t e d in C r e t e in th e 15th c e n tu r y
f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f B y z a n ti n e
a n d I ta lia n e l e m e n t s , a n d w a s not
v e ry w i d e s p r e a d . T h e h a rs h m o d e l
ling o f th e icon su g g e s ts th a t it
s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to a c o n s e r v a
tive C r e t a n p a i n t e r at th e e n d o f the
16th e n t u r y w h o w a s in s p ire d by
1 5 th - c e n tu r y m o d e ls .
Conservation. F. Asim ukou.
B ibliography. V okotopoulos 1972. C h atzid a
kis (N .) 19K3. no. 31. pp. 38. 40. Byzantine
A rt 1986. no. 134. pp 130 133. A ffcschi c
iconc 1986. no. 90. pp. 141-142.
P. L . V.

61
The A k r a T a p e in o s is
Iti'gim iiiig o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
23X 18.5 cm
London. M. Icraticos Collection

T h e u p p e r p a rt o f C h r is t's n a k e d
b o d y is p o r t r a y e d against a gold
b a c k g r o u n d . 11c is sta n d in g in a m a r
ble s a r c o p h a g u s , in fron t ol th e a rm s
o f th e c ro ss. T w o sm all a n g els at the
to p a r e m o u r n i n g , w ith ex p res siv e
g e s tu re s .
T h e s u b j e c t o c c u r s in B y z a n tin e
icons fr o m th e 12th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s
(cf. cat. n o s. 8 a n d 27). T h e B y z a n
tine t r a d it io n c a n be se e n in th e
c o m p a c t t r e a t m e n t o f th e b o d y , in
w h ic h t h e p r o m i n e n t v o lu m e s , e s p e
cially o f th e c h e st m u s c le s, recall th e

INK -

fig u re o f C h ris t in a 1 4 th-cen tu ry


d ip t y c h a t M e t e o r a ( B y z a n ti n e A n
1964. n o . 210).
T h e fig u re o f C h ris t in th e p rese n l
icon d o e s n o t follo w th e ro b u s t,
h e a l t h y ty p e w ith th e la rg e , alm osl
s q u a r e h e a d fa m ilia r fr o m o t h i i
B y z a n ti n e w o r k s (cat. no s. 8, 27); ils
a ffin ities a r e r a t h e r w ith th e type
u se d by T h e o p h a n e s in a wall pam l
ing in th e C h u r c h o f A y io s N ik o la o s
A n a p a f s a s at M e t e o r a (1527) (Clin
tz id a k is 1974 (1). p. 201, pi. .
F e a t u r e s s h a r e d by the tw o th at sc I
t h e m a p a r t fr o m th e tr a d itio n a l typi
are th e frail b o d y a n d th e s h a p e ol
th e h e a d , s e t o n a th ick n e c k , which
d o e s n o t d r o o p o n to th e s h o u h le t
T h e a r m s a r e c ro s s e d at th e wrisl imil
n o t f o l d e d , as in th e icons ol I In

B y z a n ti n e p e r i o d .
T h is f e a t u r e ,
w h ic h is f o u n d in e a r l ie r v e rs io n s o f
t h e t y p e in Ita ly , such as th e 14thc e n t u r y d ip ty c h in F lo r e n c e ( B e ltin g
1981, fig. 10), w as u s e d in I ta lo -C re ta n ico ns like th e A k r a T a p e in o s i s by
N ik o la o s T z a f o u r i s in th e K u n sth isto r is c h e M u s e u m , V i e n n a (K re id lP a p a d o p o u l o s 1970, p. 93, no . 2, fig.
3 9 ), a n d a large C r e t a n icon f r o m th e
e n d o f th e 15th c e n tu r y in th e
R eck lin g h au sen M u seu m (Ik o n en
1981. n o. 250, fig. 17); in this last
w o r k , th e sty le , as well as th e
s u b j e c t , is sim ila r to t h a t o f th e p r e
s e n t ico n. O t h e r f e a t u r e s c o m
m o n to th e tw o a re t h e inc lusio n o f th e
tw o m o u r n i n g a n g e ls at th e t o p , a n d
t h e p a le p in k m a r b l e s a r c o p h a g u s .
In th e sm all icon p r e s e n t e d h e r e , th e

fin e d e ta il, se e n in llu ren d i 111 ol


t h e v e in s o f th e m a r b k ol i h r
p h a g u s a n d th e t h r e e s o in 11 < I It-1
li o n 's h e a d s , sh o w s th a t Ihe ufltai
w a s f a m ilia r w ith Italian p a m l m g
t h e p re c i s io n o f th e d ra w in g in lli
m i n i a t u r e p a in tin g s o f th e angel,
m o u r n i n g at th e to p recalls C r e t a n
ico n s fr o m th e e n d o f th e 15th i o n
tu r y . T h e soft m o d e llin g o f t h e flesh,
a n d t h e u se o f an ic o n o g r a p lm
m o d e l sim ila r to th a t e m p l o y e d by
T h e o p h a n e s at M e t e o r a sug gests
t h a t t h e icon s h o u l d b e d a t e d to the
b e g i n n i n g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y .

B ibliography. Fine Icons 1981. no. 69. < luit/l


dakis (T h .) 1982, no. 8.
N . C l'

62
T h e D o r m itio n
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
116X 77.5 cm
Kos. M etropolitan Chapel of the
Annunciation

G e s s o o n c a n v a s . G o l d g ro u n d .
P a in t in g d a m a g e d . T h e t u r b a n e d fig
u r e o f J e p h o n i a s in th e f o r e g r o u n d
d a t e s in p a r t fr o m a r e s t o r a t i o n o f
t h e icon in 1831.
T h e s c e n e is a m ulti-fig ural c o m p o
s itio n , d e v e l o p e d v ertically in a s y m
m e t r i c a l. o r d e r e d fa s h io n ; it is
b a l a n c e d a r o u n d th e h o r i z o n ta l a n d
v e rtic a l a x e s a n d th e d ia g o n a l s ,
w h ic h d e t e r m i n e th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f
t h e c ro w d to th e rig ht a n d left o f th e
V irg in o n th e b ier.
T h e r e is livelier m o v e m e n t at th e
lo w e r fr o n t o f th e icon , a n d in th e
t h r e e - s t o r e y R e n a is s a n c e b u ild in g s
in th e b a c k g r o u n d at e it h e r side:
h e r e , o n th e b a lc o n ie s a n d at the
w in d o w s , a n d o n th e s tairca se o f the
b u ild in g to th e rig h t, o ld m e n ,
w o m e n a n d a y o u n g m o t h e r , all
e x e c u t e d in m i n i a t u r e , a r e follow in g
e v e n t s fr o m a d is ta n c e , ta lk in g a n x
iou sly to e a c h o t h e r a n d m o u r n in g .
In th e h e a v e n s , t h e r e a re s c e n e s of

IOT

th e a p o s t le s a rriv in g on c lo u d s , a n d
th e a s c e n t of th e soul o f th e V u y in
In t e r m s o f th e m o n u m e n t a l c om p
tio n a n d a m b i ti o u s t r e a t m e n t , 111'
c lo s e s t p a ra lle ls to this icon '>. m I
b e t h e e a r l ie r v e rs io n o f the I > ml
tio n by A n d r e a s R itz o s in In i in
( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 ( I ) , pi 211(1). .mil
th e icon c lo s e r to it in d a te by I >mm
n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s recuinSy ill
c o v e r e d o n S y ros (cat. n o o l )
It is th e w o r k o f an im p o itim l Huh
c e n t u r y p a i n t e r , a n d I hi m l n ln l m i
a n d d e ta i le d e x e c u t io n in tl IM
s triv in g fo r p e r s p e c t i v e . nnl l*>
facial ty p e s p o r t r a y e d in ill n mint
s c e n t o f th e a il ol ( I Imi
tzas , t h o u g h the >
n o t close e n o u g h lo m a k e it i m il u t
tio n to K l o n l / a s cei la m T*h > >>>
resem blances, h o w v e i
>iihI ilii
i c o n o g r a p h ic iillm llloi u illi I In I
m itio n by K Ion I / mi 11> I' (Ini
tr ip ty c h (< /lilnlu I 1 1 I I I n<
<i2. p p I d / l l pi. II 111 tin V in

tr ip ty c h ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1962, no . 51,
p p . 77 ff., pi. 3 8 ), a n d especially with
an icon o f th e D o r m i t i o n o f th e V i r
gin in th e Sinai M o n a s t e r y (W e itz n ia n n 1980, n o. 23) a t t r i b u t e d to th e
s a m e a rtis t, s u g g e s t t h a t th e icon w'as
possib ly p a i n t e d by a m e m b e r o f the
fam ily o f G e o r g i o s K lo n tz a s . m a n y
o f w h o m w e re p a in t e r s .

Conservation. M. R ousea. D. Bakalis and


colleagues (1976-77).
Bibliography. A cheim astou-P olam ianou 1976.
p. 16. pi. 18-. A cheim astou-P olam ianou
1977, p. 8. pi. 9. V okotopoulos 1984, p. 397.
no. 25. B yzantine A rt 1986, no. 144, pp.
139-140. A ffrcschi e icone 1986. no. 99, pp.
150. 151. A cheim astou-P otam ianou 1987 (in
print ).
M . A . -P.

6 2 a

D o m e n ik o s (T h e o to k o p o u lo s):
T h e A d o r a tio n o f th e M a g i
c. 1 5 6 5 -1 5 7 5
4 0 x 4 5 cm
Athens. Benaki M useum , 3048

T h is is c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f th e m o st
im p o rtan t early w o rk s of D om enikos
T h e o t o k o p o u l o s . T h e artist is still
usin g e g g t e m p e r a , b u t h as a b a n
d o n e d t h e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d p a in tin g
t e c h n i q u e s o f his n ativ e C r e t a n
S c h o o l. T h e s i g n a t u r e on th e s te p of
th e c ro s s -v a u lte d ru in re a d s :
( by th e h a n d o f D o
m e n i k o s ') .
A m o n g th e n o t a b l e f e a t u r e s o f this
w ork are
th e
th r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l

s p a c e c r e a t e d b y t h e p e r s p e c ti v e r e n
d e r i n g o f th e a r c h i te c t u r a l b a c k
g r o u n d , t h e use o f th e C h ris t C hild
as an i n n e r s o u r c e o f light a n d th e
m a n n e r i s t i c tr a it s in t h e a g it a te d
m o v e m e n t o f th e th r e e h o r s e s o n th e
right.
D esp ite th e fre e h a n d u nderdraw ing,
f o r m s a r e m o l d e d in light a n d c o lo u r ,
w ith to ta l d is r e g a r d fo r o u tl in e s ,
w h ic h is a ty p ica l tr a it o f 1 6 th -c e n
tu ry V e n e t i a n p a in t in g ( S t e e r 1983,
p p . 41-43).
C onservation. S. S tasinopoulos, K M ilanou
(1986).
B ibliography. W et hey 1962. II, p. 165. El
G reco E xhibition 1986. p. 171.
L. B .

6 3 *

D o m e n ik o s T h e o to k o p o u lo s:
T h e D o r m itio n
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
6 1 .4 X 5 2 .2 cm
Syros, Erm oupolis. Church of the Koimesis tis Theotokou (Panayia ton Psarianon)

P anel with a p r e p a r a t i o n o f a thin


lay er o f g esso o n c a n v a s . T h e p a i n t
ed s u r fa c e is n o w c le a n a n d in p laces
sh o w s c le a r signs o f r e p a i n ti n g a n d
c h a n g e s o f g la ze . T h e silver th a t w as
la ter a d d e d to th e t w o m ain fig ures
has c a u s e d i r r e p a r a b l e d a m a g e to
sm all a r e a s in th e c e n t r e o f th e icon.
By g o o d f o r t u n e , t h e s ig n a tu r e o f th e
artist, t h o u g h d ifficu lt to re a d , is
p r e s e r v e d in its e n t i r e t y at the b o t
to m in c a p ita l le tte r s:
B E O I O K O I I O Y A O C A E IH A C .

The m ain s c e n e o f th e icon h as a r e p


r e s e n ta t io n of th e D o r m i t i o n o f the
-

190

V irg in , in a ty p e w h ic h , in its basic


c o n c e p t i o n , is q u it e well k n o w n in
O r t h o d o x C r e t a n icons fr o m th e 15th
a n d 16th c e n tu r ie s . T w o g ro u p s ,
c o m p r is i n g th e a p o s t le s . C h u r c h
f a t h e r s a n d a n u m b e r o f w o m e n , are
l e a n in g w ith r e s t r a i n e d g rief to w a rd s
th e b ie r o n w hich th e V irgin is lying.
In th e c e n t r e C h ris t, fl a n k e d by
a n g e ls , is s t o o p in g to receiv e th e soul
o f his H o ly M o t h e r , in th e fo r m o f a
b a b y . T h is strictly o r g a n i z e d trad i
t io n a l c o m p o s it io n has a s c e n e o f tin
A s c e n t o f th e soul o f th e V irgin paint
e d o n a s m a ll e r scale in an Italian
style at th e t o p , w'hich in c lu d e s tin
h a n d i n g o f th e g ird le to th e aposlli
T h o m a s . In th e c e n t r e o f th e c o m p o
s itio n , in t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d . is a
d o v e , s y m b o liz in g th e H o ly S pirit,
this is c le a rly in s p ire d by W e s t e r n
i c o n o g r a p h y a n d h a s a d d e d signifi

c a n c e w h e n we recall th a t th e p a i n t e r
sub seq u en tly
turned
to
Rom an
C a th o l ic i s m . B u sts o f th e a p o stle s
g a t h e r i n g fro m th e e n d s o f the
e a r t h ' a re d e p ic t e d o n c lo u d s a g a in s t
th e gold b a c k g r o u n d .
T h e p a i n t e r d is p la y s a w id e r a n g e o f
skills in this ico n , r e v e a lin g , a b o v e
all, his fa m ilia rity w ith a v a ri e ty of
d if f e r e n t styles. T h e m a in s u b j e c t is
p a i n t e d effortlessly in th e P a la e o lo g a n style o f th e 15th c e n tu r y , w hile
th e e le g a n c e a n d c o n t r a p p o s t o o f th e
V ir g i n 's sou l a n d th e a n g e ls a c c o m
p a n y i n g it a re c o n n e c t e d w ith M a n
n e r i s m . T h e w o rk b e lo n g s to the
g e n e r a l c lim a te o f C r e t a n a rt o f th e
p e r i o d ; th is h a d P a l a e o l o g a n ro o ts ,
t h o u g h th e C r e t a n p a in t e r s ' k n o w
le d g e o f I ta lia n , a n d p a rtic u la rly
V e n e t i a n p a in t in g , f r e q u e n tl y led
t h e m to a m o r e o r less d is c re e t e c le c
ti cism . T h is icon is d is tin g u ish e d by
th e te n d e n c y o f th e a rtist to select
u n u s u a l f e a t u r e s . It is p e r h a p s th e
m a t u r e s t of th e y o u th f u l w o r k s by
th e p a i n t e r , w h o w as b o r n in 1541
a n d w a s a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to as a
m a s t e r ' in C r e t a n d o c u m e n t s o f
1566. T h is m u lti-fig u ral s c e n e il
l u s tr a t e s his d e p t h o f k n o w le d g e ,
his o u t s t a n d i n g sen sitivity, a n d his
s u p e r b t e c h n i q u e , all o f w h ich h e lp
us b e t t e r to u n d e r s t a n d th e signifi
c a n c e o f his o t h e r y o u th f u l w o r k s .
St. L u k e th e E v a n g e lis t a n d th e
A d o r a t i o n o f th e M a g i, in th e
B e n a k i M u s e u m , a n d th e M o d e n a
tr ip ty c h ( t h e r e is n o lo n g e r a ny
d o u b t a b o u t th e a t t r i b u t i o n of th es e
to T h e o t o k o p o u l o s ) . T h e p r e s e n t
icon s h e d s a g e n e r a l light o n th e
e a rl y c a r e e r o f, a n d f o r m a ti v e in f lu
e n c e s o n . th e artist a n d r e v e a ls a
n u m b e r o f t r e n d s , su ch as M a n n e r
ism . t h a t w e r e la t e r to be d e v e l o p e d
in his m a j o r w o rk s.
T h e p o li s h e d m e t a l c a n d e l a b r a on
th e g r o u n d a r e p a rtic u la rly strik in g ;
t h e y a r e p a i n t e d w ith a facility
r e m a r k a b l e in a C r e t a n artist. T h e
o n e in th e m i d d le , o f a clearly
R e n a i s s a n c e c h a r a c t e r , b e a r s th e
s i g n a t u r e o f th e p a i n t e r , w hich is
th u s i n c o r p o r a t e d in to th e c o m p o
sitio n in a d e p a r t u r e fr o m th e usual

I ' JI

c u s t o m . T h e f o r m u la u sed in t lit
s i g n a t u r e is also orig inal l i e w i r . I n
r e p e a t it la t e r , in 1577, in his lir.l
S p a n is h w o r k , th e A s s u m p tio n in tin
C h u r c h o f S a n t o D o m i n g o el
g u o , in T o l e d o . T h e v e r b ><
( a o r is t p a rt ic i p le , ) o c c u rs in
a n c ie n t G r e e k , t h o u g h rarely (in
L u c ia n
and
S trab o ),
w ith
llu
m e a n i n g c r e a t e a w o r k o f a r t . W e
m a y n o t e th a t th e w o rd w as u se d in
th is s e n s e in th e E n h y p n i o n ' ol
L u c i a n , w h ich w e k n o w the p a i n t e r
h a d in his lib rary . It is used by A i l ,
p e r s o n i f i e d , with r e f e r e n c e to lust
re s p e c t f o r g r e a t artists. It is th u s
c l e a r t h a t T h e o t o k o p o u l o s , e v en
b e f o r e h e left C r e t e , w as n ot on ly a
m a s t e r p a i n t e r o f r a r e ab ility , but
a ls o a c u l t u r e d m a n in th e b ro a ile i
s e n s e . H e will c e rtain ly h av e li lt
h im s e l f a p a r t fr o m his fellow pain t
e r s , r e a d y to t a k e th e s te p to w a r d s
t h e t e m p t i n g artistic h o riz o n s o f t i n
W e s t . W h e n he left C r e t e , h o w e v e i
h e t o o k w ith him a firm fo u n d a lio fl
b a s e d on his a p p r e n t ic e s h ip in
B y z a n t i n e p a in tin g . In this co n te x t
t h e c o m p o s it io n o f th e D o r m i t i o n .
w ith its e a r t h ly a n d h e a v e n l y level,
o f a c ti o n , th e c o n g r e g a t io n n l t i n
a p o s t l e s , a n d th e fig ure o f ( h fr.l
s t o o p i n g low o v e r the b o d y ol tin
V ir g i n , a n d th e c o m p l e te l y dill le n l
a t m o s p h e r e of th e P o w e rs a b o v r .
m i g h t b e th o u g h t to be i c l l c i l i I
a lb e i t in a d is ta n t fa s h io n , in llu
B u r ia l o f th e C o u n t o f < /
T h e ico n , w hich w as f t i s e o v e i c d In
1983, w a s p r o b a b l y b ro u g h t lo S v m i
d u r i n g th e G r e e k W a r nl li n lrp i
d e n c e by r e f u g e e s fro m llu ill *
t a t e d islan d s of th e A e g c u n f p n * * l l i h
fr o m P s a r a ) , w h o l o i m e d llu m u m
t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I im o H p u l h
Conservation. S UalloyiMiMi1 ( I1111 1
Bihfiogra/ihy M.islnii>|nmlihi I I I
E xhibition tor I hi- < im rn iiiy nl
l l)N4. no. 2 I . |>p. '-I, U

1
I

II AI

* I 01 iriiMins util m n n ci |
Mil III 1
n iilu in, nl ilr I Hjiii nl* Illy i uiinii . * 11
noi In- n |
il'li In linlinl* llil . '
I xliihlllon

64
E m m a n u e l L a m b a r d o s:
T h e A d o r a tio n o f tlje M agi
16th c e n tu r y
46X 50 cm
Athens. R. Andreadis Collection

T h e s ce n e o f th e A d o r a t i o n is set in a
typical S ie n n e s e la n d s c a p e , w ith
d is ta n t cities, t r e e s a n d h u g e ro cks.
J o s e p h a n d M a r y a re o n th e left,
u n d e r a w o o d e n s h e l t e r , tu r n in g
to w a r d s t h e M a g i, w h o h a v e ju s t
d i s m o u n t e d a n d a r e k n e e li n g b e f o r e
C h ris t. T h e s i g n a t u r e at th e left,
a b o v e th e h e a d s o f th e tw o s h e p
h e rd s , AAM . gives us th e n a m e o f the
f a m o u s fam ily o f 1 6 th - c e n tu r y p a i n t
ers w h o w o r k e d in C a n d i a (I r a k li o n )
o n C r e t e . In ic o n o g r a p h ic a l t e r m s
th e s c e n e is s im ila r to th a t o n th e
sig n e d icon by M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s
in Ir a k lio n ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1953, p. 13.
pi. X V I . B o r b o u d a k i s 1985, p. 146,
pi. 38), a n d o n e like it in th e C o r r e r
M u s e u m in V e n ic e (M u s e o C o r r e r
1957, p. 7 5), w h ic h is t h o u g h t to be a
la te r c o p y by M i c h a e l D a m a s k i n o s .
Stylistically it is s i m i la r to th e icon o f
th e C ru c if ix io n in th e B y z a n tin e M u
s e u m , L o v e r d o s C o ll e c ti o n ( C h a t z i
d a k is 1953, pi. X V I I ) , sig n ed by th e
s a m e p a i n t e r , t h o u g h th e a u th e n t ic i ty
o f th e s i g n a t u r e is d i s p u te d . T h e
e l e m e n t s c o m m o n to b o th icons

in c lu d e th e s u b t le c o n t o u r s o f th e f e a
tu r e s , th e soft m o d e l li n g o f th e flesh,
th e fine use o f gold e sp ecia lly on the
u n d u l a t i n g g o ld b o r d e r s o f th e g a r
m e n t s , t h e d e lic a te m o v e m e n t s a n d
th e n o b ility o f th e fig ures. T h e s e
e l e m e n t s exist a lo n g s id e th e p r o
n o u n c e d W e s t e r n in f lu e n c e th a t can
be d e t e c t e d in th e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d
stylistic m a n n e r o f b o th w o rk s. T h e
fact t h a t t h e p r e s e n t icon d e r i v e d its
ic o n o g r a p h y fr o m a W e s t e r n m o d e l is
d e m o n s t r a t e d by its close affinity
w ith th e A d o r a t i o n o f th e M a gi by
B a r t o l o di F re d d i in th e S ie n n a A r t
G a lle r y ( C e c c h i 1928, pi. C C X X I V ) .
It fo llo w s th e S i e n n a m o d e l m o r e
faith fu lly t h a n th e icon by D a m a s k i
no s, a n d s e e m s to be th e e a r l ie r o f th e
tw o , a n d sin ce it also h a s a n u m b e r o f
stylistic e l e m e n t s a s s o c ia te d with
e a rl y C r e t a n p a in t in g . If th e s i g n a
t u r e is a u t h e n t i c , th e a rtist in q u e s t io n
w a s th e E m m a n u e l L a m b a r d o s w h o
also p a i n t e d th e C ru cifix io n in the
L o v e r d o s C o ll e c ti o n a n d is e a rlie r
th a n his n a m e s a k e , th e E m m a n u e l
L a m b a r d o s w h o p a i n t e d th e V e n ic e
icon o f t h e C ru c if ix io n at th e b e g in
n in g o f t h e 17th c e n t u r y ( M a n o u s
s a k a s 1971, p p . 7ff., pi. A ).
Hibliogrttpfjy. B altoyanni 198fi (1 ). n o . 1
A ffrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. 92. pp. 143. 144
Ch. H

65

M ic h a e l D a m a sk in o s:
S S S e r g iu s , lla c c h u s a n d J iistin a
A lte r 1571
112X119 cm
K erkyra. M useum of the Antivouniotissa

T h e g r e a t v ic to ry o f th e fleet o f th e
H o ly L e a g u e o f V e n i c e . S p a in a n d
th e P o p e o v e r t h a t o f th e T u r k s at
L e p a n t o . o n 7 O c t o b e r 1571, w as a
s o u r c e o f in s p ira t io n n o t o n ly fo r I t a
lian artists (cf. P allu ch in i 1974, p.
2 79 ), b u t also f o r G r e e k s , since
m a n y G r e e k s t o o k p a r t in it an d an

192

u n f a v o u r a b l e o u t c o m e w o u ld have
h a d a d ir e c t e ffect o n th e G re e k
islan d s o c c u p ie d by V e n ic e (cf. Ma
n o u s s a k a s 1974, pp . 2 1 5 ff .). Iln
C r e t a n p a i n t e r s usually c h o se In
d e p ic t t h e b a t t l e itself. M ic h a e l D a
m a s k i n o s , o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t
artists f r o m Ir a k lio n in th e secon d
h a lf o f t h e 16th c e n t u r y , c h o o s e s In
p a in t th e s a in ts w h o s e d a y w as cclc
b r a t e d o n t h e d a y o f th e victoiy.
t r e a d i n g o n a h e a d le s s lion, w h ich
s y m b o li z e d
th e
T u r k is h
lo u r.
A b o v e t h e m , five fig u res in a c lo m l

h o ld p a lm b r a n c h e s , sy m b o liz in g
V ic to r y . In th e c e n tr e . C h ris t is
h o l d i n g a b o o k w ith a G r e e k tr a n s l a
tio n o f th e w o r d s P a x lib i M arce
E vangelista m e n s. N e x t to him a re
M a r k , t h e p a t r o n saint o f V e n ic e ,
a n d St. S y m e o n . w h o se feast d ay was
t h e d a y a f t e r th e b a tt le . T h e icon is
typ ical o f th e w o r k
in w hich

D a m a s k i n o s w as in l h ic n s e d hy I o n
t e m p o r a r y V e n e t i a n a r t , pai I iculni lv
th a t o f P a o lo V e r o n e s e .

Conservtuittn. E. Kar;iynnm
B ibliography. V okolopoulos 19,S3, pp 1HI1
pi. V I. 2. A ffrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. *M.
14ft.

IV I

66
M ic h a e l D a m a sk in o s:
S t. J o h n th e B ap tist
S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
111.4X 60.2 cm
Zakynthos. M useum

T h e w in g e d fig u re o f St. J o h n th e
B a p ti s t is facin g to th e left; his right
h a n d is ra ise d in a g e s t u re o f sp e e c h
a n d h e is a d d r e s s in g C h ris t, a tiny
figu re at t h e to p left. H is w o r d s a re
w r it te n in e le g a n t c a p ita ls a n d with
flawlessly a c c u r a t e spe llin g on th e
lo ng , u n r o l le d scroll he is h o ld in g
in his left h a n d : O P A C O lA C X O Y C IN ... S ig n a tu re :
TOY AAMACKHNOY. The
d e c a p i t a t e d h e a d in a bow l at th e
b o t t o m is a r e f e r e n c e to th e festival
o f th e I n v e n t io n o f th e H e a d o f th e
B a p tist. In th e b a c k g r o u n d th e r e a re
tw o ro c k y p in n a c le s a n d th e ax e is
le a n in g a g a in s t th e fo o t o f a tr e e at
th e b o t t o m right. T h is is o n e o f th e
fin est ico ns by D a m a s k i n o s (w h o
d ie d in 1592). tr a d it io n a l in i c o n o
g r a p h y a n d style, r e m a r k a b l e b o th
fo r its sim p le c o lo u r h a r m o n y , with
g r e e n , b lue a n d b lu e - g re y , a n d for
t h e p re c is io n o f th e d r a w in g ; this can
b e se e n in th e t r e a t m e n t o f th e tall,
a r i s to c r a ti c fig u re w ith its e x p res siv e
g e s t u r e s , a n d also in th e gold w e b
b in g in th e c lo th in g . E l e m e n t s
d e r i v e d by D a m a s k i n o s fr o m 15thc e n t u r y C r e t a n p a in t in g in clu d e in
p a r t ic u l a r th e p e r s p e c ti v e t r e a t m e n t
o f th e scro ll, a n d th e m o u n t a in s ,
w h ich a r e r e m in i s c e n t o f A n g e lo s ;
th e m a n n e r i s t i c a r r a n g e m e n t o f the
s i g n a t u r e , w h ich is h a lf h id d e n
b e h i n d a ro c k is typical o f his o w n
period.

I Tv

Provenance. T he Church of Ayios Spyridnn


F lam bouriaris on Z aky n th o s (retrieved in
1953).
Bibliography. D randakis 1962. pp. 12611
B abic-C hatzidakis 1983. p. 313. fij>. p. 360 (in
English and F rench). Byzantine Art I9X(>, no
139. pp. 135-136. A ffrcschi c iconc I9H6. no
95. pp. 147. 148.

. O i

67

69

S t. J o h n th e B a p tist
16th c e n tu r y
104.5X 32 cm
C r e t e , I r u k l i o n . C h u r c h o f S t. M a t t h e w
Sinaiton

I his ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e o f St. J o h n
th e Biiptist d e r i v e s f r o m a m o d e l d a t
ing fro m th e P a l a e o l o g a n p e r i o d ,
w h ich w as also f o l lo w e d by th e C r e
ta n p a in t e r s o f t h e 15th c e n tu r y . T h e
v e ry tall fig u re o f th e sa in t, p o r
t r a y e d f r o n ta ll y , is w e a r in g a m e l o te
( s h e e p s k in ) a n d a h im a ti o n : his right
h a n d is ra ise d in b les sin g , a n d in his
left he h o ld s an o p e n scroll a n d a
lon g sta ff t h a t t e r m i n a t e s in a cross.
T h e f o r e s h o r t e n i n g o f th e left a r m in
this icon is a c h a ra c t e r i s ti c o f th e
ty p e . T h e a d d i t i o n o f th e w ings,
h o w e v e r , w h ic h a r e n o t f o u n d in th e
P a l a e o l o g a n m o d e l a n d th e a b s e n c e
o f th e d e c a p i t a t e d h e a d o n th e
g r o u n d , a r e n e w f e a t u r e s . T h e style

a n d th e m o d e l li n g , in w h ich th e flesh
is p a i n t e d o n a b ro w n u n d e r p a i n t ,
a n d th e f r e e d o m w ith w h ich th e v o l
u m e s a n d th e p r o m i n e n t c h e e k
b o n e s a r e r e n d e r e d , a re f e a t u r e s th a t
are also t o b e f o u n d in th e figu re o f
S y m e o n (ca t. n o 68), a n d su gg est
th a t t h e ico n sh o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to
M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s . B o th ico ns
h av e t h e s a m e d im e n s i o n s , a n d s e e m
t o h a v e c o m e fr o m th e s a m e i c o n
ostasis.
C onservation. T . M oschos.
B ibliography. B orboudakis 1971. p. 529. pi.
544. B yzantine A rt 1986, no. 141. pp.
137-138. A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 96. pp.
147, 148.

. B.

68
S ym eon T heodochos
16th c e n tu r y
9 9 x 3 2
cm
C r e t e , I r a k l i o n . C h u r c h o f St. M a t t h e w
S inaiton

T h is rare s c e n e o f S y m e o n T h e o d o
c h o s ( R e c e iv e r o f G o d ') w ith th e
C h ris t C h ild in his a r m s is t h o u g h t to
be an a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m o f th e P r e
s e n t a t i o n in th e T e m p l e , a n d d e riv e s
m a in ly f r o m t h e m i n i a t u r e s in th e
m a r g in s o f i l l u m in a t e d m a n u s c rip ts .
T h e m a n n e r in w h ic h S y m e o n is
h o ld in g C h r is t, t o g e t h e r w ith th e text
o n th e scroll, a r e d e s i g n e d to focus
th e w o r s h i p p e r s a t t e n t i o n o n the
ho ly in fa n t. T h e t e c h n i q u e u s e d in
th e v e n e r a b l e fig u re o f S y m e o n is
th a t o f C r e t a n p a i n t in g , a n d the
b ru s h w o r k is r a t h e r fr e e ; it gives
him a distin ctly in d i v id u a l , p e rs o n a l
q u a li ty , full o f s t r e n g t h , w hich is
in te n sifie d by th e p r o f o u n d , re f le c
tive g aze. T h e fig u re o f S y m e o n is

194

r e l a t e d to t h e fig u re s o f a g e d b ish o p s
in th e icon o f the First E c u m e n i c a l
C o u n c il (1591) by M ic h a e l D a m a s k i
n o s, a n d t h e p lu m p figu re o f the
y o u n g C h r is t is r e m in i s c e n t o f C hrist
in this s a m e ico n , in th e V isio n o f S t .
P e t e r o f A le x a n d r i a . T h e icon ol
S y m e o n m a y also be a t t r i b u t e d to
D am askinos.
A
f u r t h e r fe a tu ri
c o m m o n to th e tw o is th e realistic
t r e a t m e n t o f th e vein s o n th e h a n d s
a n d t e m p l e s o f th e a g e d fig u re s ol
t h e b is h o p s a n d o f S y m e o n , which
re flec ts th e p a i n t e r 's e x p e r i e n c e o|
Ita lia n a rt.
C onservation. T . M oschos.
Bibliography. B orboudakis 1969. p. 527. pi
\ B orboudakis 1971. p. 529. Borbomln
kis 1985. no. 33. p. 137. Byzantine A rt I9H6,
no. 142. p. 138. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 97.
pp. 148. 149.

11

T r ip ty c h
E n d o f th e 16th c e n tu r y
c m ( o p e n ) ; 2 0 x 1 5 c m (closed)
A thens. City of A th en s M u s e u m

2 0 x 2 8

T h e c e n tr a l p a n e l ha s a r e p r e s e n
ta t io n o f th e D e e s is , w ith C h ris t in
th e c e n t r e a n d th e V irgin a n d St.
J o h n th e B a p ti s t o n e i t h e r side. A t
th e to p a r e b u sts o f SS G e o r g e an d
D e m e t r i u s . E a c h o f th e sid e leav es
h a s tw o C h u r c h F a t h e r s d e p ic t e d
fro n ta lly : St. G r e g o r y th e T h e o lo
g ian a n d St. J o h n C h r y s o s t o m o n the
left, a n d SS Basil a n d S p y ri d o n on
th e rig h t, a c c o m p a n i e d by b u sts of
SS P e t e r a n d Paul re s p ectiv ely . T h e
o u ts id e o f th e tw o w ings is d e c o r a t e d
w ith th e A n n u n c i a t i o n . T h e p a in t e r
is cle a rly fo llo w in g 1 5 th -cen tu ry
m o d e l s . T h e m a in s c e n e o f th e D e e
sis a n d th e fig u re s o f th e C h u r c h
F a t h e r s r e s e m b le t h o s e in th e icon by
N ik o la o s R it z o s in S a r a j e v o . C h ris t
is h o ld in g a n o p e n G o s p e l b o o k , a n d
th e V irgin a n d th e B a p tist are
s t a n d i n g in a t t i t u d e s o f p r a y e r
( B a b i c - C h a t z i d a k i s 1983. p. 321).
T h e g a r m e n t s w o r n by th e C h u r c h
F a t h e r s als o fo llo w m o d e l s fr o m the
e n d o f th e 15th c e n t u r y (cf. B y z a n
tin e A r t 1986. no . 133, A ffres c h i e
ic o n e 1986, n o . 78). T h e s c e n e o f the
A n n u n c i a t i o n o n th e o u ts id e o f the
w in g s, h o w e v e r , h a s n o a rc h i te c t u r a l
b a c k g r o u n d , a n d th e V irgin is sittin g
o n an im p o s i n g w o o d e n t h r o n e ; in
b o t h r e s p e c ts th e c o m p o s it io n d iffers

f r o m t h e u sual e arly C r e t a n icon o


g r a p h y , a n d a ls o fr o m that u sed liv
T h e o p h a n e s in th e 16th curriLPy
(C h a t z i d a k i s ( N . ) 1983, no . 4Q
C h a t z i d a k i s 1969-70, figs. 34, <iN).
T h e v ig o r o u s strid e o f th e a rc h a n g e l
a n d th e figu re o f th e V irg in s e a l e d
u p o n th e t h r o n e follow a m o d e l
f o u n d in th e well k n o w n bilin gu al.
G r e e k - I t a l i a n m a n u s c r ip t fro m th e
e n d o f t h e 13th c e n t u r y P a r. gr. 51
( L a z a r e v 1967, fig. 390).
T h e s h a p e o f th e tr ip ty c h is sim ilar to
t w o l a t e r o n e s in t h e B erlin M u s e u m
a n d th e B e n a k i M u s e u m , A t h e n s
( E l b e r n 1979, no . 4, p. 16. X yn go p o u l o s 1936, no. 53, p. 76).
o v e ra l l d e sig n w ith th e D e e s is in Ihe
c e n tr a l p a n e l a n d th e sa in ts on th e
sid e le a v e s is th e s a m e b ut th e
p r e s e n t w o r k is o f a m u c h b elli i
q u a li ty , r e f le c te d in th e carefu l
t e c h n i q u e a n d th e p o lish in g o f ihe
g o ld b a c k g r o u n d . T h e figures an
so lid , a n d th e i r e x p r e s s io n s s e v e r e ,
th e m o d e l l i n g c o m p a c t , using p ie
d o m i n a n t l y d a r k to n e s , anil ihe
t r e a t m e n t o f th e d r a p e r y is liaishei
t h a n t h a t in w o r k s fro m th e e n d
o f th e 15th a n d b e g in n in g ol tl
16th c e n tu r ie s ; th e tr ip ty ch s e e m s
t h e r e f o r e to h a v e b e e n p a in t e d by it
fin e a rtist fro m th e e n d o f tin- loili
c e n tu r y .
Bibliography. Byzantine A il I'WC,
pp. 142-143.

,,

||

N l li

7 0

T r ip ty c h w ith
to p o g r a p h ic a l v ie w o f M o u n t S in a i
F ir st h a lf o f th e 17th c e n tu r y
35X 38 cm (open)
A t h e n s . I. Y a n n o u k o s C o llectio n

T h e m o s t s trik in g f e a t u r e o f the
tr ip ty c h is its u n u s u a l c a r v e d w o o d e n
to p , w h ic h has a to p o g r a p h ic a l view
o f M o u n t S inai. O n th e inside o f the
t h r e e p a n e ls a r e t h r e e m in ia t u r e
s c e n e s o f t h e life o f C h rist: the
T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n in th e c e n t r e , with
th e R e s u r r e c t i o n a n d th e C ru cifix ion
l')S

on

eith er

sid e .

T ran sfig u ratio n


tw o

secondary

C h rist

lead in g

The

sceiiu

ol

is a c c o n i p . m i i
ep iso d e,

ill
i

',,

his pupil, lo M o u n t

T h a b o r a n d f o l l o w i n g l l i e i n -, l l n \
d ep art.

The

arli.t

w a< t l r i n l v

m il

mini | I In
15th
cen tu ry
llu tlmi
f o l l o w s th e i c o n o g n i p l m lyp n | ,m
i c o n in V e n i i v
wllli I In a n : K
h o l d i n g tin symbol, o l l l u l ', i l n n
a n d I h e a n g e l lit ilir l i o l l n n i >11. i ijf
I l a d e s ; l l i e hiiiuc IV|n iippi'iiit in in
i c o n by I m i m i n n r l I iih
mi I
ta tin g a g o o d C re ta n

kyr;i ( C h o r e m i s 1981. pi. 5). T h e


C ru cifix io n follo w s th e ty p e w idely
e s t a b li s h e d by th e C r e t a n S ch o o l in
th e 16th c e n t u r y , w h ic h c an be se e n
in an icon in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m
a t t r i b u t e d to N ik o la o s R itz o s. In it
the e n d s o f th e a r m s o f th e cro s s a re
d r a w n in p e r s p e c ti v e , a n d t h e r e is a
g r o u p o f fo u r w o m e n on th e right
anil th e g riev ing J o h n w ith L o n g in u s
o n th e left. In th e p r e s e n t icon,
h o w e v e r , th e w alls o f J e r u s a l e m in
th e b a c k g r o u n d s u g g e s t a s o m e w h a t
la ter d a te .
T h e o u ts id e o f th e p a n e l w ith the
R e s u r r e c t i o n h a s a s c e n e d ep ic tin g
t h r e e f o u n d e r s o f m o n a s ti c is m in
E g y p t a n d P a le s ti n e , s h o w n f r o n ta lly
a n d full-len gth : SS A n t h o n y , S a b b a s
a n d E u t h y m i o s . F in a lly , o n th e o u t
side o f th e tr ip t y c h a t th e b a c k o f the
C ru c if ix io n , th e fig u re o f St. C a t h e
rine ca n b e d is ti n g u is h e d , d e s p i te th e
d a m a g e , w e a r i n g im p e ri a l r o b e s a n d
r e n d e r e d in th e I t a l o - C r e t a n ty pe
th a t b e c a m e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
M o n a s t e r y o f Sinai f r o m th e b e g i n
nin g o f t h e 17th c e n t u r y o n w a r d s
( W e i t z m a n n 1982 (2 ), p. 40). T h is
last s c e n e is also d ir e c tly c o n n e c t e d
w ith th e re lie f at t h e to p o f th e t r i p
ty c h . w h ic h d e p ic t s M o u n t Sinai. In
th e c e n t r e o f it is a s c e n e o f th e b u r
n in g b u s h , fr o m b e h i n d w h ic h th e
a n g el is e m e r g i n g at th e left, a n d
c o m m a n d i n g M o s e s to ta k e o ff his
sa n d a l s ( E x o d u s 3 .5 ) , w hile at th e
rig ht M o s e s is k n e e li n g b e f o r e his
flo ck, in o r d e r to o b e y . A t th e
s u m m i t o f th e m o u n t a i n M o s e s is
sh o w n fo r a th ird t i m e , rec eiv ing th e
T a b l e s o f th e L a w f r o m th e h a n d o f
G o d . O n a lo w e r p e a k , at th e rig h t,
ca n b e se e n t h e relic o f St. C a t h e r i n e
b e t w e e n tw o a n g e ls , in th e sam e
fo r m in w h ich it w a s p a i n t e d by
M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s in th e icon w ith
t h e B u r n in g B u s h in Ir a k lio n , C r e te .
F in ally, th e c ave o f th e P r o p h e t E lias
c a n b e se e n o n th e left, o n a third
p e a k , b e h i n d w h ich rises th e su n ,
c a r v e d in relief.
T h e in clu sio n o f th e t h r e e fo u n d e r s
o f m o n a s tic is m su g g e s ts t h a t th e
tr ip ty c h w as p r o b a b l y c o n n e c t e d
w ith a m o n k . M o r e o v e r , th e d e p i c

1%

tion o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n th e o u ts id e ,
a n d o f M o u n t Sinai at th e to p leav e
no r o o m fo r d o u b t t h a t th e tr ip ty c h
w as c o n n e c t e d w ith th e M o n a s t e r y
o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n Sinai. T h is
r e l a t i o n s h i p f u r t h e r a c c o u n t s f o r th e
ch o ic e o f th e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n fo r th e
c e n t r a l p a n e l.
M o u n t S in ai m a k e s its first a p p e a
r a n c e in p a in t in g in th e s e c o n d h a lf
o f th e 16th c e n t u r y , o n e o f th e e a r
liest e x a m p l e s b e in g th e f a m o u s
tr ip ty c h by D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o
p o u lo s in M o d e n a , d a t e d to c. 1567
( W e t h e y 1962, pi. 33). M o u n t Sinai
is p a i n t e d in s im ila r f a s h io n in th e
large ico n w ith St. C a t h e r i n e by Ierem ias P a l l a d a s , w h ic h is d a t e d to 1612
( W e i t z m a n n 1982 (2), pi. 52). T h e r e
t h u s s e e m to b e k n o w n ic o n o g r a p h ic
p a ra l le l s fo r th e d e p ic tio n o f Sinai.
Its r a t h e r u n u s u a l r e n d e r in g in relief,
w h ic h is also to be f o u n d o n a n o t h e r
t r i p t y c h , in t h e M o n a s t e r y o n Sinai,
sig n e d by V i c t o r a n d d a t e d to 1684
( C h a t z i d a k i s 1966 (2 ), p. 56) is p r o b
a b ly d u e to W e s t e r n in flu en ce s .
T h e I t a l o - C r e t a n ty p e o f St. C a t h e
r i n e , w ith t h e m a n n e r is t ic t u r n o f the
h e a d in th e o p p o s i t e d ir e c tio n to th at
o f th e b o d y , th e c lo a k w ith gold
e m b r o i d e r e d e a g le s, t r i m m e d with
e r m i n e , a n d th e le c t io n a r y with
R e n a i s s a n c e sty le d e c o r a t i o n , r e n
d e r e d in g o ld w e b b in g , is also to be
e n c o u n t e r e d in p a in tin g s fr o m thi
b e g in n i n g o f th e 17th c e n tu r y . Tin
s a i n t's rig h t h a n d , h o w e v e r , w hich is
ra is e d in f r o n t o f h e r b r e a s t, is mil
h o ld i n g a p a lm lea f, as in t h e icon by
P a ll a d a s , b u t fo llow s th e v a ria tio n in
th e icon s by V ic to r a n d by Silvestrn
T h e o c h a r i s , o n Sinai a n d P a tm o s .
T h e s e ic o n o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , com
b i n e d w ith th e a rc h a iz in g C h ris to
logical s c e n e s , su g g est th a t llu
tr ip ty c h s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d lo
C r e t a n a rtist fr o m the b e g in n in g nl
th e 17th c e n t u r y , a n d possibly In
S ilv e s tro s
T heocharis
(attcsleil
1633-1638), o n e o f w h o s e tr ip ty c h 1
(cat. n o . 71) ha s a w o o d - c a r v e d busi
sim ila r to t h a t o f th e p r e s e n t w m k
B ibliography. B ouras 1985. pp. 62-6.1. A lin
chi e iconc 1986, no. 100. pp 150-152.

71
S ilv e s tr o s T h e o c h a r is :
T r ip ty c h in a p o r ta b le a lta r
A lta r : se c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y
T r ip ty c h : fir st h a lf o f th e
17th c e n tu r y
5 5 x 5 7 .2 cm (open)

Athens. Private Collection

O n th e o u ts id e o f th e tw o w ings of
t h e a lt a r c a n b e s e e n f o u r figu res,
q u it e b a d ly d a m a g e d by use: th o s e of
K in g D a v i d a n d K in g S o l o m o n at th e
to p a n d tw o o t h e r p r o p h e t s , p ossibly
E z e k ie l a n d I s a ia h , a t th e b o t t o m ; all
f o u r h o ld o p e n scrolls. T h e insid e o f
th e tw o w in g s a r e d e c o r a t e d w ith tw o
p a r t s o f a n A n n u n c i a t i o n scen e. T h e
p o s t u r e s a n d th e p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e
tw o fig u re s a n d th e a r c h i te c t u r e in
t h e b a c k g r o u n d b e a r o b v io u s r e s e m
b la n c e s to th e A n n u n c i a t i o n o n th e
f r a m e o f t h e icon by N ik o la o s R itz o s
in S a r a j e v o ( B a b i c - C h a tz id a k i s 1983
p. 321). T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f th e
p r o p h e t s a n d t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n on
th e w in g s o f th e a lt a r recalls th e
d e c o r a t i o n o f S a n c tu a r y D o o r s , in
w h ich e m p h a s is is laid o n th e ro le o f
th e V irgin in th e I n c a r n a ti o n .
T h e trip ty c h h a s a c a r v e d w o o d e n
t o p r e m in i s c e n t o f a n ico n o s tasis
cro ss, w ith m i n i a t u r e 'ly p ira ' a n d a
w o o d - c a r v e d b a s e . O rig in a lly tw o
c o lu m n s c o n n e c t e d th is c a r v e d to p
w ith t h e b a s e , b u t th e s e a r e n o w
m issing. O n th e in s id e , th e tr ip ty ch
h a s a s c e n e o f th e D e e s is , w ith
C h r is t, in t h e liturgical ty p e p a r
excellen ce o f th e H ig h P rie s t, f la n k e d
by th e fig u res o f t h e V irg in a n d St.
J o h n th e B a p ti s t. C h r is t is s u p p o r t e d
o n w h e e ls o f fire a n d is e n c ir c le d by
th e s y m b o ls o f t h e f o u r ev ang elists.
T h e side w in gs h a v e sc e n e s o f th e
th r e e C h u r c h F a t h e r s , SS Basil, J o h n
C h r y s o s t o m a n d G r e g o r y th e T h e o
lo g ia n (left) a n d SS S p y r i d o n , N i c h o
las a n d A r s e n i u s t h e G r e a t (righ t).
T w o a n g e ls (in th e fo r m o f n a k e d
c u p id s ) a r e h o ld i n g an o p e n G o s p e l
b o o k a b o v e th e h e a d s o f th e th r e e
C h u r c h F a t h e r s , a n d th e c o r r e s p o n d
197

ing a n g e ls a b o v e St. N ich o las m e i>


t u r n i n g to h im his b i s h o p s insignia
th e G o sp el book and o m n p h o n o n ,
a n d a c r o w n . O n th e b ack o f th e Itfl
leaf, th e a p o s t le s P e t e r a n d Pau l are
h o l d i n g a m o d e l o f a d o m e d c h in c h ,
a b o v e w h ic h can b e se e n th e I Inly
T r in i ty . F in a lly , th e b a c k o f th e light
w in g h a s t h e m o s t ca re fu lly exeeult>cl
s c e n e o f t h e tr ip t y c h , w ith a d u p it
tio n t h e T h e o t o k o s - Z o o d o c h o s Pigi
( F o u n t a i n o f L ife ) a n d th e signaling
o f t h e a rt is t at th e b o t t o m left: X I
CYABECTPOY

(M O N ) ( ) Y /

T O Y ( ) . T h e o u t e r su rface
o f th e p h ia l e is d e c o r a t e d willi
a l t e r n a t i n g A tla s e s a n d lio n s h e a d
w a t e r s p o u t s . T h e p h ia le rises fro m
r e c t a n g u l a r c is te rn , to w hic h flo cked
th e fa ith fu l - th e d e a f , th e la m e , tin
b lin d , th e p a r a l y s e d a n d th e p os
s e s s e d , all o f t h e m s e e k i n g a mi
r a c u l o u s c u r e (P a lla s 1971, pp.
201-224). T h e a rtist S ilve stros T h e n
c h a ris ( a t t e s t e d 1633-1638), w h o wns
f a m o u s f o r his skill in m i n i a t m e
p a i n t in g , w a s a m o n k w h o set I lad ill
Iraklion,
C rete
( K a z a n a k i J.ap p a
1981, p p . 177-267), a n d w h o w as om
o f t h e c o n s e r v a ti v e p a in t e r s ol III
first h a lf o f th e 17th c e n tu r y ( ( 'hiiltti
d a k is 1977 (1 ), p. 122). c a iv c d
w o o d e n b a s e o f th e tr ip ty c h , vvitli II
b a r o q u e v o lu t e s , a n d its c a rv e d to p
c o p y in g an ic o n o s ta sis cross, n n
a lm o s t id e n tic a l w ith the cm veil
d e c o r a t i o n o f a n o t h e r ex c p tin n n llt
w ell p r e s e r v e d tr ip ty c h in the Mv/ini
ti n e M u s e u m , A t h e n s (< h n l / l d i i U 1
1969. fig. 54). T h e faithful imiliillnii
o f th e ic o n o s ta sis c ro s s, mid ll>
d e c o r a t i o n o f th e a lta r will)). m i l
firm a n e a r l ie r o b s e r v a tio n by K
W e i t z m a n n , th at triptych*, w e n Inin
gical o b j e c t s w hich h a d ffl my I .
t u r e s in c o m m o n w ith 11if
( W e i t z m a n n l W2 I I I |i V

a / ill \
< IlillM llllk l*

I m l t l i it

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73

72
C a r to o n o f th e R e su r r e c tio n
17th c e n tu r y
4 1 .5 x 3 0 .5 cm
Athens. Benaki M useum . Xyngopoulos
Collection, 22.113

P ric k e d c a r t o o n w ith t h e R e s u r r e c
tion i m p r i n t e d in b la c k a n d re d an d
a c c o m p a n i e d by a p r i c k e d cop y. T h e
p a p e r h a s a w a t e r m a r k c o n sistin g of
an e i g h t - p o i n t e d s t a r a n d a lily, w ith
th e in itials G P. T h e p ric k in g m u s t
h ave b e e n d o n e w ith th e aid o f a
t o o t h e d w h e e l. C h ris t is s h o w n in th e
c e n tr e o f th e c o m p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n
tw o g r o u p s o f a n c e s t o r s . H e is
s t a n d in g firm ly o n t h e b r o k e n g a te s
o f H a d e s , ra isin g A d a m fr o m a
s a r c o p h a g u s ; A d a m is fo llo w e d by
E v e , A b e l a n d o t h e r s o f the r i g h t
e o u s . T h e o t h e r g r o u p is led by St.
J o h n th e B a p ti s t, f o llo w e d by th e
p r o p h e t s D a v id a n d S o l o m o n , with
o t h e r kings b e h i n d t h e m . A t th e t o p ,
b e t w e e n tw o c ra g g y m o u n t a i n p e a k s ,
a r e a n g e ls h o ld in g th e s y m b o ls o f th e
P a ss io n ; a th i rd a n g e l at th e b o t t o m
is c h a in in g H a d e s . T h e s i g n a tu re
c a n be s e e n at th e b o t
to m rig h t, a n d b e lo w th e tw o an g e ls
w ith th e s y m b o ls o f t h e P assion is the
re v e r s e in s c rip tio n : T O Y
XIICTOY A N A I T A C I C .
The i c o n o g r a p h y is in s p ire d b y th e
apocryphal gospel o f N icodem us
( K a r t s o n is 1986), a n d h a s a n u m b e r
o f P a l a e o l o g a n f e a t u r e s , such as th e
large n u m b e r o f figu res in th e
c o m p o s it io n a n d t h e ang el c h a in in g
H a d e s . T h e fig u re o f C h ris t p u llin g
A dam
fr o m
th e
sarcophagus,
in s p ire d by th e im p e ria l ic o n o g r a p h y
o f late a n ti q u it y , s y m b o liz e s th e
r e d e m p t i o n o f m a n k i n d (M o u rik i
1985. p. 147). T h e tw o a n g e ls with
th e s y m b o ls o f th e P a s s io n , h o w e v e r ,
w e re a d d e d by th e C r e t a n p a in t e r s ,
a n d first a p p e a r in th e 15th c e n tu r y
(C h a tz i d a k is ( N .) 1983. no. 29. p.
38). T h e s a m e i c o n o g r a p h y can be
seen in th e tr ip ty c h w ith a t o p o g r a
phical view o f M o u n t Sinai (cat. no.
I9H

70) f r o m t h e b e g in n i n g o f th e 17th
c e n tu r y ; in an icon by E m m a n u e l
T z a n e s (1610-1690) o n
K erkyra
( C h o r e m i s 1981. pp. 2 2 1f f .); a n d in
an in f e r io r 1 7 th -c e n tu ry icon in P aris
( l e o n e s 1977, no. 17).
T h is is t h e b e s t d r a w n c a r t o o n in th e
B e n a k i M u s e u m ; it follo w s th e
in s tr u c t io n s in th e P a i n t e r s M a n u a l '
by D io n y s i u s o f F o u r n a (cf. H e t h e r i n g to n 1978, p. 5). T h e o u tl in e s an d
d e ta i ls o f th e d r a p e r y a re r e n d e r e d in
b la c k , w h ile th e h ig hlig hts a re
defined
by
re d
o u tlin e s .
The
p ric k e d d esig n w as th e w o r k o f an
a c c o m p lis h e d d r a u g h t s m a n , t h o u g h
it h a s a c e r t a i n stiffness. T h e s i g n a
tu r e o c c u rs in te n o t h
e r c a r t o o n s in th e s a m e B e n a k i
M u s e u m p o r t f o li o w h ich a re n ot
u n if o r m in style. T w o of t h e m re la te
t o w o r k s b y T h e o d o r o s P o u la k i s
(1 62 2-16 92 ). It s e e m s likely t h e r e
fo r e t h a t th e d ra w in g s a re n o e a r
lier t h a n th e m id d le o f th e 17th c e n
tu r y , t h o u g h th e o n ly w a y in which
this ca n be d e m o n s t r a t e d be y o n il
d o u b t w o u ld in v o lv e th e f u t u r e i d e n
tific a tio n o f th e w a t e r m a r k .
Conservation. J. Brown (1983).
B i b lio g r a p h y . U n p u b l i s h e d .

L. U.

C a r to o n o f th e B a p tism o f C h rist

17th c e n tu r y
42X 3 1 .6 cm
Athens. Benaki M useum , Xyngopoulos
C ollection, 22.88

P ric k e d d r a w in g w ith th e B a p ti s m of
C h r is t i m p r i n t e d in red a n d black .
T h e p a p e r h as a w a t e r m a r k w ith a
b ir d , a n d tw o strip s h a v e b e e n a t
t a c h e d at th e b o t t o m a n d r i g h t-h a n d
s id e ; o n th e r e v e r s e is a grid for
t r a n s f e r r i n g th e c o m p o s it io n o n a
d if f e r e n t scale. T h e figu re o f C h ris t,
in t h r e e q u a r t e r s v iew , is t u r n e d
t o w a r d s St. J o h n th e B a p tis t. D i r e c t
ly a b o v e C h r is t a r e th e d o v e s y m b o l
izing th e H o ly S p ir it, a n d th e h a n d
o f G o d em erging from a radiant
circle. T h e s c e n e is v ie w e d fr o m
a b o v e , so th a t C h r is t's b o d y is set
a g a in s t th e b a c k g r o u n d o f th e R iv e r
J o r d a n . Fish s w im in th e w a te r s o f
th e riv e r, a n d in th e f o r e g r o u n d can
b e se e n th e p e r s o n if i c a ti o n s o f th e
S e a a n d th e R iv e r J o r d a n , in s p ire d
by P sa lm 113 (1 1 4 ), 3. T h e S e a , with
its b a c k t u r n e d to th e v ie w e r, is
rid in g o n a se a m o n s t e r , a n d th e
R iv e r J o r d a n is h o ld in g a n u p t u r n e d
p it c h e r f r o m w h ic h w a t e r is flow ing,
fo llo w in g a ty p e e s t a b li s h e d in th e
E a r ly C h r is ti a n p e r i o d (M o u r ik i
1985, p p . 135-136). A s th e ro ck y
b a n k s o f t h e riv e r c o n v e r g e , th e y e n d
in tw o s t e e p p e a k s . A t th e left are
f o u r a n g e l - d e a c o n s , set o n e b e h in d
th e o t h e r w ith n o a t t e m p t at p e r s p e c
tive. e x t e n d i n g th e i r h a n d s , w hich
a r e c o v e r e d by th e i r h im a ti a , t o
w a r d s C h r is t. St. J o h n th e B a p tis t
s t a n d s a b o v e C h ris t on th e o p p o s i te
b a n k a n d , w ith a lively m o v e m e n t , is
s t o o p in g to i m p o s e his h a n d on
C h r is t's h e a d , in a g e s t u r e signifying
th e tr a n s m i s s i o n o f th e H o ly Spirit
( W a l t e r 1980. p. 24). T h e axe l e a n
ing a g a in s t a b u s h b e lo w him is a
r e f e r e n c e to th e biblical a c c o u n t of
th e B a p t i s m ( M a t t h e w 3.10 , L u k e
3.9).
The

i c o n o g r a p h ic
I W

ty p e

is

known

f r o m th e b e g in n i n g o f I ho I (>Ii c m
tu r y o n w a r d s in w o r k s a l t i i b u l c d In
th e
C retan
pain ter
Ihcoplm iH ".
( C h a t z i d a k i s 1969-70, pi. 37). Il also
o c c u r s in an icon o n th e Island in llie
L a k e at I o a n n i n a ( T r i a n ta p h y l lo p o u
los 1977, pi. 101), a n d in a D o d o
k a o r t o n icon o n K e r k y r a allrihu ti.il
to E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (1610 lo9(l)
( C h o r e m i s 1981, p. 220).
T h is p r i c k e d c a r t o o n , w h ich w as o n
gin ally f o l d e d in to fo u r , w as niiidi
a c c o r d i n g to th e in s tru c tio n s o f I >io
n y siu s o f F o u r n a , like th e p re v io u s
o n e (ca t. n o . 72). D ra w i n g s like this
f a c i li ta t e d t h e d is s e m i n a ti o n Of lin
ic o n o g r a p h i c ty p e , a n d acc o u n t foi
its use w ith a lm o s t im p e rc e p tib le
v a r i a t i o n s in w o r k s th a t m ust be til
leas t a h u n d r e d y e a r s a p a rt.
Conservation. J. Brow n (1983).
B ibliography. U npublished.

li

ABBREVIATIONS

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. B E C K W IT H , E arly C h ristian and B yzan


tine A r t. H a rm o n d sw o rth 1970.
C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N . A ffrcschi c
icone d alla G rccia (X -X V 1I seco lo ). A tc n e e
F ire n ze, P alazzo S trozzi (16 S c ttc m b rc - 16
N o v cm b rc 1986). A te n e 1986.
C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N , B y zantine
an d P o st-B y za n tin e A rt, A th e n s , O ld U n i
v ersity (Ju ly 26th 1985 - Ja n u a ry 6th 1986),
A th e n s 1986.
M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . leo n es d e S ain t-G co rgcs d es G re c s c t d c la C o llectio n d c l ln stitu t,
In stitu t G rc c d e V e n ic e , N cri P ozza-V enicc
1962.
M . C H A T Z ID A K IS - V D J U R IC , L es icon es d a n s les C o llectio n s S uisscs. B ern e 1968.
M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . Icons o f P atm o s. N a
tio n al B a n k o f G re e c e , A th en s 1985.
T H C H A T Z ID A K IS . E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e ,
L 'a rt d es ico n es c n C re te el d a n s les lies ap rcs
B y zan cc. E u ro p a lia G re c c 1982. C h a rle ro is.
P alais d e s B eau x A rts, 3 O c to b re - 21 N o v cm
b rc 1982.
N. C H A T Z ID A K IS . E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e .
Icons o f th e C re ta n S chool (15th - 16th c e n tu
ries). B cn ak i M u seu m . A th en s 1983.
R. C O R M A C K . W ritin g in G o ld . L o n d o n
1985.
G . G A L A V A R IS . T h e Icon in th e Life o f the
C h u rc h . Ic o n o g ra p h y o f R eligions X X IV . 8.
L eid en 1981.
A. G R A B A R . B y zan tin e P ain tin g . G en ev a
1953.
P. H E T H E R IN G T O N . T h e P a in te r s M anual
o f D ionysius o f F o u rn a , L o n d o n 1978.
M A N G O . T h e A rt o f th e B yzantine
E m p ire 312-1453. N ew Je rse y 1972.
A. P A P A G E O R G I O U . E x h ib itio n C a ta
log u e. B y zan tin e Icons o f C y p ru s. B cnaki M u
seu m . A th e n s 1976.
K. W E IT Z M A N N . T h e M o n astery o f Saint
C a th e rin e at M o u n t S inai. T h e Ico n s, vol. I:
I to m th e Sixth to th e T e n th C e n tu ry , P rin c e
ton 1976.
K W E IT Z M A N N . T h e Icon. C h a tto and
W indus, L o n d o n 1978.

MAP WITH T H E PR O V E N A N C E
OF THE WORKS

K W E IT Z M A N N . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . S.
U A D O J i l C . Icons. N ew Y o rk 1980.
K W E IT Z M A N N . G . A LI B E G A S VI L I . A .
V O L S K A JA . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . G . B A
KU M. A L P A T O V . T . V O IN E S C U . T he
lin n . A lfred A . K n o p f. N ew Y ork 1982.

AAA

AE







,





,


A rtB
BCH
CA
DOP
JO B
PKg

A rt B u lletin
B ulletin de C o r r e s p o n d e n c e H ellen iq u e
C a h ie rs A rch eo lo g iq u es
D u m b arto n O aks Papers
J a h r b u c h d e r O s te rre ic h isc h e n B y zan tin istik
P ro p y la e n K u n stg esch ich te

. .

. .

A C H E IM A S T O U 1966 = M ..
.
,
21 (1966): . p p . 62-83.
A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U
1973
74 = - ..
.
. 29 (1973-1974): , pp.
609-614.
A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1976 =
- .. . 31 (1976):
, p p . 14-20.
A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1977 =
- .. , 32 (1977):
, p p . 8-14.
A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1987 (in
p rin t) = ..

Ken, , . - . '
(1987) (in p rin t).
A F F R E S C H 1 IC O N E 1986 = E xhib itio n
C a ta lo g u e . A ffrcsch i e iconc d alla G rccia
(X -X V II se c o lo ). A te n e c F ire n ze, Palazzo
Slrozzi (16 S c ttc m b rc - 16 N o v cm b rc 1986),
A te n e 1986.
A IN A L O V 1917 = A in alo v D .. B yzantine
P ain tin g o f th e F o u rte e n th C e n tu ry (in R u s
sia n ). P c tro g ra d 1917.
A U F H A U S E R 1913 = A u fh au ser B.J . Miracu la S. G e o rg ii. L eipzig 1913.
B A B IC 1968 = B abic G .. L es discussions
C h risto lo g iq u cs ct 1c d e c o r d es eglises byzantins au X II sicclc. F ru h m ittclaltcrlich c S tu
dio n. B erlin 1968, p p . 368-386.
B A B IC -C H A T Z ID A K J S 1983 = B abic G -

C h a tz id a k is M ., Le iconc della penisolu Mul


can ica c d cllc isolc G rc c h e (2 ). W eil/n u iim
.. A libegasvili G .. V o lsk a ja A ., liab le <i
C h a tz id a k is M .. A lp ato v M .. V oincseu I I
ico n c. M ilan o 1983. p p . 305-371.
B A L T O Y A N N I 1984 =



>
I /
, X VIII
(1 9 8 4 ), p p . 43-72.
B A L T O Y A N N I 1985 = \
. >
. 1985.
B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (1) - H alloytuim t
E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , Icones ilc t oll linn
p riv ecs en G rc c e , A th c n e s 1986
B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (2)
lialto y m tn i < li
Ico n s, D cm etrio s E k o n o m o p o u lo s ( ollt i llmi
A th e n s 1986.
B A N K 1977 = B ank A .. I a it hy/iiiiilii I....
les m u sccs d e l'U n io n S o v ietism I itlniHHlhl
1977.
B E L T IN G 1980-81
B elling II hinn
and its F u n ctio n in the I Ih e M nn "I
S o rro w s in B y zan tiu m . IX >1* M L | | 1 n
1981), pp. 1-16.
B E L T IN G 1981
B elting II Mu M*ll und
sein P u h lik u m im M illcliillei M iilln l ,J| I
B E R E N S O N 1968
IU h i i , imi It
Iitill.m
P ictu re s o f th e K enaissiiiut A Imi I |Hfli
cipal artists an d th en w nil wllli nil IIIli I
p lates, vol. Il l o n tlo n MJliH
111 M IN I I') 1
Mil I Mil S
I < | I (M ill
ico n c c ie le s e veinvliiiiii I iiiihIinun 1 1
1933.
HI 1 I INI I'MII

II Mini

IMllun

v c n c z ia n c . slave e d italiane del M u sco N azion ale di R a v e n n a . R avenna 1940.

CECC HI 1928 = C ccchi


S en esi. R om a 1928.

B IA N C O F IO R IN 1983 = B ianco F iorin M .,


N icola Z a fu ri. C rc tc sc del Q u a ttro c c n to . c
u n a sua in c d ita 'M a d o n n a '. A rte V c n e ta ,
X X X V II (1983). pp. 164-169.

C l I A R A l .A M P O U S -M O U R IK I 1962-63 =
- N ..

, , . . (1962-1963), p p . 87-1 14.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1969 =
..
. . . ' (1969). p p. 521
528.
B O R B O U D A K IS 1971

.. . 26
(1971): , p p. 520-533.
B O R B O U D A K IS 1973 -
..
. . . ;' (1973), pp. 478
511.
B O R B O U D A K IS 1973-74
.,
. 29 (1973 1974): , pp.
935-945.
B O R B O U D A K IS 1985 =
.. 1985.
, . .
1985.
B O U G R A T 1982
B ougrat .. L c g lis c
S a in l-J c a n . p rC sd e K o u d o u m as. C r e te . C A 30
(1982). pp. 147-174.
BOURAS
A ..

.


. I ,
1985. pp. 62-63.
1958
I n h ib itio n C ata lo g u c . H y /an tin e A il, I d in b u ig h , Royal
S co ttish M u seu m . 1958.
B Y Z A N T IN E A R I 1964
1-xhihition ( at
a lo g u e , B y zan tin e A il, an I u to p e a n A il. 9th
E x h ib itio n o f the C ouncil ol I .u io p c . A lliens
1964.
B Y Z A N T IN E A R T 1986
In h ib itio n ( at
a lo g u e . B y zan tin e and Post H y /a n lm e A it,
A th e n s , O ld U niversily (July 26th
Junuary
6th 1986), A th e n s 1986.
B Y Z A N T IN E F R E S C O E S 1976
I Exhi
b itio n C a ta lo g u e , >
. (
6 - 1976), 1976.

E ..

T rccen tisti

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972(1) = M ..
,
27 (1972): , pp. 121-137.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1981 = C h a tz id a k is M ..
M y slra. E k d o lik c A lh in o n . A th e n s 1981.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1950 = ..

. . . ' (1950). pp.
371-440.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1953 = C h a tz id a k is ..
C o n trib u tio n a Ic tu d e de la p c in tu rc postb y z a n tin e . A th c n c s 1953.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1973 = C h atzid ak is M .
Ik o n o sta s, R c allc x ik o n zur B yzantinischcn
K unst (1973), III. col. 343.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1956 = M .,
.
' . , 1956.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (1) = C h a tz id a k is M ..
L cs d e b u ts d e Icco lc crcto isc et la q u estio n d e
Icco lc d itc ita lo g rc c q u c ',
. 1974. pp. 169-211.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1960(1) = .,
,
, . ' - . ' (1960), pp. 87-107.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 196 0 (2 ) = ..
. 16(1960): ,
pp. 1 1-13.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1961 = ..
( .
). 1961.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1962 = C h a tz id a k is .,
le o n e s d e S a in t-G c o rg e s d c s G recs c t de la
C o llectio n d e I 'ln stitu t. In stitu t G re c de
V en ice. N cri P ozza-V cnice 1962.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1964-65 =
.,
. , . ' - . ' (1964-1965), pp.
377-403.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1 965(1) = . .
,
20 (1965): , p p. 11-15.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1965 (2) = C h a tz id a k is ..
Iko n en a u s G ric c h c n la n d . W eitzm ann .,
C h a t/id a k is M ., M iatcv ., R ad o jcic S.,
I riihc Ik o n e n , Sinai - G ric c h c n la n d - Bulgalie n - Ju g o slaw ien , W ien un d M unchen 1965,
pp. X X III-X X X X .
C l 1A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (1) = M ..
.
21 (1966): , p p. 16-35.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (2) = ..
2 4 .1 2 -1966, p. 56.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1967 = ..
.
22 (1967): , pp. 16-33.

B Y Z A N T IN E G R E E K A N D R U S S IA N
IC O N S 1979 = E xhibition C a ta lo g u e . B yzan
tin e G re e k an d R ussian Icons (ex h ib itio n 18th
A p ril - 6 th A u g u st 1979. T e m p le G a lle ry ).
L o n d o n 1979.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1968 = C h a tz id a k is ..
C iricchcnland. P K g, B d. 3. von W . F. V olbach
un d J. L a fo n ta in e -D o so g n c . B erlin 1968. pp.
231-241.

C A T T A P A N 1973 = C a tta p a n . I pitto ri


A n d re a e N icola R izo da C a n d ia , 19 (1973). p p. 238-282.

W eitzm an n .. R a d o jc ic S .. Le g r a n d livrc
d cs ico n es, A g cn ce I n t e r n a t i o n a l e d ' e d i t i o n .
P aris 1979.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972 (2) = C h atzid ak is ..


A sp ects d e la p c in tu rc m u ralc du X I lie sicclc
c n G re c c . S tu d ies in B yzantine A rt and
A rc h a e o lo g y . V ario ru m R e p rin ts, L o n d o n
1972, c h a p te r X III. pp. 59-73.

IC O N S 1976 - E xhibition
C a ta lo g u e . B y zan tin e Icons of C y p ru s, B enaki
M u seu m . A th e n s 1976.

C A R L I 1957 C arli E .. L cs prim itifs sicnn o is. P aris 1957.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969-70 = C h atzid ak is M ..
R c c h c rc h e s su r le p ein tre T h e o p h a n e le C rctois. D O P 23-24 (1969-1970), pp. 309-352.

C H A T Z ID A K IS -D J U R IC 1968 = C h a tz id a
kis M - D ju ric V ., L cs icones d an s lcs C ollec
tions S uisscs, B e rn e 1968.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969 = C h atzid ak is M ..
M uscc B yzantin d A th c n c s , Icones. E d.
A p o llo , A th c n c s 1969.

202

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (2) = C h atzid ak is M ..


E ssai s u r Ieco lc d itc italo g rc cq u c' prcccd c
d unc n o te su r les ra p p o rts d e 1a rt vcniticn
avec l'a rt c rcto is ju s q u a 15(K), V en ezia e il
L ev an tc fino al secolo X V , F iren ze 1974, pp.
69-124.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974(3) = M ..
, .
, 1974.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (4) = C h a tz id a k is ..
C lassicism c c t tcn d a n c c s p o p u laircs au X IX e
siccle. L cs rcch c rc h e s s u r re v o lu tio n d u style,
A c te s du X IV c C o n g res In te rn a tio n a l des
E tu d e s B y z an tin e s (B u c a rc st. 6-12 S ep tem b re
1971). B ucarest 1974. pp. 153-188.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1976 = C h atzid ak is M .
L 'c v o lu tio n d e l iconc au 1 lc-13e sicclcs et la
tra n sfo rm a tio n du tc m p lo n . X V e C on g n is
I n te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s B yzan tin es. R a p p o rls,
III. A rt c t A rc h e o lo g ic , A th c n c s 1976. pp.
159-191.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977(1) = M .
.
, 1977.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977 (2) = C h atzid ak is
La p c in tu rc d cs *m a d o n n c ri o u v cnctocrc
toisc* c t sa d e s tin a tio n , V en ezia C e n tro dl
M cd iazio n c tra O rie n tc c O ccid en te (sccoii
X V -X V I). A sp e tti c p ro b lcm i. A tti del II
C o n v c g n o In te rn a z io n a le di S to ria della
C ivilta V c n c z ia n a (1973). II. F iren ze 1977
pp. 675-690.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977-79 = M
11 |
. , ,
. 0 ' (1977-1979). pp. 143-175.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (1) = C hatzid ak is
L 'c v o lu tio n d e I'iconc au llc -1 3 e siclcs el Iit
tra n sfo rm a tio n du tcm p lo n . A ctes du XVi1
C o n g res In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s Byzanlltl
A th c n c s (S e p te m b re 1976). I. Athene? 19/9
p p. 333-366.
C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (2) = C hatzid ak is M

C H A T Z ID A K IS (T h .) 1981= C h a tz id a k is
T h ., P rd sen ccs classiq u cs d a n s lcs m o saiq u cs
d c H o sio s L o u k a s. X V I
In tc rn a tio n a lc r
B y z an tin istcn k o n g rc ss. A k te n . 11/5. JO B 32/5
(1 9 8 2 ). p p . 101-109.
C H A T Z ID A K IS ( T h .) 1982 = C h a tz id a k is
T h .. E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e . L 'a rt d cs ico n es cn
C re te e t d a n s les lies a p rc s B yzance, E u ro p alia G re c c 1982. C h a rlc ro is P alais dcs B eaux
A rts. 30 O c to b rc - 21 N o v cm b rc 1982.
C H A T Z ID A K IS (N .) 1983= C h a tz id a k is N ..
E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , Icons o f th e C re ta n
School (15th- 16th c e n tu rie s). B en ak i M u
se u m . A th e n s 1983.
C H A T Z ID A K IS -B A B IC 1983 = C h a tz id a k is
M. - B ab ic G .. L e iconc della P en iso la Balcan ica c d cllc isolc G re c h c (1 ). W eitzm an n
.. A libegasvili G ., V o lsk a ja A .. B abic G ..
C h a tz id a k is M .. A lp a to v M ., V oincscu T .. Le
ico n c. M ilan o 1983, p p . 129-199C IIA T Z IN IK O L A O U 1966 = A . ,
. 21 (1966): , pp.
295-298.
C H O R E M IS 1981 = .. ,
. . 25 (1981), pp. 217-227.
C O R M A C K -M I M A L A R IA S 1984 = C o r
m ack R. - M ih alarias S .. A C ru sa d e r P ain tin g
o f St. G e o rg e : m an icra g rc c a ' o r lingua
fra n c a ? . B u rlin g to n M ag azin e. 126 (M arch
1984). p p . 132-141.
C O R M A C K -M I H A L A R IA S 1986 = C o rm ack R . - M ih alarias S .. T w o Icons M o re o r
Less B y zan tin e, A p o llo . Ju ly 1986. C X X IV
(1986). p p . 6-10.
C Z E R W E N K A P A P A D O P O U L O S 1984 =
C z crw c n k a -P a p a d o p o u lo s ., E in c W ien er
Ik o n c au s d cm U m k rcis d e s A n d re a s R itzos,
. F estsch rift fu r H e rb e rt H u n g er,
W ien 1984, p p . 203-212.
D A L T O N 1901 = D alto n M .O ., C a ta lo g u e o f
I arly C h ristian A n tiq u itie s and O b je c ts from
the C h ristian E ast in the B ritish M u seu m ,
L o n d o n 1901.

g en d cs g rccq u cs d cs S ain ts m ilitaircs. Paris


1909.

d c S ain t-G co rg es et la p c in tu ie hy/itiiMm ilti


X II si6clc. B ruxelles 1975,

D E L IV O R R IA S 1980 = A .,
,
1980.

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC I! 198 U I Uni. i
m an n -M isg u ich L , P clagonitissa i k a itllo
tissa: V a ria n tc s ex tre m e s du lype Virtu th
T c n d rc s sc , B yzan tio n L III (I9H3), || ,J I*1

D E M U S = D em u s .. T h e M osaics o f N o r
m an Sicily, L o n d o n 1949.
D E M U S 1975 = D em u s O ., T h e Style o f the
K ariye D jam i and its Place in th e D ev el
o p m e n t o f P alaco lo g an A rt, T h e K ariye
D jam i. 4. E d . P .A . U n d e rw o o d . P rin ceto n
1975. p p . 109-160.
DJURIC!? 1961 = D ju ric J .V ., F resq u cs
m cd icv alcs a C h ila n d a r, A ctcs d u X lle C ong rcs
In te rn a tio n a l
d 'E tu d c s
B yzantines
(O h rid e , 10-16 S e p te m b re 1961), III. B eograd
1964, p p . 59-98.
D J U R IC 1979 = D j uric J .V ., L a p c in tu rc
m u rale B y z an tin e , A ctcs du X V c C o n g res
In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s B y zan tin es (A th c n c s.
S e p te m b re 1976). A th c n c s 1979. vol. 1, pp.
159-252.
D R A N D A K IS 1962 = B .N ., O
,

. 1962.
D R A N D A K IS 1969 = . ..
.
1969.
E L B E R N 1979 = E lb e rn V ., D as Ik o n en k a b in c tt d c r F ru h c h ristlich -B y zan tin isch cn
S am m lu n g in d c r S k u lp tu rc n g a le ric B erlin ,
B ild erh cft d c r S taatlich cn M u secn P rcussisch er K u ltu rb csitz-B crlin . H eft 34/35, B e r
lin 1979.
E L G R E C O E X H IB IT IO N 1986, E x h ib itio n
C a ta lo g u e . El G rc c o , T o k y o 1986.
E M B IR IC O S 1967 = E m b irico s A ., L ccolc
crc to isc . D c rn ic re p h ase d e la p c in tu rc byzantin c . P aris 1967.
E X H IB IT IO N F O R T H E C E N T E N A R Y
O F C h .A .E . 1984 = E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e ,
100


(1884-1894),

(6 1984 - 30 1985),
1984.

IIE T H E R I N G T O N 197H - I lelltci ............ I*


T he P a in te r's M an u al o f D ionysius ol I o u uiti
L o n d o n 1978.
H O R S E S O F SA N M A R C O 19/9
| Oil
b itio n C a ta lo g u e , T h e H o rses >1 Sun M a n n
V cn ise, R oyal A cad em y o f A its. I om ltm
M ilan t979.
IC O N E S 1975 = Ico n es g rccq u cs el 111. i
G a le ric N ik o lcn k o , P aris 1975.
IC O N E S 1977 = Ico n es g rccq u cs el iu , .
G a le ric N ik o lcn k o , R eck lin g h au sen 1 9 //
IK O N E N 1981 = Ik o n cn m u scu m Uei k
lin g h au sc n , 6 A u sg ab c 1981. R eckh n ^h aiisi n
1981.
IO A N N O U 1959 = .
,
A / xh io k
,
1959.
K A F T A L 1978 = K aftal G .. Icono^wnpli ol
th e S ain ts in th e P ain tin g o f N orth I nsl lluly
S ain ts in Italian A rt. F lo ren ce 1978
K A L O K Y R IS 1973 = K alokyris (
I In
B y z an tin e W all-p ain tin g s o f C re te . N ew Yoik
1973.
K A R A M A N 1932 = K aram an I . N oli sin
P art byzan tin ct les Slaves C a th o h q m s dt li
D a lm a tic , L art B yzantin c h e / les Shiv
R cccu il d c d ic a la m e m o ire de I lu 'o tlo n
U sp e n sk ij, II. P aris 1932. pp. 332 '8 0
K A R T S O N IS 1986 = K arlso n is D A
All
tasis. T h e M aking o f an Im age, l*i im *11 n
N ew Je rse y 1986.
1974 = ] I hmM|
..........
17 , II ( | 9 / | ] ||
251-283.
K A Z A N A K I-L A P P A 1981
K oi.ovoio)
.. ,\ ........
17 . | (|9 |) ||
177-267.
K O N O M O S 1966

K n |o > o v io
1966.

II

M hpo

K O N O M O S 1979

. .
1979.

G A R IS S O N 1949 = G arisso n E .B ., Italian


R o m a n e sq u e P anel P ain tin g , F lo ren ce 1949.

K O U T E L A K IS 19
- .|
.
1981.

.
M hp

III* E u c h a ito ru m

G R A B A R 1975 = G ra b a r A ., L cs im ages de
la V icrge d c T c n d rc ssc - T y p e ico n o g rap h iq u c
ct th e m e , a p ro p o s d e d eu x ico n cs a D ecan i,
Z o g ra p h c 6 (1975), p p . 25-30.

K R I I D I )|( )U | I >S |9 /
\ t nil
P a p a d o p o u lo s
D u im I tin i
h isto risch e n M useum in W h n ImIiiI li
i
K u n slh islo riseh cn Simmthmjii ti in W h n

Ml L E I IA Y E 1909 = D clc h a y c H . L es Ic-

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC II 1975 = H ad erm ann-M isguich L .. K u rb in o v o , Lcs fresqucs

D A L T O N 1909 = D alto n M .O .. A B yzantine


Panel in th e B ritish M u seu m , B urlington
M agazine. 14 (Ja n u a ry 1909). p p . 230-236.
I ) A L T O N 1911 = D alto n M .O ., B yzantine
A il and A rch aeo lo g y , O x fo rd 1911.
DALTON
1925 = D alto n
i h risiian A rt, O x fo rd 1925.

M .O ..

E ast

I >1 1 A G A R D E 1882 = D c L ag ard e P ., lo an m c tro p o lita c q u a e su p e r


mini . C o ttig ac 1882.

F E L IC E T T I-L IE B E N F E L S 1956 = FcliccttiL icb en fcls W ., G csch ich tc d e r b yzantinischcn


Ik o n e n m a lc re i, O ltc n -L a u sa n n c 1956.
F IN E IC O N S 1980 = C a ta lo g u e o f F ine
Ico n s. S o th e b y s. 18th D c c c m b e r 1980,
London.

203

i I''Tii! pp Ci | \.\
K R I I DI

K H*( M i| i I*.

|<iilini

IC O N O G R A P H IC A L IN D EX

A d o ra tio n o f the M agi. nos. 62a. 63. 64


A g o n y in th e G a rd e n , no. 22
A k ra T ap ein o sis. cf. C h rist
A n d re w , a p o stle , no. 53
A n g e ls, nos. 5, 21. 54
A n n e , S t.. w ith th e V irg in, nos. 31, 34, 36
A n n u n c ia tio n , nos. 6, 12, 39, 48. 53, 71
A n th o n y , S t., no. 70
A p o s tle s, n o . 21
A rc h ip p o s, m o n k . no. 51
A rsc n iu s th e G r e a t, S t.. no. 71
A scen sio n , no s. 5, 62
B acch us, n o . 65
B a p tism , nos. 12, 73
Basil. S t.. no s. 17, 48, 71
B e tray al, ntj. 22
B irth o f the V irgin, n o . 23
C a th e rin e , S t., n o . 70
C h rist, no s. 6, 7, 15, 16, 28, 33, 36, 45, 46, 56,
64, 68; A k ra T a p ein o sis, nos. 8, 20. 27,
44, 61; E m m a n u e l, n o. 2; E n th ro n e d , no.
33: High P riest, no. 71; P a n to c ra to r, nos.
14, 26; W isdom o f G o d , n o. 20; Z o o d o tis,
n o . 20
C h rist an d th e S am arita n W o m an , no. 49
C h u rc h F a th e r, no. 4
C ru cifix io n , nos. 21. 64, 70
D am ian , S i ., no. 2
D av id , p ro p h e t, nos, 39. 53. 71
D eesis. nos. 57, 71
D e m e triu s, S t.. nos. 14, 37. 3H. (ill
D escen t from th e C ro ss, no. 6
D o rm itio n o f llp h ra im th e S y rian , no. 47
D o rm itio n o f Si. S ah h as, no. 47
D o rm itio n o f th e V irgin, nos. 10. 23, 29. 62,
63
E m b ra c in g o f P eter and Paul. no. 43
E n try in to Je ru sa le m , no s. 29. 50
E u p lo s, an o n y m o u s D eae o n . no. 3
E u th y m io s, S t.. no. 70
F a n o u rio s, nos. 32, 37, 38
F lag ellatio n , no. 22
F ran cis, S t., o f A ssisi, no. 46
G a b rie l, arch an g el, no. 41
G e o rg e , S t.. nos. 9. 19, 32, 38. 59
G re g o ry th e T h e o lo g ia n . S t.. nos. 17. 71
H o ly T rin ity , nos. 36. 54
H o sp ita lity o f A b r a h a m . no, 54
Isa ia h , n o . 53
Jo h n th e B a p tist, S t.. nos. 1 1. 66, 67
J o h n C h ry so sto m . S i., nos. 17, 71
Jo h n D a m a sk in o s. h y m n o g rap h er no. 23
Jo h n th e T h e o lo g ia n . S t., no. 39
Jo s e p h , h y m n o g ra p h e r. n o . 23
Jo s e p h . S t., no. 64
Ju s tin a , S t., n o . 65
K o sm as. S t., no. 2
K o sm as. M a io u m a . h y m n o g rap h er. no. 23
L ast S u p p e r, no. 22
M a rin a . S t .. n o . 31
M a rk , ev an g elist and S aint, n o . 65
M eetin g o f Jo a ch im and A n n e . no. 23
M clism o s, no. 6

M ichael, a rc h a n g e l, nos. 41. 51


M iracle at C h o n a e . n o. 51
M oses, p ro p h e t, no. 70
N ativity, nos. 12. 23. 30
N icholas. S t., nos. 17, 18. 25. 55, 56, 57, 71;
w ilh sc en es o f his life and m iracles, nos.
56, 57
Noli Me T a n g e re . n o. 58
P aul, ap o stle an d S ain t, nos. 6. 71
P e te r, ap o stle an d S a in t, nos. 6, 16. 71
P ie ta , no. 45
P re se n ta tio n in th e T e m p le , nos. 29, 68; P re s
e n ta tio n o f th e V irgin in th e T e m p le , no.
23
P rocession lo C a lv a ry , no. 22
R aising o f L azaru s, nos. 7. 28. 29
R e su rre c tio n , nos. 70, 72
S a b b a s, St . n o. 70
S a ra h , no. 54
S o lo m o n , K ing. n o. 71
S erg iu s, n o. 65
S even S leep ers o f E p h e so s, no. 52
S p in a rio, n o. 50
S p y rid o n . S t.. n o . 71
S te p h e n , d e a c o n , no. 43
S y m eo n , S t., no. 65
S ym eon T h c o d o c h o s, nos. 67. 68
T h e o d o re th e T iro , S t., no. 32
T h e o d o le , S t.. n o. 2
T h e o p lu m e s. h y m n o g ra p h e r. no. 23
Three C hurch F a th e rs, no. 17
T ra n s fig u ra tio n , nos. 7. 12, 45, 70
V irgin, nos, 6, 27. 36, 45. 56; an d C h ild , nos.
13, 42, 43; I Ico u sa, no. 41; G a te o f E ze
kiel, n o. 53; G ly k o p h ilo u sa , no. 40; H od c g e iria . nos. 8, 13, 15, 18. 24; K ardiolissa. nos. 34. 35; M ad re d ella C onsolaz io n c , nos. 42, 43, 46; P la ty le ra , n o. 6; o f
the P assion, nos. 35, 40; V irgin blessed by
llie P rie sts, n o. 23
V ision o f St. P e te r o f A le x a n d ria , no. 68
W ashing o f the F e e t, n o. 22

IN D EX O F N A M E S

A esch y lu s, p. 32
A k o ta n to s A n g elo s, p. 48. no. 57
A le x a n d e r th e G r e a t, p. 32
A n g elo s, nos. 32, 33, 35, 3 6 ,3 7 , 38, 43, 59, 66
A n g c v in s , p. 47
A risto tle , p p . 31. 32
A u g u stu s, p. 31
B arro zi, p. 47
B a rto lo di F rc d d i. n o. 64
Basil 1, p. 34
Basil 11. nos. 51. 52
Basil o f C a e s a re a , p p. 32. 37
Bellini G io v a n n i, n o. 45
C h a rle m a g n e , p. 37
Ch o n ia te s N icetas, p. 46
C lem en t o f A le x a n d ria , p. 32
C o m n e n u s A lex iu s, p. 33
C o n s ta n tin e th e G r e a t, p p. 31, 36
Cyril o f A le x a n d ria , p. 32

- 206

D a m a sk in o s M ichael, pp. 50, 53, 55, nos. 64,


65,
66, 67. 68
D a n d o lo F r., D o g e , no. 45
D a n d o lo , p. 47
D e m o s th e n e s, p. 31
D io n y siu s o f F o u rn a . p p. 44, 54, nos. 72. 73
E u p h ro s y n o s, p. 50
G e m is to s P le th o n , p. 32
G e rm a n u s , S t., p. 38
G h isi, p. 47
G re g o ry , o f N azian zu s, p p. 32, 34
H e ro d o tu s , p. 32
H o m e r, p p . 31, 33
J o h n , a rc h b ish o p , n o. 20
J o h n , C h ry so sto m , p. 32
J o h n , o f D am ascu s, p p. 36, 37, 38, 39
Ju stin ia n , p. 33
K lo n tzas. no. 62
K lo n tzas G e o rg io s, pp. 50, 53. n o . 62
K o n to g lo u P h o tio s, p. 39
L a m b a rd o s E m m an u e l, no. 64
L a m b o u d io s . no. 41
L am b o u d is M a tth a io s, no. 41
L a m b o u d is N ikolaos. no. 41
L e o I II . p. 35
L im o g allo s A n d re a s, no. 53
L o rc n z c tti A m b ro g io , no. 49
L u cian , p. 32, n o. 63
M a n teg n a A n d re a , no. 53
M a v ro p o u s lo a n n is, nos. 17. 32
M en g en o s lo a n n is, no. 35
N ik e p h o ro s, p. 36
O rsin i, p. 47
P allad as Ie re m ia s, no. 70
P avias A n d re a s , pp. 49, 52. no. 45
P ericles, p. 32
P h o cas. p. 48
P isa n e llo . n o . 30
P la to , p p . 32, 34
P lo tin u s, p. 34
P lu siad in o s, nos. 36, 53
P o u lak is T h e o d o ro s . p. 5 5 , no. 72
P ro c lu s, p. 32
P se u d o b o n a v e n tu ra , no. 53
Q u e rin i. p. 47
R itzo s A n d re a s , pp. 49, 52, 56, nos. 23. 33.
36, 38, 39, 41. 56, 57, 62
R itzo s N ik o lao s, p. 49. nos. 43. 53, 71
S a n u d i, p. 47
S o p h o cles, p. 31
S tra b o , n o. 63
T h e o c h a ris S ilvcstros, nos. 70, 71
T h e o d o re S t., th e S tu d ite. p. 36
T h e o p h a n e s. nos. 44, 72
T h e o to k o p o u lo s D o m en ik o s (E l G re c o ), pp.
50. 53, 56, nos. 62, 62a, 63
T o cch i, p. 47, n o . 5
T r a ja n , p. 31
T z a fo u ris N ik o lao s, p. 49. nos. 42, 43, 44, 45.
46, 49
T z a n e s E m m a n u e l, nos. 33, 34, 35. 36, 46, 72
T z a n k a ro la s S te p h a n o s, no. 32
U lp iu s th e R o m a n , p. 44
V en ez ia n o L o re n z o , no. 43
V en ez ia no P a o lo , nos. 45. 59
V e n ie r. p. 47
V e ro n e se P a o lo , p. 50. no. 65
V ic to r, n o s. 46, 70

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