English

classes

CLASS # 1

MODALS- DEDUCTION (PRESENT).

We use modal verbs to say how sure we are about something.
1.- MUST:
We use must when we feel sure that something is true because theres very strong
evidence.
He must live near here because he comes to work on foot. We dont know
where he lives but were sure its not far away.
Come inside and get warm-you must be freezing out there.
Youre a zookeeper? That must be very interesting.
Notice that must is followed by an infinitive without to.
2.- MIGHT, MAY, COULD:
We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but were not
sure.
Did you hear that? I think there might be a burglar downstairs. Shes not sure
theres a burglar but she thinks its possible.
Well try to get there early but we may arrive late if theres a lot of traffic.
Dont put it up there. It could fall off and hit someone.
Might, may and could are also followed by an infinitive without to.
3.- CANT :
We use cant when we feel sure something is not true.
It cant be a burglar. All the doors and Windows are locked. He doesnt know its
not a burglar but he feels sure its not.
It cant be far away now. Weve been driving for hours. Wheres the map?
Really? He has to work on Christmas Day? He cant feel very happy about that.
Like the other verbs, cant is followed by an infinitive without to.

Modals-deduction (present)
Complete the sentences
It cant be him hes in Spain this week. He might have a twin brother, I
suppose.
Come in and sit down. You must by tired after the journey.
Whos this letter from? It cant be from Paul- he never writes letters.
The exam results should be out soon. It might be this week or it might be next
week.
She always gets such good grades at school. She must work very hard.

CLASS # 2

MODALS OF DEDUCTION MUST, MIGHT, CANT.

EXERCISES
Type the correct answer into the box.
Must
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Cant

Might

She isnt answering the phone. She must be out.

They cant be spanish, theyre speaking Portuguese.
He might have a job interview today-hes waiting to hear from the company.
He drives an expensive car. He must have a good job.
Its too early to have finished the exam. He cant have finished.
Saras very busy. She might not be able to come tonight.

EXERCISES
1. Im sure he is here-I can see his car in front of the building.
He must be here. I can see his car in front of the building.
2. Theyre coming this week but I dont know which day
They might be coming tomorrow.
3. Im not sure Im going to pass the exam. I dont feel very confident.
I may not/might not pass the exam. I dont feel very confident.
4. Ive bought a lottery ticket. Theres a chance Ill become a millionaire !
I may/could/might become a millionaire !
5. Im sure she doesnt speak French very well-shes only lived in Paris for a few
weeks.
She cant speak french very well. Shes only lived in Paris for a few weeks.

MODALS-DEDUCTION (PAST).
Have + past participle (have done, have been, have stolen etc.) is called the
perfect infinitive. When we use modal verbs to talk about the present they are
followed by an infinitive without to. When we use modal verbs to talk about the past
they are followed by a perfect infinitive.

MUST + PERFECT INFINITIVE

We use must + perfect infinitive when we feel sure about something in the past.

You must have been delighted when you heard youd won the lottery.
The thieves must have come in through the window. Look-its still open.
Oh no! Wheres my car? Someone must have stolen it!

MIGHT/MAY/COULD + PERFECT INFINITIVE

We use might. may or could with the perfect infinitive to say that we think something
was possible but we arent sure.

The thieves might have escaped by car but we cant be sure.

He should be hour by now. He may have been delayed by a traffic jam
or something.
I cant find my purse. I could have left it in the supermarket but I just
dont know.

CANT + PERFECT INFINITIVE

We use cant + perfect infinitive when we feel sure something didnt happen in the
past.

I thought I saw John in town this morning but it cant have been himhes in Greece this week.
I cant have left it in the supermarket-I had it on the bus on the way
home.
You cant have read the instructions properly. Theyre perfectly clear.

EXERCISES
MODALS - DEDUCTION (PAST)
Complete each sentence using a model that fits the space.
I don't know why there weren't any buses yesterday. They could have been on strike
but I'm not
Cant have
gone

Might have
handed

May have
misunderstood

Must have seen

Could have
been

I dont know why there werent any buses yesterday. They could have been on
strike but I'm not really sure you
You must have seen her. She was standing right next to you.
We'll ask at reception. Someone might have handed your keys in.
He cant have gone to Russia. He hasn't got a passport.
I explained it but she may have minsunderstood - my Japanese isn't very
good.

EXERCISES

Past Modal Verbs of Deduction Exercises

She must have gone out
I might have made a mistake
He can't have been there.
You should have apologised
You shouldn't have said that.

- There is strong evidence.

- There is a possibility that I made a mistake.
- It's impossible.
- A criticism
- A criticism

I'm sorry but Samantha isn't here. She must have. already left the office.

You shouldnt have shouted at him. He'll never forgive you.

I had to wait 45 minutes for a bus yesterday. There might have been an
accident or maybe a strike.

The concert was fantastic. You really should have come.

John has forgotton about the meeting. We should have reminded him about it
yesterday.

He can't have known it was your birthday. Otherwise, I'm sure he would have
wished you a happy day.

He must have arrived by now. It's only a 20 minute journey.

Andrew did no revision for the exam but he's passed. I think he might have
cheated.

The boss is in a terrible mood. The meeting can't have. been good.

She must have studied really hard. She passed all her exams with excellent
grades.

CLASS # 3

MODALS OF DEDUCTION PAST SENTENCES.

Now put the correct modal in the sentences.
1 She must have misunderstood my directions. Why else is she late?
2 - He can't have gone to the beach. He hates being in the sun.
3 - I must have written down the number incorrectly. I've just called a hospital not the
restaurant.
4 - They could have been at the cafe but I didn't see them.
5 John must have been very happy when he found out he was going to be a father.
He's wanted this for a long time.
6 He could have gone to the city centre. He did say he wanted to go shopping.

CLASS # 4

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:
Personal pronouns
number

singular

plural

person

gender

subject

object

1st

Male/female

Me

2nd

Male/female

You

You

3rd

male

He

Him

female

She

Her

neuter

It

It

1st

Male/female

We

Us

2nd

Male/female

You

You

3rd

Male/female/neuter

They

Them

Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the second an
object pronoun):

I like coffee. / John helped me.

Do you like coffee? / John loves you.
He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him?
She is clever. / Does Mary know her?
It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it?
We went home. / Anthony drove us.
Do you need a table for three? / Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
They played doubles. / John and Mary beat them.

AFTER PREPOSITION

She is waiting for me.

Ill get it for you.

Give it to him.

Why are you looking at her?

Dont take it from us.

Ill speak to them.

Complete the text with the correct pronoun: he | her | him | I | it | me | she | them |
they | us | we | you. Be sure to use correct punctuation, e.g. CAPITAL letters
where necessary.

I'm Sally and this is Ron, my husband. WE live near Newcastle.

My aunt's coming to stay next week. I hope SHE brings me a present.
Would you like anything for dessert, Madam?
I bought this laptop last week and now IT doesn't work.
John's quit his job. He is thinking of starting a business.
My name's Matthew and I am going to be your guide for today.
I don't know why I invited the Johnsons. They don't really like parties.
Ladies and gentlemen, could you all listen for a minute?
Listen, here's my number. Call me if you need any help.
Where do you want these bags? Shall I put them over here?
Don't worry, he's a bit strange sometimes. Just ignore him .
Have you talked to a lawyer? They can tell you your rights.
We're going for something to eat. Do you want to come with us ?
I wanted to talk to someone in charge and tell them how I felt.
Where is Joanne? Have you seen her today?

CLASS # 5

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to.

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
Near in distance or time (this, these)
Far in distance or time (that, those)
Singular
Plural

Near
This
These

Far
That
Those

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:

This tastes good.

Have you seen this ?
These are bad times.
Do you like these ?
That is beautiful.
Look at that !
Those were the days !
Can you see those ?

Complete with the right words demonstrative.

(Talking about a book in your hand) How could you buy something like this ?
(With a bowl of cherries on your lap) These cherries are delicious!
(During a long walk) I should have worn those shoes I bought in Greece last
year; these have never been comfortable.
Could you bring me that book I left in the garden?
(From the marriage vows) To have and to hold from this day forward.
I hate those books which tell you: " this is what you have to do to become
rich.".
(About a picture hanging on the wall) those are my children.
(About a picture you've just taken from your wallet) This is my wife.

CLASS # 6

SYNONYMS
What Are Synonyms?
A synonym is a word or phrase that can be substituted for another word or phrase in a
particular context. For example, happy is a synonym of glad. We can say that happy
and glad are synonymous.
Examples of Synonyms
Here are some more examples of synonyms (shaded):
He studied law at Oxford.
He read law at Oxford.
(In this context, the verbs to study and to read are synonyms.)
She is an excellent student.
She is a strong student.
(In this context, the adjectives excellent and strong are synonyms.)
She is a real Picasso.
She is a great artist .
(In this context, the phrases are synonyms.)
Synonyms Can Be Any Part of Speech
Synonyms can be any part of speech. For example:
Adjectives
The reason is unimportant.
The reason is irrelevant.
Adverbs
He eats fast.
He eats quickly.
Conjunctions
I should tell her as she is my sister.
I should tell her because she is my sister.
(Note: These are known as subordinating conjunctions.
Interjections
Yes, Captain.
Aye, Captain.
Nouns
Shall I take the dogs?
Shall I take the mutts?
Prepositions
Upon arrival, take a ticket.
On arrival, take a ticket.
Pronouns

I'll show you my yacht. She is a beauty.

I'll show you my yacht. It is a beauty.

Verbs
I need to contemplate the consequences.
I need to consider the consequences.
EXERCISES

You are smart.

A. modern B. old C. clever

You look smart.

A. well-dressed B. bored C. stupid

This will smart.

A. be nice B. sting

C. bleed

Do not rush your food.

A. play with B. scoff C. cook

There is no need to rush.

A. run B. try C. look

Negative, I'm not going.

A. No B. Er C. Oops

Show me the money.

A. savings B. dosh C. way

The cakes are uniform.

A. tasty B. all the same C. burnt

I'll do it since it's mine.

A. when B. as C. until

I am well.

A. healthy B. good C. happy.

CLASS # 7

SENTENCE CONNECTORS SHOWING CAUSE AND EFFECT

In English, we use several different words to show cause and effect. Examples are: for,
because, as, since, therefore, hence, as a result, consequently, due to, because
of, as a result of etc.
o

He must be asleep for there is no light in his room.

I decided to call it a day for I was feeling tired.

I helped him because I liked him.

Since he had not paid the rent, he was told to vacate the room.

As it is raining again, we will have to stay at home.

It was raining, so we stayed at home.

Notes
So shows the effect. As, since and because show the cause.
Compare:
o

As he hasnt arrived yet, we will have to go without him.

He hasnt arrived yet, so we will have to go without him.

The poor parents could not support the baby. Therefore they sent him to an
orphanage.

We had to cancel the trip due to my daughters illness.

Owing to bad weather the match was cancelled.

We had to cancel the match because of bad weather.

I was late owing to the fact that the train broke down.

Examples:
Add a cause-effect connector (connective).
Schools for girls were built consequently girls had a chance to learn about
health and life skills.

Because girls learned about health skills, they improved the sanitation of their
villages.
Girls were given school uniforms for the reason that they needed to feel that
they were a valued part of the school.

 The girls felt proud to have a uniform therefore they were more likely to attend
school everyday.
The family members of the girls walked them to school as they didn't want other
males in the village to taunt the girls.
After graduation, the girls were more likely to start small businesses on
account of their mathematical and accounting skills.
Some graduates became valued business owners as a result, they were
invited to serve on business councils.
Due to their community status, they were able to vote on improving water and
sanitation.
Health conditions improved in villages. thus Health conditions improved in
villages.

CLASS # 8

CONECTORS OF ADDITION AND CONTRAST.

Tips for writing.
Connectors of Addition and Contrast
Read the pairs of sentences below. Which pair expresses similar ideas? Wich
pair expresses contrasting ideas? Use the chart to help you.

Their team has got the best players. Moreover, their coach is fantastic. Similar
ideas
Their team has got the best players. Nevertheless, they lost the last game.
Contrasting ideas
CONNECTORS OF ADDITION:
in addition, furthermore, moreover, as well
as, also, and.

CONNECTORS OF CONTRAST:
however, nevertheless, on the one hand /
on the other hand, in spite of / despite,
although /even though, but.

Exercises
Choose the correct connector:
Lorena seems to be quite clever nevertheless, she often gets low marks.
The service at this restaurant is excellent. In addition, the food is delicious.
I've never been to Argentina, despite having relatives there.
Jordi is a careful driver. However, hes had several accidents.
Cristina loves playing sport, but shes not very good at it.
Anna is talented at music as well as art.

Some connectors have got similar meanings but are followed by different
structures.

 Despite and in spite of are followed by a

noun phrase or a gerund.

Even though and although are

followed by a clause.

We did not wear coats despite the cold

weather.
I tried to look happy in spite of feeling
terrible.

My car constantly needs repairs even

though its new.
My cousin and I arent very close,
although were the same age.

Choose the correct connector.

We're studying now even though there's an interesting film on TV.

Id like to talk to you although I know youre busy.

Despite her efforts, she failed the exam.