Chemistry

For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation).

of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronChemical science redirects here. For the Royal Society omy, mysticism and medicine. It is often seen as linked
of Chemistry journal, see Chemical Science (journal).
to the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold,[6] though in ancient times the study encompassed many of the questions of modern chemistry
being dened as the study of the composition of waters,
movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing
the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies by the early 4th century Greek-Egyptian alchemist
Zosimos.[7] An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the sux "-ry was added to this to
describe the art of the chemist as chemistry.
The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the
Arabic word al-km (). In origin, the term
is borrowed from the Greek or .[8][9] This
may have Egyptian origins since al-km is derived from
the Greek , which is in turn derived from the word
Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt
in Egyptian.[8] Alternately, al-km may derive from
, meaning cast together.[10]
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including ammonium
hydroxide and nitric acid, illuminated in dierent colors

1.1 Denition
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of
matter.[1][2] Chemistry includes topics such as the properties of individual atoms, how atoms form chemical bonds
to create chemical compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces that give matter
its general properties, and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form dierent substances.

In retrospect, the denition of chemistry has changed

over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the
view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the
subject of the material principles of mixed bodies.[11] In
1663 the chemist Christopher Glaser described chymistry as a scientic art, by which one learns to dissolve
bodies, and draw from them the dierent substances on
Chemistry is sometimes called the central science be- their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt
cause it bridges other natural sciences, including physics, them to a higher perfection.[12]
geology and biology.[3][4] For the dierences between The 1730 denition of the word chemistry, as used by
chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, comphysics.[5]
pound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of
composing such bodies from those principles.[13] In 1837,
Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to
refer to the science concerned with the laws and eects of
molecular forces.[14] This denition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances:
their structure, their properties, and the reactions that
change them into other substances - a characterization
1 Etymology
accepted by Linus Pauling.[15] More recently, in 1998,
Professor Raymond Chang broadened the denition of
The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred chemistry to mean the study of matter and the changes
to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements it undergoes.[16]

Scholars disagree about the etymology of the word chemistry. The history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy,
which had been practiced for several millennia in various
parts of the world.

HISTORY

History

continued to be developed and practised throughout the

Arab world after the Muslim conquests,[24] and from
there, and from the Byzantine remnants,[25] diused into
Main article: History of chemistry
medieval and Renaissance Europe through Latin transSee also: Alchemy and Timeline of chemistry
Muslim chemists, Ab al[17]
Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, lations. Some inuential
Rayhn al-Brn,[26] Avicenna[27] and Al-Kindi refuted
the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the
transmutation of metals; and al-Tusi described a version
of the conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter
is able to change but is not able to disappear.[28]

2.1 Chemistry as science

Democritus' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus

(341270 BCE).

Indians[18] amassed practical knowledge concerning the

arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn't develop a
systematic theory.
A basic chemical hypothesis rst emerged in Classical
Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded
denitively by Aristotle stating that re, air, earth and
water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism
dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers
such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman
philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his
book De rerum natura (On The Nature of Things).[19][20]
Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism
was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern
for empirical observations and no concern for chemical
experiments.[21]
In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy rst proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study
of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir
of eternal life.[22] Work, particularly the development
of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period
with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis.[23] Alchemy

Jbir ibn Hayyn (Geber), a Persian alchemist whose experimental research laid the foundations of chemistry.

The development of the modern scientic method was

slow and arduous, but an early scientic method for
chemistry began emerging among early Muslim chemists,
beginning with the 9th century Persian or Arabian
chemist Jbir ibn Hayyn (known as Geber in Europe), who is sometimes referred to as the father of
chemistry.[29][30][31][32] He introduced a systematic and
experimental approach to scientic research based in the
laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian
alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often
unintelligble.[33] Under the inuence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert
Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientic discipline. Boyle in particular is regarded as the founding father of chemistry due
to his most important work, the classic chemistry text
The Sceptical Chymist where the dierentiation is made

2.2

Chemical structure

between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scientic discoveries of the new chemistry.[34] He formulated
Boyles law, rejected the classical four elements and
proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical
reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.[35]

In his periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of

7 new elements,[38] and placed all 60 elements known at the time
in their correct places.[39]

The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as
the result of the work of two scientists in particular, J.
J. Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the
prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta.
Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali
metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric
current.[40]

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the Father of Modern Chemistry.[36]

The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all

combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst
Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned
by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics;
who did more than any other to establish the new science
on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle
of conservation of mass and developing a new system of
chemical nomenclature used to this day.[37]

British William Prout rst proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight
that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. J. A. R. Newlands devised an early table of elements,
which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements[41] in the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev
and independently by several other scientists including
Julius Lothar Meyer.[42][43] The inert gases, later called
the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in
collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby lling in the basic structure of the table.

Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig

and others, following Friedrich Whler's synthesis of
urea which proved that living organisms were, in theory, reducible to chemistry.[44] Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of
Before his work, though, many important discoveries had
thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante
been made, specically relating to the nature of 'air' which
Arrhenius in the 1870s).
was discovered to be composed of many dierent gases.
The Scottish chemist Joseph Black (the rst experimental
chemist) and the Dutchman J. B. van Helmont discovered 2.2 Chemical structure
carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'xed air' in 1754;
Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical unproperties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl derpinnings of chemistry were nally understood due
Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.
to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in
English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory
of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible
'atoms of matter and that dierent atoms have varying
atomic weights.

probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897, J. J. Thomson of
Cambridge University discovered the electron and soon
after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple

3 PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne in

Germany.

3 Principles of modern chemistry

Top: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum

pudding model of the atom undisturbed.
Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were
deected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.

The current model of atomic structure is the quantum

mechanical model.[46] Traditional chemistry starts with
the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules,[47]
substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas
states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions,
reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms,
leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which
hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a
chemistry laboratory.
The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various
forms of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not
central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as
well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.

Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of

radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester
discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classied and explained the dierent
types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the rst
element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles.

A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more dierent substances.[48] The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms.
It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a
chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of
atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.) The
type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and
the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained
by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

His work on atomic structure was improved on by his

students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and Henry
Moseley. The electronic theory of chemical bonds and
molecular orbitals was developed by the American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis.
Energy and entropy considerations are invariably imporThe year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the tant in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances
International Year of Chemistry.[45] It was an initiative are classied in terms of their structure, phase, as well
of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chem- as their chemical compositions. They can be analyzed
istry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientic, using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy
and Cultural Organization and involves chemical soci- and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical reeties, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on search are known as chemists.[49] Most chemists specialindividual initiatives to organize local and regional activ- ize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are
essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:[50]
ities.

3.1

3.1

Matter

Matter

5
Group 1
Period

Main article: Matter

2
3
4

In chemistry, matter is dened as anything that has rest

mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of
particles. The particles that make up matter have rest
mass as well - not all particles have rest mass, such as
the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or
a mixture of substances.[51]

5
6
7

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

1
H
3
Li
11
Na
19
K
37
Rb
55
Cs
87
Fr

18
2
He

4
Be
12
Mg
20
Ca
38
Sr
56
Ba
88
Ra

*
**

21
Sc
39
Y

**

22
Ti
40
Zr
72
Hf
104
Rf

23
V
41
Nb
73
Ta
105
Db

24
Cr
42
Mo
74
W
106
Sg

25
Mn
43
Tc
75
Re
107
Bh

57
La
89
Ac

58
Ce
90
Th

59
Pr
91
Pa

60
Nd
92
U

61 62 63 64
Pm Sm Eu Gd
93 94 95 96
Np Pu Am Cm

26
Fe
44
Ru
76
Os
108
Hs

27
Co
45
Rh
77
Ir
109
Mt

28
Ni
46
Pd
78
Pt
110
Ds

29
Cu
47
Ag
79
Au
111
Rg

30
Zn
48
Cd
80
Hg
112
Cn

5
B
13
Al
31
Ga
49
In
81
Tl
113
Uut

6
C
14
Si
32
Ge
50
Sn
82
Pb
114
Fl

7
N
15
P
33
As
51
Sb
83
Bi
115
Uup

65
Tb
97
Bk

66
Dy
98
Cf

67 68 69
Ho Er Tm
99 100 101
Es Fm Md

8
O
16
S
34
Se
52
Te
84
Po
116
Lv

9
F
17
Cl
35
Br
53
I
85
At
117
Uus

10
Ne
18
Ar
36
Kr
54
Xe
86
Rn
118
Uuo

70 71
Yb Lu
102 103
No Lr

Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements. The

colors represent dierent categories of elements

3.1.1

Atom
A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known
as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z.
The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms
belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number;
atoms of an element which have dierent mass numbers
are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6
protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element
carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of
12 or 13.[53]
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in
the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns,
and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.[54]

A diagram of an atom based on the Rutherford model

3.1.3 Compound

The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of

a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a
space called the electron cloud. The nucleus is made up
of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists
of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus.
In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus
is dense; the mass of a nucleon is 1,836 times that of an
electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times
that of its nucleus.[52][53]
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element,
such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred
oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred
types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ), an example of a chemical compound

3.1.2

Element

Main article: Chemical compound

Main article: Chemical element

A compound is a pure chemical substance composed

3 PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.[55]
The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named according
to the organic nomenclature system.[56] Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system.[57] In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substances.
In this scheme each chemical substance is identiable by
a number known as its CAS registry number.
3.1.4

Molecule

Main article: Molecule

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure

A 2-D skeletal model of a benzene molecule (C6 H6 )

their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of
atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identiable
molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air,
and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals.

A ball-and-stick representation of the caeine molecule

(C8 H10 N4 O2 ).

However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid
substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core
of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules.
These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds
and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack
the existence of identiable molecules per se. Instead,
these substances are discussed in terms of formula units
or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the
substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts
(such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz
and granite.

chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical

properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of
chemical reactions with other substances. However, this
denition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances
(see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound
together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of
other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.
diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivThus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyions. When this rule is broken, giving the molecule a atomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six
charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemia polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate na- cal nature.
ture of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as
a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer. 3.1.5 Substance and mixture
Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a denite
considered molecules in chemistry.
composition and set of properties.[58] A collection of subThe inert or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, stances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air
krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as and alloys.[59]

3.3
3.1.6

Bonding

Mole and amount of substance

gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and

pressure. A principal dierence between solid phases is
the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. AnMain article: Mole
other phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances
The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an
dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water).
amount of substance (also called chemical amount). The
mole is dened as the number of atoms found in exactly Less familiar phases include plasmas, BoseEinstein con0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the densates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic
carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While
state.[60] The number of entities per mole is known as most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systhe Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically to tems, it is also possible to dene analogs in twobe approximately 6.0221023 mol1 .[61] Molar concen- dimensional systems, which has received attention for its
tration is the amount of a particular substance per volume relevance to systems in biology.
of solution, and is commonly reported in moldm3 .[62]

3.3 Bonding
3.2

Phase

Main article: Chemical bond

Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said
Sublimation
Melting

Solid

Boiling/Evaporation

Liquid

Freezing

Gas

Condensation
Deposition

Example of phase changes

Main article: Phase

In addition to the specic chemical properties that distinguish dierent chemical classications, chemicals can
exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical
classications are independent of these bulk phase classications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a
set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk
structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as
pressure or temperature.

An animation of the process of ionic bonding between sodium

(Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride, or common table
salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons
from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent
bonding)

to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be

visualized as the multipole balance between the positive
charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating
about them.[63] More than simple attraction and repulsion,
the energies and distributions characterize the availability
of an electron to bond to another atom.

A chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond,

a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force.
Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold
atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple
compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of
Sometimes the distinction between phases can be contin- oxidation number can be used to explain molecular strucuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case ture and composition.
the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more
When three states meet based on the conditions, it is of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and
known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, bea convenient way to dene a set of conditions.
coming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely
Physical properties, such as density and refractive index
tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The
phase of matter is dened by the phase transition, which
is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes
into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of
changing the bulk conditions.

The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the
and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. electrostatic force of attraction between them. For examFor example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, ple, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become

3 PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

an Na+ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this

electron to become Cl . The ions are held together due to
electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.

H
HC H
H
In the methane molecule (CH4 ), the carbon atom shares a pair
of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus,
the octet rule is satised for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its
valence shell) and the duet rule is satised for the H-atoms (they
have two electrons in their valence shells).

In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons

are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral
group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will
share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble
gas electron conguration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine
in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their
valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However,
some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two
electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable conguration; these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and
in this way they are reaching the electron conguration of
the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer
shell.
Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to
predict many ionic structures. With more complicated
compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as
the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

3.4

Energy

Main article: Energy

accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds

of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase
or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some
energy is transferred between the surroundings and the
reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus
the products of a reaction may have more or less energy
than the reactants.
A reaction is said to be exergonic if the nal state is lower
on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of
endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat
to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions,
the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.
Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless
the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the
activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at
given temperature T) is related to the activation energy
E, by the Boltzmanns population factor eE/kT - that is
the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than
or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential
dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as
the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary
for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of
heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of
ultrasound.[64]
A related concept free energy, which also incorporates
entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the
state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical
thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total
change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, G 0 ;
if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at
equilibrium.
There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the
rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization
of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules
in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The
molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state
are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to
chemical reactions.
The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its
energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the
intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sucient to overcome
them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or
solid as is the case with water (H2 O); a liquid at room
temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen
bonds.[65] Whereas hydrogen sulde (H2 S) is a gas at
room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules
are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.

The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred
substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or more easily from almost any substance to another because
aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational en-

3.6

Ions and salts

ergy levels in a substance have much less energy than

photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus,
because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more
closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more
easily transferred between substances relative to light or
other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as
much ecacy from one substance to another as thermal
or electrical energy.

9
some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy
exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well
as with the system environment, which may be designed
vesselsoften laboratory glassware.

Chemical reactions can result in the formation or

dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking
apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking
The existence of characteristic energy levels for dierent of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation,
chemical substances is useful for their identication by the acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are
analysis of spectral lines. Dierent kinds of spectra are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.
often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted
NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear
the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both
galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra.
sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this
holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and
neutrons.[66]

Emission spectrum of iron

The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the

potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other
chemical substances.

3.5

Reaction

Main article: Chemical reaction

When a chemical substance is transformed as a result

The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of

chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of
a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a dierent speed.
Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can
thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics
and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical
chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical
rules, like the WoodwardHomann rules often come in
handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.
According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction
is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species.[67] Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be
an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this denition includes
cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions
normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by
this denition, but it is often conceptually convenient to
use the term also for changes involving single molecular
entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events).

During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and

form, resulting in dierent substances with dierent properties.
In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts with carbon
monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon
dioxide.

3.6 Ions and salts

Main article: Ion

An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule,

that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an
of its interaction with another substance or with energy, atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than
a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chem- electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation.
ical reaction is therefore a concept related to the reac- When an atom gains an electron and thus has more election of a substance when it comes in close contact with trons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion
another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lat-

10

3 PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

There are several dierent theories which explain acidbase behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which
states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium
ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that
produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to BrnstedLowry acidbase theory, acids are
substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another
substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is
the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.

The crystal lattice structure of potassium chloride (KCl), a salt

which is formed due to the attraction of K+ cations and Cl anions. Note how the overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.

tice of neutral salts, such as the Na+ and Cl ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic
ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are
hydroxide (OH ) and phosphate (PO4 3 ).
Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.

3.7

Acidity and basicity

A third common theory is Lewis acid-base theory, which

is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis
theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base
is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to
form a new bond. According to this theory, the crucial
things being exchanged are charges.[68] There are several other ways in which a substance may be classied
as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this
concept.[69]
Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods.
One measurement, based on the Arrhenius denition of
acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium
ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low
pH have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be
said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based
on the BrnstedLowry denition, is the acid dissociation constant (K), which measures the relative ability of
a substance to act as an acid under the BrnstedLowry
denition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher
K are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical
reactions than those with lower K values.

3.8 Redox
Main article: Redox
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions include all
chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation
state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction)
or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have
the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be
oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or
oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another
substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to
reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are
known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.
A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and
is thus oxidized itself. And because it donates electrons
it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation numberthe
Main article: Acidbase reaction
actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better dened as an increase in oxidation number,
A substance can often be classied as an acid or a base. and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.
When hydrogen bromide (HBr), pictured, is dissolved in water, it
forms the strong acid hydrobromic acid

11

3.9

Equilibrium

Main article: Chemical equilibrium

Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across
sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever
a number of dierent states of the chemical composition
are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a
substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.
A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even
though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus the concept describes the state in which
the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.

3.10 Chemical laws

Main article: Chemical law
Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which
have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some
of them are:
Avogadros law
BeerLambert law
Boyles law (1662, relating pressure and volume)
Charless law (1787, relating volume and temperature)
Ficks laws of diusion
Gay-Lussacs law (1809, relating pressure and temperature)
Le Chateliers principle
Henrys law
Hesss law
Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and
kinetics.
Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics.
However, special relativity shows that due to mass
energy equivalence, whenever non-material energy (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from
a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with
it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable
amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear
chemistry.

Law of denite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the
ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
Law of multiple proportions
Raoults law

4 Practice
4.1 Subdisciplines
Chemistry is typically divided into several major
sub-disciplines. There are also several main crossdisciplinary and more specialized elds of chemistry.[70]
Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in
chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical
reactions and chemical interactions that take place in
living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry
or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated
with molecular biology and genetics.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties
and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is
not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful
function. The eld is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all
classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary
systems of study include the chemistry of condensed
phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between dierent phases.
Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the
roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic
particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear
chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important
result and tool for this eld.

12

5 SEE ALSO

Organic chemistry is the study of the structure,

properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions
of organic compounds. An organic compound is dened as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.

oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry,

pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic
chemistry,
phytochemistry,
polymer chemistry,
radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry,
supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic
Physical chemistry is the study of the physical chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.
and fundamental basis of chemical systems and
processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of in- 4.2 Chemical industry
terest to physical chemists. Important areas of
study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical Main article: Chemical industry
kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics,
spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.[71] The chemical industry represents an important economic
Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular activity worldwide. The global top 50 chemical producers
physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a prot margin
innitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usu- of 10.3%.[72]
ally associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very 4.3 Professional societies
strong overlap.
American Chemical Society
Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via
American Society for Neurochemistry
fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within
mathematics or physics). In particular the applica Chemical Institute of Canada
tion of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called
Chemical Society of Peru
quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second
World War, the development of computers has al International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
lowed a systematic development of computational
Royal Australian Chemical Institute
chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical prob Royal Netherlands Chemical Society
lems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with
Royal Society of Chemistry
(theoretical and experimental) condensed matter
physics and molecular physics.
Society of Chemical Industry
Other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally
grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind
of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study
of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of
organic (carbon-based) matter; biochemistry, the study of
substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics;
and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples
to gain an understanding of their chemical composition
and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have
emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).
Other elds include agrochemistry, astrochemistry
(and cosmochemistry),
atmospheric chemistry,
chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemoinformatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry,
femtochemistry, avor chemistry, ow chemistry,
geochemistry,
green chemistry,
histochemistry,
history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry,
immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry,
medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular
mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry,

World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists

List of chemistry societies

5 See also
Outline of chemistry
Glossary of chemistry terms
Common chemicals
International Year of Chemistry
List of chemists
List of compounds
List of important publications in chemistry
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics
modeling
List of unsolved problems in chemistry
Periodic systems of small molecules
Philosophy of chemistry

13

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14

what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in
which miserable state this literature reached
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going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages.
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points of detail
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small part only was organized according to
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supports his operations is one of clearness
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`amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek
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8 Further reading
Popular reading
Atkins, P.W. Galileos Finger (Oxford University
Press) ISBN 0-19-860941-8
Atkins, P.W. Atkins Molecules (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-82397-8
Kean, Sam. The Disappearing Spoon - and other true
tales from the Periodic Table (Black Swan) London,
2010 ISBN 978-0-552-77750-6
Levi, Primo The Periodic Table (Penguin Books)
[1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond
Rosenthal (1984) ISBN 978-0-14-139944-7
Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-515027-9
Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Archived from
the original on March 10, 2008.
"Chemistry". Encyclopdia Britannica. 6 (11th
ed.). 1911. pp. 3376.
Introductory undergraduate text books
Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M.
and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic
chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University
Press) ISBN 0-19-926463-5
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James
M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0-07-115221-0.
Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart;
Wothers, Peter (2001). Organic Chemistry (1st ed.).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-8503460.
Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley) ISBN 0-47158651-X
Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books

Bibliography
Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2009) [1992]. Elements of Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-9226726.
Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew;
Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009). Chemistry3 .
Italy: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19927789-6.
Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008)
[2001]. Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6.

Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University

Press) ISBN 0-19-879285-9
Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics
(Oxford University Press)
McWeeny, R. Coulsons Valence (Oxford Science
Publications) ISBN 0-19-855144-4
Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell
University Press) ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to
Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry
(Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0

16

Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0-412-40040-5
Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science
Students (Longman) ISBN 0-582-44416-0

External links
General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications.

EXTERNAL LINKS

17

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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18

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Anon126, Ban Bridges, DumZiBoT, Eugenedakin, EdChem, MADDOX456, Saeed.Veradi, Iranway, Gashead 12, Addbot, Denali134,
Bonnerman, Hattar393, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Z. Patterson, Stitches2021, Glass Sword, Ryanleyland, LinkFA-Bot, Numbo3-bot,
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