DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENT

Dr. Amir Hamza

Fall - 2016

Equilibrium
Free Body Diagram
Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams
Stress
Cartesian Stress Components
Plane Stress
Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
General Three Dimensional Stresses
Elastic Strain
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If we assume that the system to be studied is motionless or, at most, has

constant velocity, then the system has zero acceleration. Under this
condition the system is said to be in equilibrium

The phrase static equilibrium is also used to imply that the system is at
rest. For equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system balance
such that

which states that the sum of all force and the sum of all moment vectors
acting upon a system in equilibrium is zero.
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We can greatly simplify the analysis of a very complex structure or

machine by successively isolating each element and studying and
analyzing it by the use of free-body diagrams

Thus, free-body diagramming is essentially a means of breaking a

complicated problem into manageable segments, analyzing these simple
problems, and then, usually, putting the information together again

Fig 1

If the beam is cut at some section located at x = x1 and the left-hand portion is
removed as a free body, an internal shear force V and bending moment M must act
on the cut surface to ensure equilibrium
Shear force and bending moment are related by the equation

dM
V
dx
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Sometimes the bending is caused by a distributed load q(x)

q(x) is called the load intensity with units of force per unit length and
is positive in the positive y direction

Fig 2

When an internal surface is isolated as in the last F.B.D, the net force and
moment acting on the surface manifest themselves as force distributions
across the entire area

The force distribution acting at a point on the surface is unique and will
have components in the normal and tangential directions called normal
stress and tangential shear stress, respectively

Normal and shear stresses are labeled by the symbols and

If the direction of is outward from the surface it is considered to be a

tensile stress and is a positive normal stress. If is into the surface it is a
compressive stress and commonly considered to be a negative quantity

Units: U.S Customary units are pounds per square inch (psi)
SI units, stress is in newtons per square meter (N/m2): 1N/m2 = 1 Pa.
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The Cartesian stress components are established by defining three

mutually orthogonal surfaces at a point within the body

The normal to each surface will establish the x, y, z Cartesian axes

In general, each surface will have a normal and shear stress

The shear stress may have components along two axes

Fig 3

Fig 4

The state of stress at a point described by three mutually perpendicular surfaces

is shown in Fig a
As the dimensions of the cube in Fig. 4a approach zero, the stresses on the
hidden faces become equal and opposite to those on the opposing visible faces
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Thus, in general, a complete state of stress is defined by nine stress

components

x , y , z, xy ,xz, yx , yz, zx , and zy

For equilibrium, in most cases, cross-shears are equal, hence
yx = xy

zy = yz

xz = zx

This reduces the number of stress components for most 3-D states of stress
from nine to six quantities

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A very common state of stress occurs when the stresses on one surface are
zero. When this occurs the state of stress is called plane stress

Figure b shows a state of plane stress, arbitrarily assuming that the normal
for the stress-free surface is the z direction such that
z = zx = zy = 0

Here it is assumed that the cross-shears are equal such that

yx = xy , and yz = zy = xz = zx = 0

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Suppose the dx dy dz element of Fig 4b is cut by an oblique plane with a

normal n at an arbitrary angle counterclockwise from the x axis as
shown in Fig. 5

We are concerned with the stresses and that act upon this oblique plane

By summing the forces caused by all the stress components to zero, the
stresses and are found to be

x y
2

x y
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

plane-stress transformation equations (Derivation is

beyond scope of this course)

Fig 5
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13

14

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Differentiating the first Eq. with respect to and setting the result equal to
zero gives

This Equation defines two particular values for the angle 2p, one of which
defines the maximum normal stress 1 and the other, the minimum normal
stress 2. These two stresses are called the principal stresses, and their
corresponding directions, the principal directions

It is important to note that the above Eq. can be written in the form

Comparing, we see that = 0, meaning that the surfaces containing

principal stresses have zero shear stresses.
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In a similar manner, we differentiate Eq. of shear stress, set the result equal
to zero, and obtain

It defines the two values of 2s at which the shear stress reaches an

extreme value

Also,

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Formulas for two principal stresses and two extreme valued shear stresses
are found to be

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Mohrs circle diagram is a graphical method for the

representation of the 2-D transformation of stresses

It is used to visualize the stress state at a point and keeping

track of the directions of the various components
associated with plane stress

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Mohrs Shear Convention

The relationship between and is that of a circle plotted in the , plane,

where the center of the circle is located at C = (, ) = [(x + y)/2, 0] and
has a radius of R = ([(x y)/2]2 + 2xy )1/2.

Shear stresses tending to rotate the element clockwise (cw) are plotted
above the axis

Shear stresses tending to rotate the element counterclockwise (ccw) are

plotted below the axis.

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Fig 6
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A stress element has x = 80 MPa and xy = 50 MPa cw, as shown in Fig. 7

(a) Using Mohrs circle, find the principal stresses and directions, and show
these on a stress element correctly aligned with respect to the xy
coordinates. Draw another stress element to show 1 and 2, find the
corresponding normal stresses, and label the drawing completely.

(b) Repeat part a using the transformation equations only.

Fig 7

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As in the case of plane stress, a particular orientation of a stress element

occurs in space for which all shear-stress components are zero

When an element has this particular orientation, the normals to the faces
are mutually orthogonal and correspond to the principal directions, and the
normal stresses associated with these faces are the principal stresses

Since there are three faces, there are three principal directions and three
principal stresses 1, 2, and 3. For plane stress, the stress-free surface
contains the third principal stress which is zero

In our studies of plane stress we were able to specify any stress state x , y
and xy and find the principal stresses and principal directions

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Six components of stress are required to specify a general state of stress in

three dimensions, and the problem of determining the principal stresses
and directions is more difficult. (Finding the roots of the cubic Eq)

In plotting Mohrs circles for three-dimensional stress, the principal

normal stresses are ordered so that 1 2 3. Then the result appears as
in Fig. 8

The stress coordinates , for any arbitrarily

located plane will always lie on the boundaries or
within the shaded area
Fig 8
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Fig 8 also shows the three principal shear stresses 1/2, 2/3, and 1/3

Each of these occurs on the two planes, one of which is shown in Fig. 9
Fig 9

The figure shows that the principal shear stresses are given by the
equations

Of course, max = 1/3 when the normal principal stresses are ordered
(1 > 2 > 3), so always order your principal stresses
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For the stress states listed below, find all three principal normal and shear stresses.
Draw a complete Mohrs three-circle diagram and label all points of interest

(a)

x = 10, y = 4

(b)

x = 10, xy = 4 ccw

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Solution (a)

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Solution (b)

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Normal strain is defined for the tensile specimen and is given by = /l

Hookes law for the tensile specimen is given by

= E
where the constant E is called Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity

When a material is placed in tension, there exists not only an axial strain,
but also negative strain (contraction) perpendicular to the axial strain.
Assuming a linear, homogeneous, isotropic material, this lateral strain is
proportional to the axial strain

If the axial direction is x, then the lateral strains are y = z = x

The constant of proportionality v is called Poissons ratio

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If the axial stress is in the x direction, then

For a stress element undergoing x , y , and z simultaneously, the normal strains

are given by

Shear strain is the change in a right angle of a stress element when subjected to
pure shear stress, and Hookes law for shear is given by
(G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity)

The three elastic constants are related to each other by

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