& a THYSICAL CuEmisTR y we : —4.Atoms, molecules.» stoichiometry P + Carbon _14_= most. common_noturlly accuring isotope of Carbon, = ma Lass = Fis Retbtbar seth Vis Ar) = = weighted avenge -mass_of __ oer -eecuring- isciepeno -on_element relatve fo —— = Relative Hetudr Hass Ct) Blelitlaeade “Mmaks—f—cn—atom of one isotope _ _ ficnccmanee rae - ihe -the_emount et any substance that contains some of unit os shere_are_otoms in 129- of C-19 —constant ~ €.02 x0? a 4.4 The caloulation Sit Deserts) Stas feclealog vad z — Empirical formula -— simplest whale number —rotio_of_afoms ols initarinammaund, ects Fee — + Noleeular formula - tota) F_of atoms of each element in. _o_compounel oom { franc oe Vv fle 24dm> | ons € gf lhe) = om mes ol substance | = 25 CDi Apt. 0) SSE De He Srcinednae sd = | (401 kfm) = standard 4°bay ___ a Mis ae. ‘ 7.4 389 vs Reeholicton ihe edo = ne “pan Substomic | i ‘particle | Moss Charge Posh ok Bort n | 4 fe) e | *f4ase aA se Tease ees eee SE lee ie abe ine ac tweens eS 2 Sep electric field _ element ea. et anergy tomic. ‘tals, ionisah'on not He energy level —> sub -shells orbs lft, —_ egy set pail a = a = @ 3 LENE 3 OO i a | _futher_ shell shell Qe Csrminy level 2 Ra 7 a Ss spherical P-Aeurgiass uwh lebes 1 416 x y,1 OKeS“ 4 DME v —*Tanisattion energy + the energy needed to remove 4 mole __ PY electtons from 4 male of atoms ofan element inthe —, —gaseous—_stote ie form one mele at gaseous ions. Lo toctors : E 4. si t_nuclear charge: Tehage + = Te arttrexction a Pg 2. distance _of _outer_e from nucleus =? fucther + J attraction —> TE. \ 4 —_3._Shiebling of inner electrons =) S| ful toner shells <> erenel Souter Patterns across period TE: mel yne thir Ne: general Ay Pos A + nuelear charge fh ee 4 He >» Lis repicld Clit period ) A Lae A ° \ oe aAalatrane ies ue ole eenk ee ES dif sus-che be t. ~ianer—shell_shielcling ___ 4 Be = A: slight J = 2 (atomic HW) Be: 4s* De? es eee puBaaa eg foe te Biss cee ae ) = new subshell — ‘distance 7 _—-—== AL tag): Asta as? if 4 : + shielding, ge BS ducther fronr nucleas — attraction 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee | — TE.a Page nee Shiri s Grenier ___=% electrostatic attraction between anions + cartians —______ meinaioae* ae ee structure a [ee z [SE ere lathce (Gs) @) pre aa ide Ha O Icium—flauride. Caf | oe I 2 2 4 1) = ft fa onsale ingle vodent 7 A a Reval Wh = faite Over lor Tete. ae a ae s —* double covalent Ce a ee ee oe oe ee oe oe oe ee el © ae: me A ge Res bonding—_Shapes of _sinaple_ ea CE o=e=F - {Linear Trigonal | planar __ Tetahedral Trigonal _ bipyramidal) clahedval (Eo5i} ent weedDt 5 HO Ln “6 2. plo Miedo sIGhs6 oe PAX‘ 7 7s (oS tp ‘ ; Sr fgamet Nit, ay pytendal 1026 & 5.2. Intermolecular forces ,electronegativity F bond. properties & lot _van__der__Woal’s “dorées £ —permanent _dipcle ~ clpcle fortes hydlrag en beadking 5 & & 5 x Hy drogen. bonding ona H Hq i oA Sth cH He. Sy 22 have tH ecsalenily or —e ot bonded ta FG or NK) atom we 12H abe Ba. Ne tora aiaSth = as available 8% lone pair Strangest _bendls. mex bene! strength G b=430' HO = 9 lene pairs /molecule L extensively hydrogen bended! Rie at) less ex ter :4 difference: in 4 - ’ Panel polarity p * Van der Waal’s —+Hinduced_nipales:censtant ondlenieat! of electeng F > _instan tensou clipole P permanent: _rehueen polar covalent malecules than. ; tain __olfferent element. — oy is J i = sve cre ed bh Sea_of delocalized _elotrony a physical properties ionic _ metallic covalent : plbysical | = seteel =P ble pi = liquiel_Jger stote @at'|_+ sheng Bones | ~ need! energy te | Cuedik “ forces) ———_ tee __|_ overcome orhecine|> bb): pis _ Bf oot | ens lubility |= Vin HO (polar)! => in th O |. x (no ions.) San=dipale | excest Nas Gx |= | en BH | hae sclicl be 1-8: 4 : ao Tame = Hen / seluchion. lectron Cina of (Cosi}oe wpe se 4 States matier 4-1. The gaseous state | ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ae, ee ee | —t—made i ticle: f{ repi TEx olirectly properticnal 1°Cx*) <4 24% Hl calliscen elash'c = —@ 4 Cro _6:E. toss) e @ _+_callisiang _Hehueen molecules + cont FS — wells => 7 Ce i V, negligible _——> Va hel Ore @ __mokettes "" @ Boyles O —s edtractive for between forces —> GF @ _ Limitedions-—of@ gost inate Neva sei -~Tp + Ioe, = $6} + Vperticls —toake up larger ___ Li sl Zl as @ roportion — of. gas — —________, intermolecular forces 7 ishen parhcles ore e/oser = 41 parhcles have _(iifle energy = | & m? _ constant — boa . pV__=_n BT, a ie * = 196K) Ge Lure | am # oF ___CPa) ene4.8. The liquid state " 2 pal 2 ges = particles closer _—> 1 attractive foe! = + lock spac “hetween ipeticles 1 ~__G _ compre " praiveiciY tien (- iret eet aietstoagecar Male lant) 4 + fi of adeeb nt 1’ C1 attraction) ———shorpe+_clatermincels by veantainer a Leltiagees : a. 5 nin sect pct vie gece — ‘ fore. of attraction —> wealens | Wc! cB Meet! S cataclinail ctahoc itor melita Age 5 = Voporisotion) as ito Migs 4s Ss ae tguel portiles ert. fasten. cee ___+_ athaction forves. “weerkon gig Ba pe el 6 ————porticles _.with most. fee ee Cees ‘evaporation - 1*°< Acil pt ike PN Rn. sf sinus Bs behigetlcer dna enough > porticles completely free s s liquid. boils tactf = hot w- - 2 epee: peeiure tendon. stateS” 005, pie 20 —— —— ~The pressure _exected by = i vepour in equilibriuint ith oo quid ae = |e SoG CLO | es 3 = wal role of marement en ae =i 0 —molecules _===_+}, © molecules _=t®rwp = adm > OTE aliquid in_vapeur—ho 4.3. Solid state: lattice structures f melting cit solubili 7 conductivity &§ Electracovalent | P blr points |v polar solv XX sclial tonic) e.g | song elechostatie | ions internet 4.61 Vs _melten ) ail faCl gO | foes <--> icon jmolecules —> | Crachile ions) £ : [edhe shcths loom ba amp Lb/m pointe: | polar solvents|_X - ne ian r seiaknt (2 2) weak forces behucen| may dissolve in| fee @uta i fh ne = -gioot_covalent 14 b/m pts ct 10 mostly, -£.g--diamencl, | strong covalent — | paler Jnan- polar localised! © io honoi “eB enrol & lathe= po Mek Sos) E MH —ecihalpy | reactants ets products ‘ =e - -OH- + An - "7 | products reactants ih s ioe saa a Sihalysuitharge. edcqearedions. the the sy: ocala i ——= the amount of | reactants shown inthe equation ___ a Regence ta a1 pr cts ..under change of formation AH; standard conditions... "Thereactantk = °P mole of a compound a is formed from its elements Bene ee ucts noust. ae ie Change of combustion AH ; a -one mole of a substance §S burnt im excess 0, - charge of neutralisation AH? pass = @ne mole of H,0 is formed. by the reaction of an acid with an alkali~ _ ~~ ghange of solution AHS, ————-— ene molé of solute is dissolve -tathalpy . speatfig, heat —____s_sin_a solvent jo farm an. Infinitely dilute solution ~ —chang&_ eit change. of atomisation A Hae ~1 male of gaseous atoms jg formed from its elements — change of hydration. -dmol ef a hydrated salt is formed from imol of anhydrous salt ~ Seeagzeae nentElements Pe ee Pet oy 7 —Reactants Froducts 8D 6) OO = atOeyh c C= B-A_ ® =(D+C)-A ' pai F A. = continued ~ ceramics ae an =metalli f i substance or mixture of a ‘ght i tita “oe melting, boiling pts=-gron\ mokcailor structure a => high 1° tc break _ eevalent bends - 7 insulator: no ions, delecolised.¢ Z heat insulater * +h We 2330" 4 2+ ALC et SIs +f insulators in refractory fuunace | ~ refractory furnace linings 4 b |__finings it -abrasiwe e.g: sand paper \ MgC suceunds Cruces, = abrasive: geind bard |= manufochice of glass Sena tervals : ¢ conduct ! ellis (CodT} Bringing heot/ matt from heat frome grindingPus te oe C. pre vay s goes 160) slic EE re an_elementsan _Oxiclatian __ Bs h Is —____recluction : gain of hy oss fis oil R eclueien e€.g.:= photesynthes: a ______=_ respiration 2 Gain <_holf. ons 5 ehine a i are De®" svideho os leoee td reduction. Ai me ig Der 2 oxidation > Nica $3 Bp Sipser tik © cctsd9 enh 1 _aardlizing agent * reducing agent —— hi oof tinmother atomic: Vlei Ox A oPranothen secon —_=_ox * af one of its_atoms =f ox # of one of sits atomsa ' = electrolyte + brine =_anede: aChGag) > Clige de | ss ' ecthode: dH’ +De —> Hi @) fe ee ee aes Soe eee LE __“anade__eathacle.__elementh_lower_in._elactrochemicad ____cempartment___compartment___series > _reduced_ot electrodes ____ cl itemoved, “C17 in greater” enc = dDy __ Purification of copper’ : : : Eg z! 2 4 wiring: 99.99 2e_purity —Amoll_amcunts_ot_impun'ties 2 J conductivity af Cia greatly =slectrolyte = QusCy scl. — copper deposit __- cethacle : pure copper at_cathode anode impure copper <_ Copper dissclves from anede _—— —___—? _depesit at cathode a = sludge —anacle*: _C.sCs) © Qu?* (ag) + de J —eathode : Qu"*(ag)+9e° — AiG) impurities fe.g:Ag) deposit at ——tetlom ct _call > _sluclge > recovered to reduce cost Ee hen en ugh. t cthade —> remove + replace“ i Salat cn oe ae er os —dlynamic equilibrium we 2: es: SE TR iitetim michee > — stm eget ean pc a Yeactonh a as eh = =_clynam. constantly —r. cieting __ en Pacis heli feaction = same rate ee —+—concentratons of eee —eenstant_at equi Sie losed system Le Chatelier' Principle goes eee ee ee shifthin “clirecho ny thet redlice ss -ehange at =—eencentration = es pe a PS fae Tk —-—catalyst : specds up rate ot _ RS Oe ee —— whieh —egpiclitoesin 1h reciched _ test ae ee Po gutcaeatraac~ ne ees SS moles . ke kelp)" | pages Hay” a ¥ are conc ertrothi reactants A and Equilibrium ex, pre ssio) 3 HO gees : 2) oy neg —Ratittshescostonttn et eenetiont=-ptiol pesihure > = Pressure exerted by any. Protal * Pat Pets: ne gas io mixture. (Pa) Ke 1 product sis e aa (Py\ 1 Po\ + reactant ae | ee! [Coal Fa}t = pA re 5 Bte An Gin Ee : fe ial_pressur ——tenly t° has_effect_an equilibrium constants _Haber_process - NHy production AH = -F2kT ml” —_____N, (9) + St (poe aANHats) = Niregen. C8 ex : RR ae ACOs sAO. 8 Mus Vi 200 _otm 2 KCH E > 1 i | Fe cota yst F —_—_] ' from _nerturetl “gas unreacted gey ao z - cashed Lyne iquich * condition’ ie volume {2 —> 4 mebeule “Ky 14) molecule H 5 +t: shift will briv ts the ght ~ TNH = * pressure :_ shift te regnt f Ne. < - Tp > ? rates of reaction x = tp = expensive — 206 atm comprenis® - Fe —cotolyst «ensure that cl chrium, = Letty will setup t resent & (Eos 2513 [BlingBling &__ Contact process - H, SQq precuetion a 4 Seesii tO, tn tue SSOn oy) 22nd \_b burn $ in excess uy + —21ed \.'bin df 250, 4) + Or cg) a Lampe nominees kEmel™ 400 -450°C - _V3 O06 catalyst 3. dissalved_ in concentrated Hs SG: a pe: ——_lnsoerseilte Peli ulate) —— 2 HS, O, Gyy2Coleum)—_ 14) GS Oy ty 4 Hey DS Cot on ete ato 4) - = a = 3 a — conditions: aeailion << NF Aiapeth Ai eae , 2 VY 80, ; Oy . 1a lee ne > cheesey, tél aE a +t? -agoiet&O°O: shift tourg bts rates pens z 2? _? yreld SOx in _shert amount of time —___— a a * leas pressure can alread} ccnvert WVHe SO, —>- SOx. ionic radius sot Pn much larger then §i 44 dectecies Ve\ from: 2.2” —mi0ty ‘ & Melting point increases 1 Na» @ oa decreases v 2 Ae i Electrical conduc tivity : 5 —______imerease Na _ —» Al. Cmetals) Rg _{sPROP'S ute Ss Csemisieonductor) 3 "i P= Ar Cinsulater) % / - : : /1 charge — smaller_icns : 9 . © Ne => Al. Pimetallic » fee in cloud / = 4 chaige density Sis _ sheng —gient mele cular_siruetire “ ‘ ~ a —__P > Ar: simple mo keul s only Von eer Wealsa - anil eter ae ____Reaction with O, __| Element | Flame Product Na ‘orange - yellow white No O; Sano! Mg bright white white alg +0, — 2490] Al powder white 4AL+ 30, > 2A Og burns if heated strongly Si tO. > SiOx ia P yellow clouds of white smoke |p. 60, 5 Pu Cig | S+0, > 8Cr s blue colourless gas | 280, 401 ASCy a doesn’t react directly Reciction with Cl, ___[ Element | Flame Product - [Na bright orange white Swe Chas apace | a . ; [Me bright white white HgrCh > Hgch — |_ Uy Al yellow pale yellow as $i, on dsl alate cee Si a gas passed over | colourless liquid Si + aC, > SiCly Pp yellow mixture of chlorides Pu 41OCle 9 4 PIs 4 S Cl gas passed over | orange liquid — - SS+ ___ Reaction with — water PNO + 2H,C > diVaGH + H, reacts fet ly Mg 4 at, Mg COH), + 1, _* slowalty cold water Mo + Hy Gy UG eH, vigorously team Oxrdes with water ‘ __[ Oxide [Reaction pH Na Dissolves exothermically 14 Woes ste Mg Slight reaction 9 MgO + 2hho > Mgr). Al No reaction t Si No reaction . P Reacts violently with water 1-2 PO + 6HHO> 4HyPOy = SO) : dissolves readily in water 1 $C, + HO 9 Hi Ca s $05: reacts violently with water | 0 SC, + HiG® SS HaSCy —___Chloridles with water __| Chloride | Bonding Reaction __|Na ionic dissolves to give Na’ and CI ions __|Me ionic dissolves to give Mg” and CI ions eA mainly covalent | hydrolyses AIC + BHO > AICCH)s + Het Si covalent hydrolyses Sil, VartO SOL ane P covalent hydrolyses PCls 4 4 HLO ms nurOn aoenity s covalent hydiolvses <3 S"ci: «a in eNO CA aS. tt hai we 10 og 40.4. Similarities andl trends Reactions with aciol ——> salt + hydrogen gas 1 X_+ JHCL— > XQ, + H, tin stearn: Ng + WH, SC, —> Mg SC, +H. Moni xthOy apantigO «He t 3 reaction with O2 reaction with H,O 2 Bery tum (Be) white flame anick exide layer —— 4 Magnesium | bright white steam: vigorously [water slow J —Calewm | brivk red reacts moderately Se ’ _Strentium Csr) | scarlet /red ++ rapidly | form Barium Cha) apple - green | ve vigorously hydroxide 1 x metal ion, €x crte: 5 tive increases down tc next energy level => emit — energy as cipite( 8 10h-00jn) Sie ee MO. +H,O —> MCorl) f= ——*_oxides with H,0 _or Gr -fienic radius. f cation size —» fanion distance in. ee SN shone density = GpWeal C~ ebirolieteere + oxides + acid — > salt + H,O = + hyctoxide + acid —» salt + 3,0 + sab)a ss sees e337 Sea SB 2 833 3 3 a= Fe | OL 1 pee we Carb ‘Cc acids + civative: cooks cx - mate = net veverssba = Rgher iG a 95 2 - yietd u , ’ c. t+ HOR) ae AO NNR =e o Re a acyl chloride. alcehol ester water - _eorein acyl chierides _ carboxylic acrd +t PClg -— > acylenlovvole +) Ch tu PCy MEY, 2 _ *$0Cl. Amides 20 et acylechloride — _hydrolys 's See yt e ds A - amine +t, BOs aa. cen thee Ch + 8G, + 20 5 Rs ig, pt Re Sy Ko peer’ ie — O° Na* sodium cate 2 Aisha rio crt salt mide eo = — i R-c rt Cle tn R On carboxylic aodwee Nitr * Sulphur ss SiTenk cf unrenotivity “fing Ss ee eA rain, i Alien J ibs belie! po $ m1 fs + cacert)s (3) BF Coch G)1 trot + ; - ae antl, Cg) z kigenal pyrrmicla| ___untens sth Neu sens will give off A, Gshon ecatel wont bree Wtmugg OA —_ ie of ommania + eramonium -eonnpea uncle 6 = fertilisers <— NH Z Crh), Soy ommenium salts NH, Da, PO, explosives INT = nity, acrd REA S BIGSS ir ade Peer oa nttigeots cs Chala f —Environmental—prcblems > Butrephicedticn + ter til dls Guang 2a eee nari £ — gresithy — @O, — tsb di ae 5 > _Nitregen _asicles in a! cycle NG: + thunderstorm cla = — by exhaust NO edly ti orn ACO +2NO 26D thssacoet watals fom cutde —_Sulfurr_and_its oxides ag a8) - ~—So, formed from burning fossil fuels e.g. coal —— tude —eil, cesl, natural _geis has S$ sompeunds that gets idized when burnt. japuare hy SO, fg) +H, 000) > +, SCy aq) G Acid rein: hormful_on es —leaches nutrients from sel —> prevents healthy 3 plants. thy ————Tiwers,_streams, lakes -9 Jowers pH — growth _ ——— buildings statues _© equoie aamak sensitive te ApH 5 meds trom —carhonste rocks a it ren —stee| > corodede as ~ HBO gin fonds industry: ag SC, clissclve in water —> +H, SC, _ A SiO see att 2 AHSCT er AH wg ——~ Sutfur_oiemole se lutien > preserve feed. esp, acicie feeds hibits growth et bacteria + fungi at pH evel < 4 x ——peduct: wine, dried. semi - processed tails vegetables, tuck purces, ———__——prekle, syrup. nnn —Hlep_cxrdation of fot — prevent over ripening of picked fru 0 ee a ee a a ae ae := i. - 40..2. Uses of Group compounds —__ pe » ——_Limestene Cealeium carbonate) and slaked lime Cealeium hydreade) Praise pH _cf_aadic soil —> neutralise coil: wt Group | F = Halogens _ mt Physical pmpecties./of elementss. a "a ——=—mest__reactive — nen=metal group os \— A ——~-exiss _as__dliatomre molecules + L a = cae F,_- pale yellow gas & Uey - Ch__- yellow green gas & a - Br, = crange / brown liquid 2 2S BE ss eh ES UMM oh toate eke z- = “@ “=m ps sean gio a? volatile — PP Boni atm th of nricnaniedl oO to lafelwetieee ) clad 44.9, Chemical properties filet eplelh aehde ih ace a ->exidising strength + V_Cless. powerful) dewn Greup a ARAN el rete ds w02 J Zz ———+small_otemic radi’ __eleetronegotivity BERS Mo __ 2HF Cg explosively deck cenelitiong |. viggrously. (y lee BHACG ho Coin mmliaht + (aaloun | om ay t, a HBr (9) | slowly en heating jeal r - 2 HI Cg) nce ont F2 7 —sThecmo|__ stability: down Gro pile = —everlop of outer shell with sguee (zn) — atid gy —longer—toncl length —> tueaker Ir — less thermally stoble F Qs) Cool 2 less energy required a—— With _ammonia- NH, Halide ion | + AgNOs loq)] editute Ns Gd geseainl, (ae Nits (aa) —chlarrele. CE | rushite26pt __ dissolves dissolves Br“ (aq), cream ppt | insoluble dissolves T Cog) | pale yellooppt] insoluble | insoluble as halide icn present’ ppt» AgCl, Agr, Agi With cocartrted ade aid ~ 1480, a) ccucedl se trong oxidising, ogpert! oe PRREsirt montidnamatlegaee tee! st fo ' i & f- hae “ Rertacficther sicises ond eHnenedpdoe Briand HE, act MC) 5 Halide son | Observation 3 enor | seomy acide anes tt) Stasi jue Laken ced ee as Te AC HBr) thrown bromine vapour ll Lone ty fumes C ttt late p ‘ ide ro - = a Yellerp solid C NaBrés) + H,SO, G) => Nats, ¢s) + HBr (g) 5 Sante tg) + Hh864 G) > Brg) +36,G@) + 200) A ees te of Cl with NoCH (aq) - dispropertionation = Ch dilute alkali! ——> so indoiClotetame-recucecl aixohn ; = —Oeleoleb roller Cig Jeni. pleiveciun | inci (dy ee Sie GONE 5 (a3 Cl tag) + @NaoH faq) —? NoeCl(aq) + NoclOloq) +H, ' Ch aq) +> $08” (aq) — “ticton) noc) ° < +4 FC caakes exis Ce S = + 20H 9 CIO” 4 HOt e@Cea ae en en ee re DiTe- rag Cl_+_hot alkali Ci0'c) 2 ___3C1, faq) + NaH ton) = SNaClcon) + NoClO, Caq) + 3H,0C) ° a = t reduction UH “oxidation 41.5. Uses of halogens ee ol _Chlorine - woter purification eS kills bacteria = Gi-ten) A H60) HL Het aq) —HCIO decompeses slo _selubion Al 4 na HUO — HU +O @) pla acid _produce reactive O —> eee bacteria __ Z 5 — Bleach = Nacl and _Nacic 58 other oxygen _atems Cram chlorate (r) tens.) Senter dye molecules — oe erpenlatctsiiscel «UNG ae eae > Aral vinyl chloride ——holegenated hycrecarbans_: _salvent hap ali 2a ~_cefriger ants na bale =_aerossl S bs,OA pite—__252 14. An _intreduction to organic chemistry. 14:1. Formulae, functional groups, naming organic compounds Nam General Displayed alkene. Gates fleurc - chloro =p h logencalkane Cet ad er bromo iodo! - oO LA aan =e -aldehyde | CaHsnuy CHO NH = a es ketone RO COG Ha: Ay anere. Te ea E fi R ecarbexy lic | CH, COCH See Roce acid -rey wit R z i neste. ta E: JRA C5078 “Hye 44 COOC tary Pe anid —_amine. CoH NH R= NH nmnanpRpPeptmr waa akehUmehlCUe4-2. Characteristic organic recotions ee. —atifunetionalsgroup: atom) group of: atems in sen corgoimre + ——melecule that determine the characteristic _veexctions of ——o._hemelegous spans SENG “hs ri —____homolyt’e __fissr'on =< aes a * ai ~ SC ae Seek SE Sees a uspthlis. HnGls —te_meoves each way > forms radicals ae ions HRs area in highly reactive ee Lee ———— 4. initiation + free. radicals ft ne ISSN nae Lee et Eis uv Bi OB ee Bee = sot i 2. prepogattion - -ehain reaction; use a free radical, foem ancther Ht PT ze 7 ai i : Br’ YH SO-H > H+Brie + -H \ \ bie vege Pa Br? + CH at Ht De ee ae ae er Ce wee ee eefrom reactant _malecul AE RH PAB by another — Ht_ —§ Condensation -— formation of_o molecular bay fT es remoing—_o_ molecule of Faceater Ei > 6. Oxidation: addition ef cxygen atoms Jo SS es ee 7._Recuchion: = addition of hydlragen atoms | molecule te H x, tom, J a sealed : Wee sn ae Coca Teg ea Ha coal ‘es Cz He CH + fo) —» CH, CHO + HLO ——. ethane. + 3" orbitals, ff - Rr—Tsemers_— compounds with some molecular farmul@ _~_different structural formula Structural _isamerigm : —4._ chain isomerism + bran. hing of fon —chaun. : CH Ch, CH, CH Sapte Bre HeGHGH, ‘ers ote os x CH. : igi eubane, d= methy|propane 8: pasition_idemeriimvcaBivest carken! chiens ooasue an de CH. Bas CH, positicn of bs tituent Grcup vorre k oH Pa EO CH CHE OOH 2 es -Q-ol _ -propan- 1 -cl . —8. funstional SS different E 2.0 cH, ce es CH, = CH Seu oH 5 ith mene * = a Hy 5 propanal ne 2 =r. -4-of _____ Stereo isomerism geometric Gs -rans ) g = : optical (+ chiral contres). = —_Geomeiric_/ cis~trans isomerism. 5 £5 restricted miction cround oh nel invclving. a penal lea -—d_olf groups of. loft = tard end "7 cight = hand end & = Chltal. somes chical_cenire Catton com bonded _ta eg > _ mix es ef the moleculeSe ae d We 15 Hydrocomlingen jo... 4 16.1. Alkanes = +> relatively unreactive. Cnen-polar) | even toward lor reagents Combustion : _— complete combustion: burnt in_excess Or Bs alkane + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + woter SS Chui, crictised ee _= incomplete combustion: limited supply ef Ox ———______—" less _O,. _olkane + oxygen —» Co_+_H,O 1S nat fully, wutcheet dics Se Substitution | - i = by Cl and by Bi _ —tequire LV_light i CHy Ao) CHycL +H Ch _ Coucle oil source of bs mrnkste eGnetnds iin veimpes. renee b> Cracking + obteun mare useful _ __chouns _eitkanes_aind alkenes froma larg er ee ot aleee at hyclre carb molecules = usually from naphtha’ 4rercticn ron. fractional distillnbicn : onditions: (0, eotolyst Al Ox, - 15.a. Alkenes ADDITION REACTIONS zs 3 + hydrogen Hy & cotalyst alkene + Hi ML, alkone ee ae ae ee ee ee = kel cotaly £ WHO + steam 1,0 (g) catalyst “aanct —_akene + H,0(s) "9 alleahol_— = GPA 3 - phosphoric acid catalyst ¢ conantrated)Se ee q ie silica staat through_coac.. hydrogen _heilicle sel uxhien PF > helogencalkane Cat room tt) - r CH, = CH, + HBr a a _t halogens _X, Cag) = bubble alkene through dition Saeco ne ns eT —__=_test_presena C=C bond CHa Be — 9 Ose g Bg sd lL» lors ter z _ Oxseeeen by cold, dilut _ acidified cidified_manganate Cvti) ions WdinGy te i ee aie = — ‘CeCe pt On SOd >) GH ROC e aA ; hood oe BF —2-olcohel C-on). oH in test) = pale purple sclution —> celerless Cseturot 2 BM —Cxidation by het, conantroted , acidified manganate Cu) tens ion Cy 4. Cac’ > Come 4 “parton dionide” - further ae 7 ketone,Diy —____= ADDITION POLY MERISAT ION bs brea! v = es eer at her =>. h rs H H £ H mn SE — C— ~ 1 1 - seta em, = ethene. 3 poly ethene). ete nC hy : tony * ie = z — repeat unit __ELECTRGPHILIC aAppDITION 4 4 H HA = = tt cre —_ ae c= = H-c -c-H 4 E H Rawe eo f ee * be wt pel_pairg © ——> _Br-Br_ break high electron Scher sansty Jo_Br=Br away + heteralyhcally -Oreund C=C bond from nearer Br Br attacks highly E094 SU) 2 teapo sos ehibtheos By beléeintlo os re 1 : ' f § si : L = ‘ 5 5 : ‘ aie ak, § § § € open anis 7: * Hockovni kov’s' rule: H bonds with carbocation. hese 2 § more _Cless stable) z ~ alkyl’ grcups ‘make carbocation more strible. § t.more electrons —> “shave ¢ E eite __ Fe SS PUGH chloroetnene) .. : a nH,C = CHa > -£n,c - cH a —— Feactions only yretd one product aa ee eae DS —_DISPOSAL_OF _POLYCALKENE) plastics lock of reactivity —> nen -biedégradable = takes long time to decompose — foke up space in landfills =—burn_polyalkenes (combustion) ! > incomplete. combustion X= praduc CQ" _ eras c dificult to seperate cther plastics from —_p. \jcalkounox E —burn.__PVC__—> give off HCl gos havmful_combushion. products Pele) LILI LE are Hydrocarbons as fuels B —uses:_—_ generate ¥ in pouer staticns provide power for -—heat our hemes cock food ships, cwroplanes , treuins 5 ——= proud energy inductial processes 0 B PouuTion - intemal combustion engine _ a : — CO. toxic gas; bonds with Hh in blood ; —=nitregen oxides: acid rain - Se _—_coreinggen ace ee B —* setolytic_converter fia Yo nathan ¢ ~Oxidixeriond CO ACO + 8NO + 2QC0, Ny : sbidor reduction BNO: ing 14 , 5 snes hil ey eee z —abserbs _iofrarect roelicion given oftby Font GEES posit toda down ot night 9 — ops hot ; Pa Br SCH Cate Ol Re § v5 — cH ae , + j 20H : =e _—— = s H.C Cty ce 5 eV tS see es sapeite=t Bes > c Fatie vith =, “Cw Cry peted F \ | bbs Cee ee MH 204 . pes 8,4 usually tertiory, palace tbeineie 505 23a yeti 2S loge, § - & 2 Fatition ot nites © af —CHACH, Be + cry 9 CrtaCH,CN + Br” uneliie = Ce-flvex” saath cron ee ions chissolved ite ettcnol —"reblunS boilinieaeliguid anit shee bays tess alah > _vepaw is _iliquified i (Eos13 (Co5'3 [Binonic OKTE ee _ 8. Formation of Primary amine ae ——Hologencalkane ected with NHy ia sealed tbe oe cucal 7 a Se ee : ers NH, > CH, CH NH Be” See ee __CH3CH. NH,t Br + NH, CHy CH, NH, + NH" Br” | Elimination of _ hydrogen _ bromide. ClCH Br + OW —> CH=CH HO 7 Bratt s : er ——Faveur_substitution ___Fayour elimination lower tt s = higher té ie, ——mere_dilute _sclution Ne /AiadHd .— cencentrated solution Na/MqOH B —-mece_uater in _scolvent_mixture = pure ethanel oc solvent os ic a red s as. | = ——tlalogenoaltone Reaction favoured eo ee eee = ze z Hainly substihut on eal : Secondary _ Bethe BS : Tertiar y Mount) _ elinvinedtionee ae 16.2. Relotive. sirength of C=Hexl_bonel Bend | ond energy aS AE AGts | > Crel | 933 C- Be ate C=-Ty3! ass = Fi r ier in | = solvent = frig rant gas €S * = blewing agent > __ plastic tions 4 eepeded polishyroen = ——Th high —ot mespherextiVilight beats C-ct bonds: i a er ae lia: ton aoteiipcingits ect. oe bond 2 teats Hol —= h Pen i li i inn in RiOA = . 13. Carbonyl compounds IB. L_ Aldehydes ond“ ketones Oxidation Ce Onygen._otcm. pei + rs hycle_+ water cxidising agent fp | | | secondary alcohol + [0] —> ketone + water Da ehiere eotuled gl naclcliteeey Hal fenwaie ote eee aldehyde + reducing agent —> primary alcohol _ ketone je EH 9 secondary alechol . Patanes - Ls nitrilea ——Btest for carbonyl groups “mote sepyne 6 a,4-pnpH > Vv: orange. ppt t_by reerystallisricn’) 5 measure melting point —__ —~_ condensation reaction 4,0 releosef 9. MA — = Qturther [Ol * distinguish between aldlehycles and _ketones g —.09_scl_q silver nitrate in excess cmmonin —sclution oe AgNO, NH, af mild oxidising agent) Sea ee bs Valdehycle > \carhoxylete jon COO7 aldehyde aoe AG ae shar seni edt ojee 9 Pebles. 4 y —=-alkaline_sal_eontaining _C. ph Cexiclsing agent) ae 4 5 4 :