Telecommunication System

Engineering
PCM
MIAN AHMED YASER
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
COMSATS INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Pulse Code Modulation

Basic scheme of PCM system

Quantization
Quantization Error
Companding
Block diagram & function of TDM-PCM communication
system

Basic scheme of PCM system

The most common technique encoding analog data
to digital signals is PCM.
Example: To transfer analog voice signals off a local
loop to digital end office within the phone system,
one uses a codec.

Contd...
Because voice data is limited to frequencies below
4000 Hz, a codec makes 8000 samples/sec. (i.e., 125
microsecond/sample).
If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate
higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the
samples contain all the information of the original
signal.

PCM Block Diagram

Most common form of analog to digital modulation

Four step process

1. Signal is sampled using PAM (Sample)
2. Integer values assigned to signal (PAM)
3. Values converted to binary (Quantized)
4. Signal is digitally encoded for transmission
(Encoded)

4 Steps Process

Contd

Analog signal is sampled.

Converted to discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

Pulses are quantized and assigned a digital value.

A 7-bit sample allows 128 quantizing levels.

PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude spacing of levels is non-linear

There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low amplitude
This reduces overall signal distortion.

This introduces quantizing error (or noise).

PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit stream.
8000 samples/sec x 7 bits/sample = 56 Kbps for a single voice channel.

PCM Example

Quantization

A process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite

number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes of flat-top samples to a
manageable number of levels).

Contd...
Analog input signal

Sample pulse

PAM signal

PCM code

Contd
The quantization interval @ quantum
= the magnitude difference between adjacent steps.
The resolution = the magnitude of a quantum
= the voltage of the minimum step size.
The quantization error = the quantization noise
= quantum
= (orig. sample voltage quantize level)
PCM code = (sample voltage/resolution)

QUANTIZATION ERROR
A difference between the exact value of the analog signal &
the nearest quantization level.

Types of Quantization

Midtread

Midrise

Types of Quantizer
1. Uniform type : The levels of the quantized amplitude are uniformly spaced.
2. Non-uniform type : The levels are not uniform.

Dynamic Range (DR)

Largest possible magnitude/smallest possible magnitude.

Vmax
Vmax
=
DR =
Vmin resolution

DR = 2 n 1
DR(dB) = 20 log( DR)

Where

DR = absolute value of dynamic range

Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude
Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
n = number of bits in the PCM code

Example 1
1. Calculate the dynamic range for a linear PCM
system using 16-bit quantizing.
2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM code if
the DR = 192.6 dB

Coding Efficiency
A numerical indication of how efficiently a
PCM code is utilized.
The ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain dynamic range to
the actual number of PCM bits used.
Coding Efficiency = Minimum number of bits x 100
Actual number of bits

Quantization Distortion
Difference between the signal waveform as
presented to the PCM multiplex codec and the
equivalent quantized value
For a linear codec with n binary digits per
sample the ratio of full sine wave power to
quantizing distortion power (S/D) is
(S/D)=6n + 1.8 dB
n=Number of bits per PCM word

Example
n= 7 bit word expressing a sample level
S/D=6 x 7 + 1.8 = 43.8 dB
Each binary digit added to PCM code word
increases the S/D ratio 6 dB for linear
quantization
Practical S/D values range in the order of 3338 dB

Quantization and resulting coding

using 16 quantizing steps

Double the quantization steps

Staying between +1,0,-1
We get improvement in quantization distortion
e.g. Lets double the quantum steps from 16 to 32
In first case, the total range of 2000mV is divided into
16 steps or 125 mV/step
For 32 steps, 2000mV/32=62.5 mV, here the worst
quantization error will be half of 62.5 mV i.e.
62.5/2=31.25 mV, So the improvement is
=20 log (62.5/31.25)=20 log 2 = 6dB
(VALID FOR LINEAR QUANTIZATION ONLY)

Problem with the Voice signal

Voice has a wide dynamic range i.e. 50 dB
If we use linear quantization we need 2048
steps, which is 211 i.e. 11 bit code
If it is sampled 8000 times a sec, we have
8000 x 11=88000 bits/sec or 88 kHz assuming
1 kHz/1 bit/sec. This too big a number and
designing a circuit for this is not economical
So designers came up with COMPANDING

COMPANDING
Compression at the sender
Expansion at the Receiver
More code segments are assigned to low level
speech than high level speech

COMPRESSION 6 bit coding, 8-bit

sequences per segment

PCM systems
Old PCM systems had 7 bit code
Modern PCM systems use 8-bit code with
improved quantization distortion performance
Companding and coding are carried out together
Compression and expansion are logrithmic

 Pseudo-logrithmic curve made up of linear

segments imparts finer granularity to lower
level signals and less granularity to higher
level signals

QUALITY of a PCM signal

Quality of a PCM signal is expressed as Signal
to Distortion ratio expressed as dBs

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio (SQR)

The worst-case voltage SQR

SQR(min)

SQR for a maximum input signal

SQR(max)

resolution
=
Qe

R =resistance
(ohm)
v = rms signal
voltage
q = quantization
interval

Vmax
=
Qe

The signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio

SQR( dB )

average signal power

= 10 log
average quantization noise power
= 10 log

v2

( q 12)

v2
= 10 log q 2
12

Example 2
1.
2.

Calculate the SQR (dB) if the input signal = 2 Vrms and the
quantization noise magnitudes = 0.02 V.
Determine the voltage of the input signals if the SQR =
36.82 dB and q =0.2 V.

Effect of Non-Linear Coding

Nonlinear Encoding
Quantization levels not evenly spaced
Reduces overall signal distortion
Can also be done by companding

Companding
The process of compressing and then expanding.
The higher amplitude analog signals are compressed
prior to transmission and then expanded in receiver.
Improving the DR of a communication system.

A law and law

Parameters A and determine the range over

which the signal to distortion ratio is
comparatively constant, about 26 dB
For A-Law companding an S/D =37.5 dB is
expected (A=87.6)
For law companding an S/D=37 dB is
expected (=225)

Companding Functions

Method of Companding

For the compression, two laws are adopted: the -law in US and Japan
and the A-law in Europe.
-law

Vout =

A-law

Vout

Vmax ln(1 + Vin Vmax )

ln(1 + )

A Vin Vmax
Vmax
1 + ln A

=
Vin
1
ln(
+
A
Vmax )

1 + ln A

Vin
1
0

Vout A
1 Vin

1
A Vout

Vmax= Max uncompressed

analog input voltage
Vin= amplitude of the input
signal at a particular of
instant time
Vout= compressed output
amplitude
A, = parameter define the
amount of compression

The typical values used in practice are: =255 and A=87.6.

After quantization the different quantized levels have to be represented
in a form suitable for transmission. This is done via an encoding process.

Example 3
A companding system with = 255 used to
compand from 0V to 15 V sinusoid signal.
Draw the characteristic of the typical system.
Draw an 8 level non-uniform quantizer
characteristic that corresponds to the
mentioned .

Contd...

-law

A-law

PCM Line Speed

The data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out of the
PCM encoder onto the transmission line.

bits
samples
line speed =
X
second sample

Where
Line speed = the transmission rate in bits per second
Sample/second = sample rate, fs
Bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM code

Example 4
For a single PCM system with a sample rate fs
= 6000 samples per second and a 7 bits
compressed PCM code, calculate the line
speed.
samples
bits
line speed =
X
second sample

Line speed=6000 samples/sec X 7 bits /sample

=42000 bits/sec

Virtues & Limitation of PCM

The most important advantages of PCM are:
Robustness to channel noise and
interference.
Efficient regeneration of the coded signal
along the channel path.
Efficient exchange between BT and SNR.
Uniform format for different kind of baseband signals.
Flexible TDM.

Contd
Secure communication through the use of
special modulation schemes of encryption.
These advantages are obtained at the cost of
more complexity and increased BT.
With cost-effective implementations, the cost
issue no longer a problem of concern.
With
the
availability
of
wide-band
communication channels and the use of
sophisticated data compression techniques, the
large bandwidth is not a serious problem.

Time-Division Multiplexing
This technique combines time-domain
samples from different message signals
(sampled at the same rate) and transmits
them together across the same channel.
The multiplexing is performed using
commutator (switch). At the receiver
decommutator
(switch)
is
used
synchronism with the commutator
demultiplex the data.

a
a
in
to

Contd
TDM system is very sensitive to symbol dispersion, i.e.,

to variation of amplitude with frequency or

lack of proportionality of phase with frequency.
This problem may be solved through equalization of both magnitude and
phase.

One of the methods used to synchronize the operations of

multiplexing and de-multiplexing is

to organize the multiplexed stream of data as frames with a special

pattern. The pattern is known to the receiver and can be detected very
easily.

Block diagram of TDM-PCM communication

system

Example 5
For a PCM system with the following parameters,
Maximum analog input frequency = 4 KHz
Maximum decoded voltage at the receiver = 2.55 V
Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB

Determine

Minimum sampling rate

Minimum number of bit used in PCM
Resolution
Quantization error

PCM
Pulse Code Modulation
Sampling Rate
a. Minimum sampling rate fs=2 x f= 2 x 4k =8
kHz

b. Minimum number of bits used in PCM:

DR = 2 n 1
n=log (Dynamic Range + 1)/log (2)---------------I
DR=46 dB
Transforming to linear scale
20 log DR = 46
Log DR =46/20
DR = 199.53
Putting this value in Eq I
n=(log (199.3 + 1))/log 2
= 7.64

c. Resolution:
DR=Vmax/resolution
Resolution= Vmax/DR
But DR= 2n-1
Resolution=2.55/(2 7.64-1) = 0.013

d. Quantization Error:
Qe=Resolution/2 = 0.013/2 = 0.0065