Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION:
a) This topic covers the composition of
concrete materials, concrete structure and
development in construction industries.
b) It also includes, the relation of the concrete
mix strength with the mixture ratios, the
workability of wet concrete and properties
of hardened concrete.
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5)
Fine and Coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose.
6)
Water used for mixing concrete should be free from substances such as silt, soil,
organic acids and other organic materials such as salt and alkali. Usually the
water used for mixing concrete is eligible drinking water or taken from approved
source.
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1.2 CEMENT
i.
Cement can be described as a material with adhesive & cohesive properties which
make it capable of bonding material fragments into a compact whole.
ii.
In construction purpose, the term cements is confined to the bonding materials used
with stones, sand, bricks, building blocks, etc..
iii.
To fill the voids in between sand & coarse aggregate particles to form a
compact mass.
iv.
Cement is usually gray. White cement can also be found but it is usually more
expensive than gray cement.
v.
vi.
vii.
1.2.1
TYPE OF CEMENT:
1)
There are two types of cements known as Hydraulic Cement & High Alumina Cement.
2)
Hydraulic cement is the cement that would set & hardened under water by virtue of a chemical
reaction between the constituent compounds of cement & water.
3)
4)
a)
Natural Cement are powders obtained from certain natural rocks (clayey lime stone type)
which are quarried, crushed & processed. If enough heat is applied to dry off carbonic
acid gases, a Hydraulic Cement results. It is brown & set slowly or quickly when mixed
with water, depending on the amount of clay in the limestone. But this has low strength.
Portland Cement is obtained by burning in a large rotary kiln at 1400 calcareous &
argillaceous materials (containing lime & clay respectively) and iron oxide bearing
materials which are previously ground to small particles. This forms a small modular
particles (CaCO3) called clinkers which are then grounded to fine powders. Thus
limestone @ chalk & clay are used as principal materials.
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c)
Aluminous Cement containing the chief ingredients namely calcareous (clay, shale) &
aluminous materials (limestone or chalk & bauxite). These are heated to a temperature of
1400 and then the whole mass is grinded to powder form.
5)
High Alumina Cement is quite different both in composition & properties from Portland
Cement. It is comparatively slow setting but very rapid hardening, thus produces very high
early strength. As a considerable amount of heat is generated during the setting &
hardening processes, it should not be used in rich mixes or large masses.
6)
It essential that the concrete be kept continuously wet for at least 24 hours from the time it
begins to harden. About 80% of ultimate strength is developed during that time. High
alumina cement has initial setting time about 4 hours & final setting time about 5 hours.
7)
The heat generated during hardening period has one advantage, it is enables concrete to be
placed at lower temperatures than OPC concrete.
8)
The alumina cement is more workable than Portland Cement. High Alumina Cement
concrete is more resistant than OPC concrete to the action sulphates, therefore suitable for
The Alumina Cement is considerably more expensive than any others cement.
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clay or shale & heating them together to clinker which is subsequently ground to
powder.
2) There are 8 types of Portland Cement knowingly as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Has a medium rate of hardening & suitable for most type of work.
ii.
One of the most commonly used for structural purposes when the special properties
specified for other four types of cement are not required.
ii.
iii. Due to it finer grinding, it will increase the rate of hydration at early ages and this leads to
Concrete made with RHPC develops in 7 days, the same strength with 28 days to develop in
concrete made with OPC.
vi. RHPC should not be regarded as a quick setting cement because the hardening refers to its
rate of increasing strength and not setting time.
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ii. The proportion of slag is limited by the BS to not more than 65% of finished
cement.
iii. The properties of blast furnace cement are similar to OPC but it hydrates
slower than those Portland Cement, so this evolves less heat & hardens more
slowly than OPC.
ii.
The higher strengths are achieved by increasing the Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) content and
also by finer grinding of the clinker.
iii. The initial & final setting times are same as OPC.
iv. At higher water cement ratios, the high strength concrete has about 80% higher strength &
at lower water cement ratios 40 % higher strength than OPC.
MASONRY CEMENT
i.
For hand works uses such as rendering and bricklaying, mortars composed only of Portland
Cement & sand are not ideal.
ii.
Such mortars harden too quickly, are too strong and lack plasticity and water retention
iv. Masonry cement, under various brand names consists of Portland Cement with a fine inert
admixture & a plasticising agent.
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1.2.2
1)
2)
3)
4)
Chemical
Composition
Usual
Abbreviation
Tricalcium Silicate
3CaO.SiO2
C3S
Quick Reaction
Tricalcium Aluminate
3CaO.Al2O3
C3A
Very Quick
Reaction
Tetra-Calcium
Aluminoferrite
4CaO.Al2O3Fe2O3
C4AF
Not Very
Important
Dicalcium Silicate
2CaO.SiO2
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C2S
Slow Reaction
1.2.3
1)
When cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water are mixed and
blended, water and cement come together through a chemical process called
3)
The active materials in concrete are cement and water, meanwhile aggregates
are inert (lengai) material.
4)
Aggregates doesnt provided any action during the hydration process but acts as
a space filler and give strength, restless and resistance force from being
contraction (pengecutan).
5)
After hydration process, the water content in the concrete becomes less and
gradually dried.
6)
The hardened & good design concrete must have the voids about 1% and cement
paste (water / cement / aggregate mix coarse and fine) about 75%.
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1.3
1.3.1
STORE STORAGE
1) The arrangement should be such that it is convenient both for stacking and removal of
cement bags and it also leaves adequate space for movement and inspection of bags for
counting purposes etc.,
2) No cement bags should be stacked in contact with an external wall. A clear space of at
least 60 cm should be left between the exterior wall and the stacks.
3) Cement bags should be placed closely together in the stack to reduce circulation of air as
much as possible.
4) Cement bags should not be stacked more than ten bags high to avoid lumping or
warehouse pack under pressure.
5) If the stack is more than seven bags high, arrange the bags in header and stretcher
fashion (i.e.) alternately length-wise and cross-wise, to achieve interlocking between
them and lessening the danger of toppling over, the arrangement of two stacks with a
height of seven bags and ten bags respectively.
6) For extra safety during rainy season, the stacks of cement bags should be enclosed
completely in polythene sheets or similar material if it is anticipated that cement would
not be required for a prolonged period.
7) This can be achieved by making a large loose sack of the polythene sheet and arranging
cement bags within it with flaps of the sheet closing on the top of the pile.
8) Care should be taken to ensure that the polythene sheet is not damaged any time while
in use.
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1.3.2
SILOS STORAGE
1) Stored in dry conditions to prevent freezing of the air (air setting) to establish the details of the
half-frozen cement.
2) Silo must be in waterproof.
3) Inspection should be done regularly to detect that it is always air-tight and waterproof.
4) Keeping with this method is better for use with a minimum of labor. No need to transport to
storage.
5) Avoid waste if the bag of cement leakage or rupture.
6) Controlled in a working and efficient storage.
7) Silo is a place to store the cement at the concrete mixing plant (batching plant).
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1.3.4
The cement when stored for longer period of time loses its strength characteristics.
ii. The strength of cement when used after one year of its production loses its strength
by about 40-50% on application as compared to that of freshly produced cement.
iii. The loss of strength characteristic of cement at different interval of times is as given
below in the table.
AGE OF CEMENT
3 Months
20-30
6 Months
30-40
12 Months
40-50
iv. A cement can absorb up to 1.2% moisture but if absorption exceeds 5%, the cement
is destroyed for all practical purposes.
v. Different types of cements should not be mixed while using them for constructional
purposes.
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1.4
AGGREGATE
1.4.1
CRITERIA S OF AGGREGATE
1.
Aggregate is used to describe the gravels, crushed stones & other materials which are mixed
with cement & water to make concrete.
2.
Aggregate is form 75% of the volume of concrete, so chosen the suitable materials is
important & also aggregate should contain no constituent material which might have
adverse affect of the hardening of cement or the durability of hardened cement.
3.
The functions of aggregate in concrete is as a mass particle which are suitable for resisting
action of applied load, abrasion & percolation of moisture and the action of weather.
4.
It is also as to reduce the volume changes resulting from setting and hardening of concrete.
5.
Aggregate can be classified according to their unit weight and are grouped into 3
categories, there are:
a) Normal Aggregate Rushed Rock, Sand & Gravel, Broken Bricks.
b) Light Weight Aggregate Pumice, Expanded Shale, Expanded Clay.
1.4.1.1
1.4.1.2
1.4.1.3
Aggregate of specific gravity, that is ranging from 2.8 to 2.0 & unit weight
from 2800 to 2900 kg/m3 are used to make high density concrete.
2.
3.
4.
The cement-aggregate ratio varies from 1:5 & 1:9 with a water-cement ratio
between 0.5 0.65. They produce dense & crack free concrete.
5.
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1.4.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATE
1) The aggregate used in concrete must be clean, hard, strong, properly shaped & well graded.
2) The characteristics includes are that, it must possess chemical stability, abrasion resistance,
resistance to freeze & thawing, compressive strength, good particle shape & surface texture.
3) The Chemical Stability of an aggregate indicates that the aggregate will not react chemically with
cement or be affected chemically by other external influences.
4) The Abrasion Resistance of an aggregate is often used as a general index of aggregate quality.
Abrasion resistance is essential when the aggregate is used in concrete subject to abrasion as in
floors & pavements.
5) Resistance to freeze & thawing is important when the aggregates are used in exposed concrete. The
freeze-thaw resistance of an aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption & pore structure.
6) The Compressive Strength of an aggregate is its resistance to compressive forces.
7) The Particle Shape & Surface Texture of an aggregate influence of the properties of fresh concrete
more than they affect the properties of hardened concrete.
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1.4.2.1
2) Strength:
a) The strength of concrete cannot exceed of the bulk of aggregate contained therein.
b) Normally, the strength of concrete does not exceed 80 N/mm2 and generally
between 20 50 N/mm2.
c) Whilst the strength of rock aggregate (coarse) varies between 70 350 N/mm2.
d) A good aggregate value of crushing strength of aggregate is 200 N/mm2.
e) The test conducted to determine the strength of aggregate are namely as Aggregate
Crushing Value, Aggregate Impact Value & Ten Percent Fines Value.
3) Hardness:
4) Toughness:
a) The resistance of aggregate to failure by impact.
b) It can be determined by Aggregate Impact Test. This aggregate impact value shall
not exceed 45% by weight for aggregate used for concrete other than those used
for wearing surfaces.
5) Durability:
a) Is the ability of aggregate to withstand external or internal damaging attack
(soundness of aggregate).
b) This can be obtained by carrying out Soundness Test.
c) Aggregate with high modulus of elasticity generally produces a concrete with
higher modulus of elasticity.
d) Aggregate with high modulus of elasticity also affect the magnitude of creep &
shrinkage of concrete.
e) The compressibility of aggregate would reduce distress in concrete during its
volume changes while a strong & rigid aggregate might lead to the cracking of the
6) Porosity:
a) Aggregate normally have pores of various sizes. Some are small & some are big.
b) Aggregate will absorb water when its dry but release water in the concrete mix
when its wet.
c) The amount of water and its rate or permeation depends on the size & volume
of aggregate.
7) Water Absorption:
a) Is the weight of water absorbed by an oven dry aggregate in reaching the
saturated & surface dry condition.
b) The water absorption is express as percentage of the weight of the dry
condition.
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process.
f)
1.4.2.2
Rounded
(Bulat)
Irregular
(Tidak
Sekata)
Angular
(Berkeping)
Flaky
(Bersegi
Tajam)
Elongated
(Panjang)
Flaky &
Elongated
1.4.2.3
Grain Size.
Pore characteristic of the parent material.
Degree to which forces acting on the surface have smoothed or roughened.
8) The BS 812 : Part 1 : 1975 characterized the surface texture of aggregate as:
Glassy Conchoidal Fracture.
Smooth Water-worn or smooth due to fracture laminated or fine grained
rock.
Granular Fracture showing more or less uniform rounded grains.
Rough Rough fracture of fine or medium grained rock containing no
easily visible crystalline constituents.
Crystalline Containing easily visible crystalline constituents.
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1.4.3
FINE AGGREGATE
1) Fine aggregate is a material which passes through a 4.75 mm (3/16 inch) BS 410 Test
Sieve.
2) Sand is generally considered to have a lower size limit of about 0.07 mm, material
between 0.06 mm and 0.002 mm is classified as silt and smaller particles are called
clay.
3) Sand may be described as:
a) Natural Sand Fine Aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rocks.
b) Crushed Stone Sand @ Crushing Gravel Sand Fine Aggregate produced by
crushing hard stone or natural gravel respectively.
4) The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act
as a workability agent.
5) For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
aggregate should have a rounded shape.
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IS Sieve Designation
% Passing by Weight
1.
10 mm
100
2.
4.75 mm
95 - 100
3.
2.36 mm
75-100
4.
1.18 mm
55 - 90
5.
600 micron
35 - 60
6.
300 micron
8 - 30
7.
150 micron
0 - 10
7) Aggregates Form with a smooth surface can provide a good workability, but has a
low bond of strength.
8) While the aggregate with a rough surface produces less workability, but the bond
strength between aggregates and cement is better.
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1.4.4
1) River sand and sea sand are the most suitable fine aggregate because its clean
from any chemical impurities or other substances that may affect the quality
of concrete.
2) Mining Sand is called M-Sand is a substitute for river sand that hardly get in
large quantities.
3) M-Sand is obtained from the quarry through the crushing process is filtered
and graded.
4) Graded sand generally has good quality and comparable with river sand and
the cheaper price.
5) As the conclusion, all three sand is suitable for used to make a quality
concrete.
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1.4.5
COARSE AGGREGATE
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1.5
1.5.1
3) Free from acids or alkalis or other such organics impurities. The PH value of
water shall generally be not less than 6.
4) Free from iron, vegetable matter or any other substance which is likely to
1.6
CONCRETE MIXTURE
1.6.1
ii.
1.6.2
3) Mix ratio usually used was 1:2:4 (cement: sand: coarse aggregate), 1:3:6
and 1:5:10 depended on its purpose and application.
4) Table below shown an example of concrete mix ratio that depends on its
purpose:
MIX RATIO
USES
1:1.5:3
1:2:4
1:3:6
1:5:10
1.6.3
Standard Mixture.
ii.
Designed Mixture.
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1)
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1.7.2
a) Water-Cement Ratio.
b) Aggregate-Cement Ratio.
c) Admixture/Additives Substances.
d) Shape & Fleshiness of Aggregate.
e) Time & Temperature.
1.7.2.1
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
i.
concrete.
ii. It will be a stage that increase in workability will result in segregation &
bleeding.
iii. Use of higher water content will result in more serious problem of shrinkage
1.7.2.2
AGGREGATE-CEMENT RATIO
i.
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1.7.2.3
Aggregates that have a smooth surface can provide a good workability, but
has a low bond strength.
ii. While the aggregate with a rough surface produces a low workability, but the
bond strength between aggregates and cement are much better.
1.7.2.4
ADMIXTURE/ADDITIVES SUBSTANCES:
i.
ii. Pozzolanic materials like Pfa and slag would likely reduce workability.
1.7.2.5
High temperature for longer period of time would result absorption &
evaporation hence reduce workability.
ii. During hot day, it becomes necessary to increase water content of the
concrete mix in order to maintain the desired workability.
iii. The fresh concrete loses workability with time mainly because of the loss
of moisture due to evaporation.
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1.8
1.8.1
DEFINITION OF ADDITIVE
1.
Some admixtures have been in use for a very long time, such as
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Among other important admixtures that do not fit into these categories are
admixtures whose functions include bonding, shrinkage reduction, damp
proofing and coloring.
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10)
Purposes of admixture/additives:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
To accelerate setting & hardening and thus to produce high early strength.
v.
vi.
To aid curing.
vii.
viii.
To retard setting.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
To impart colour.
xiv.
To reduce bleeding.
xv.
xvi.
1.8.1.1
RETARDING SUBSTANCES
i.
Retarders are used to delay the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
ii.
High temperatures of fresh concrete (85F 90F) are often the cause of an
increased rate of hardening that makes placing and finishing difficult.
iii. One practical way to reduce the temperature of the concrete is by cooling the
mixing water or the aggregates.
iv. Retarders do not decrease the initial temperature of the concrete.
v.
vi. Some of the materials used to retard the set of a concrete mixture are lignin, borax,
sugar, tartaric acid, and salt. These materials should be added to the mixing water.
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1.8.1.2
ACCLERATING SUBSTANCES
1. Accelerators shorten the set time of concrete, allowing a cold-weather pour,
early removal of forms, early surface finishing, and in some cases, early load
application.
2. Proper care must be taken while choosing the type and proportion of
accelerators, as under most conditions, commonly used accelerators cause an
increase in the drying shrinkage of concrete.
3. Calcium chloride is a common accelerator, used to accelerate the time of set
and the rate of strength gain.
4. Excessive amounts of calcium chloride in concrete mix may result in rapid
stiffening, increase in drying shrinkage and corrosion of reinforcement.
5. In colder climates, calcium chloride should not be used as an anti-freeze.
6. Large amount of calcium chloride is required to lower the freezing point of
the concrete, which may ruin the concrete.
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1.8.1.3
SUPERPLASTICIZER SUBSTANCES
1.
2.
3.
High range water reducers are admixtures that allow large water reduction or greater
flow ability (as defined by the manufacturers, concrete suppliers and industry standards)
without substantially slowing set time or increasing air entrainment.
4.
Each type of super plasticizer has defined ranges for the required quantities of concrete
mix ingredients, along with the corresponding effects.
5.
They can maintain a specific consistency and workability at a greatly reduced amount of
water.
6.
Dosages needed vary by the particular concrete mix and type of super plasticizer used.
7.
8.
As with most types of admixtures, super plasticizers can affect other concrete properties
as well.
9.
The specific effects, however, should be found from the manufacturer or concrete supplier.
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2. They can have the side effect of changing initial set time.
3. Water reducers are mostly used for hot weather concrete
placing and to aid pumping.
4. A water-reducer plasticizer, however, is a hygroscopic
powder, which can entrain air into the concrete mix via its
effect on water's surface tension, thereby also, obtaining some
of the benefits of air-entrainment
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2.
Bonding Admixtures:
a) Bonding admixtures, including addition of compounds and materials such
as polyvinyl chlorides and acetates, acrylics and butadiene-styrene co-
polymers, can be used to assist in bonding new / fresh concrete with old /
set concrete.
3.
Coloring Agents:
a) Have become more commonly used, especially for patios and walkways.
b) Most are surface applied and often have the additional effect of surface
hardening.
4.
concrete.
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