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BRIEF THEORY
Meaning Measurement
Measurement is part of the Science Process Skills which is an information gathering
both quantitatively and qualitatively. By performing measurements, can be obtained
magnitude or value of a quantity or qualitative evidence.
Significant figures
1. Non-zero all numbers are significant figures.
2. Zeros are located between non-zero figure includes significant figures.
3. Zeros on the right number is not zero, including significant figures, unless there are
other explanations, such as a line under the last digit is still considered important.
4. To lie zeros on the left digit is not zero. Either on the right or on the left of the comma
decimal excluding significant figures.
Important figure sum and Reduction
At the time of summing the numbers are not exact (significant figures), the final
results may only contain one number in doubt with regard to the following rules.
1.
Figures hesitant plus or minus the number hesitation generate numbers hesitation.
2.
The exact figure is increased or decreased with the number hesitation generate
numbers hesitation.
3.
The exact figure is increased or decreased with an exact figure produces the exact
figure.
Measurement Uncertainty
a. Uncertainty system
Uncertainty (error) applying will cause the results deviate from actual results.
Applying sources of uncertainty include:
1.
Instrument calibration error; it can be seen by comparing it with other tools.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Parallax error
6. Errors due to the current state of working conditions at the time the tool is calibrated
in contrast to conditions at the time the tool works.
b. Uncertainty wide (Random)
This error comes from the symptoms may not be controlled or overcome such
changes take place very quickly so that the controlling and regulating beyond this
kemampuan.Ketidakpastian cause measurement falls slightly to the left and to the right
of the actual values. Random sources of uncertainty include:
1.
Error estimating portion scale
The first source of uncertainty in the measurements is the limited scale of the
measuring instrument. A smaller price than the value of the smallest scale measuring
devices (NST) can no longer be read, so do estimates. That is, some uncertainty has
infiltrated the measurement results. There are three determinants in terms of
assessment, namely:
a.
The physical distance between two adjacent scratches
b.
c.
Vibrating platform
5.
Noisy, is interference with the electronic device in the form of rapid fluctuations
in voltage due to the increased temperature of the component tool works.
6.
Background radiation such as cosmic radiation from outer space.
Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
A measurement is always accompanied by uncertainty. Some of the causes are,
among others ktidakpastian smallest scale value, error calibration, zero point errors,
errors of parallax, friction, fluctuations in measurement parameters and environment
influence each other as well as the skill of the observer.
a. Single measurement uncertainty
A single measurement is a measurement that is done only once. Limitations scale
measuring instruments and limited ability to observe as well as many other sources of
error, resulting in measurement results are always seized with uncertainty.
The value of x samapai last stroke can be known with certainty, but reading the rest is
guesswork or conjecture that is dubious. This is the uncertainty in question and given
the symbol x. x is the absolute epitome of uncertainty. For a single measurement
taken of wisdom:
x =
1
2 NST tool
(1)
[X]
(2)
description:
X
= symbol magnitudes measured
(x x) = The measurement results and uncertainties
[X]
repetition are quite often (10 times or more). If the measurement is done 3 times with
the results of x 1, x 2 and x 3 or 2 times only at the beginning of the experiment and the
end of the experiment, and x can be determined as follows.
the average value reported as a measurement while the deviation (deviation), the
largest or the average deviation is reported as x. Deviation is the difference-the
difference between each result of measurement of average value, so:
{ X } = X average measurement
(3)
maximum ,
x =
= average
With :
X=
Deviasi
1.
2,
=x1-x,
3.
x 1+ x 2+ x 3
3
=x2-x,
(4)
It is recommended that
max
1+ 2+ 3
3
(5)
will be included in the interval (x-x) and (x + x). Number of significant digits is
determined by the relative uncertainty. In this case people often use a rule of thumb as
follows:
3
a.
x
x approximately 10%, using 2 numbers mean.
b.
x
x about 1% using the 3 digit means.
c.
x
x about 0.1% using 4 numbers mean
dy = |
y
a | da +|
y
b
|db +|
y
c | dc
(6)
y
b | b +|
y
c | c
(7)
a, b, c, .....
y
a | a +|
1
2 x NST obtained from measuring instrument or by the rules that
dy = |
Because, |
y
a |da +|
y
b |db
(8)
y
a |= 1 and, then y =a + b
Absolute error of form or selisi amount equal to the sum absolute error of each tribe.
b. Error propagation multiplication and division
Suppose the result of the calculation is y = a b, or y = a b -1, where a and b results
single measurement, then:
y=
a
b =
a b-1
(9)
y
a |da +|
y
b |db
(10)
Where,
y
1
-1
|=
a
b = b dan |
y
b |= a
1
b = a b
(11)
So:
dy = |
1
b | da +|-
a
b
|db=|
1
b da+
a
b db|
(12)
If divided by y =
a
a b-1 it is obtained:
b =
1
a
a+ b
b
b
a
b
y
=
y
|=|
a
a
b
b
(13)
The relative uncertainty of the form of multiplication or division is the amount of
relative uncertainty of each factor.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Tools and materials
1. Ruler
2. Vernier calipers
3. Micrometer screw
4. Stopwatch
5. Thermometer
6. Wooden beams
7. Marbles
8. Balance Ohauss 2610 grams
9. Balance Ohauss 311 grams
10. Balance Ohauss 310 grams
11. Measuring cup
12. Three legs and gauze
13. Match
: Build space three dimensional spherical and has a diameter (2r) so it can be in the
shape of a half circle in the wake rotate as far as 360 in diameter
Activity 1
1.
The length is the distance between the base of the beam by beam end whose size
is longer than the width and shorter than the height measured using a ruler, vernier
caliper and micrometer screw in mm.
2.
The width is the distance between the base of the beam by beam end whose size
is shorter than the length and height measured using a ruler, vernier caliper and
micrometer screw in mm.
3.
Height is the distance between the base of the beam by beam end whose size is
longer than the size of the width and length were measured using a ruler, vernier
caliper and micrometer screw in mm.
4.
Diameter is the center line of marbles which are measured using a ruler, vernier
caliper and micrometer screw in mm.
Activity 2
1.
The mass of the beam is measured using a mass balance beam ohauss with units
of grams.
2.
Marbles marbles mass is measured using a mass balance ohauss with units of
grams.
Activity 3
1.
Temperature changes in the water temperature is measured with a thermometer
Celsius.
2.
Time is the amount of time needed to raise the water temperature is measured
with a stopwatch in the second unit.
Work procedures
Activity 1
Step 1 : Take a ruler, vernier caliper and micrometer screw then determine it NST.
Step 2 : Measure using measuring devices such third 3 times for the length, width, and
height of the wooden beams. By Record the measurement results in Table
observations accompanied by uncertainty.
Step 3 : Measure the use of three devices as much as 3 times the diameter marbles. By
Record the measurement results in Table observations accompanied by
uncertainty.
Activity 2
Step 1 : Determine NST each balance sheet
Step 2 : Measure repeatedly 3 times the mass of the beam and marbles.
Step 3 : Take note of the measurement results is equipped with measurement uncertainty.
Activity 3
Step 1 : Setting up a thermometer, measuring cups, Bunsen burners complete with three
legs and a layer of asbestos.
Step 2 :Fill a measuring cup with water to part and put over three feet without burners.
Step 3 :Turn on the Bunsen burner and wait a while until the flames appear normal.
Step 4 :Put the Bunsen burner just below the measuring cup and wait for the water
temperature reaches 40 C as the temperature at first.
Step 5 :Take note of the change of temperature on the thermometer reads each interval of
1 minute within 6 minutes.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS DATA
Observation result
1.
Length Measurement
NST Ruler :
limit measure
1 cm
=
= 0,1 cm= 1 mm
the amount of scale
10
= 39 SU
= 39 (1 mm)
= 39 mm
= 1,95 mm
= 2 mm 1,95 mm
= 0,05 mm
NST SU
limit measure
the amount of scale
5 mm
10
= 0,5 mm
limit measure
number of rotary scale
0,5 mm
50
0,01 mm
Table 1. Results of measurements of length
mea
measurement results (mm)
the
sure
amount
d
N
Ruler
Vernier calipers
Micrometer Screw
measur
o objec
ed
t
Length
1.
Beam
Width
Height
|20,0 0,5|
|20,50 0,05|
|20,47 0,01|
|20,5 0,5|
|20,20 0,05|
|20,45 0,01|
|20,5 0,5|
|20,10 0,05|
|20,01 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,15 0,05|
|20,47 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,30 0,05|
|20,48 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,20 0,05|
|20,47 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,85 0,05|
|20,42 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,01 0,05|
|20,41 0,01|
|20,0 0,5|
|20,90 0,05|
|20,41 0,01|
|16,05 0,05|
|15,69 0,01|
|17,5 0,5|
|16,95 0,05|
|15,70 0,01|
|17,0 0,5|
|16,05 0,05|
|15,69 0,01|
|15,5 0,5|
2.
Ball
Diameter
2. Mass Measurement
Balance Ohauss 2610 grams
Value Scale arm 1
100 g
10 g
0,1 g
The mass of the load hanging : Table 2. Results of mass measurements with the Balance of 2610 grams Ohauss
Object
Pointer
arm 1
Pointer
arm 2
Pointer
arm 3
Hanging
load
Balok
Kubus
0
0
0
60
60
60
74,5
75
75,5
|67,45 0,05|
|67,50 0,05|
|67,55 0,05|
Bola
0
0
0
0
0
0
56,5
57,5
57,5
|5,65 0,05|
|5,75 0,05|
|5,75 0,05|
limit measure
200 g
=
=100 g
the amount of scale
2
limit measure
100 g
=
=10 g
the amount of scale
10
limit measure
10 g
=
=1 g
the amount of scale 10
limit measure
1,0 g
=
=0,01 g
the amount of scale 100
Table 3. Results of mass measurements with the balance of 311 grams Ohauss
Object
Pointer
arm 1
Pointer
arm 2
Pointer
arm 3
Pointer
arm 4
Beam
cube
0
0
0
60
60
60
7
7
7
49
49,5
49,5
|67,490 0,005|
|67,495 0,005|
|67,495 0,005|
Ball
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
5
69,5
69,5
69,5
|5,695 0,005|
|5,695 0,005|
|5,695 0,005|
limit measure
200 g
=
=100 g
the amount of scale
2
limit measure
100 g
=
=10 g
the amount of scale
10
limit measure
1g
= =0,1 g
the amount of scale 10
|68,67 0,01|
Ball
0
0
0
0
0
0
73
75
64
9
10
4
|7,39 0,01|
|7,51 0,01|
|6,44 0,01|
limit measure
10
=
=1
the amount of scale
10
NST thermometer
Initial temperature (T o)
: 40
NST Stopwatch
limit measure
1 second
=
the amount of scale
10
0,1 second
No
.
Temperature (
Temperature
Changes
Time (s)
()
1.
|60,0 0,1|
|41,5 1|
1,5
2.
|120,0 0,1|
|43,5 1|
3.
|180,0 0,1|
|45,5 1|
4.
|240,0 0,1|
|47,0 1|
1,5
5.
|300,0 0,1|
|48,5 1|
1,5
6.
|360,0 0,1|
|50,5 1|
1,5
DATA ANALYSIS
Length Measurement
Beam
V =PLT
|vp| |vl |
| ( p lp t )|
v=
P+
L+
P+
|vt |
| ( p ll t )|
T
L+
( p l t )
T
t
| |
| p v t | | pv l|
v
l t
=
| p ptlt | | p pllt |
v | p l t |
v P
L
T
=|
|
|
|
|
v
p
l
t |
P
L
T
v=| |
v
|
|
|
p
l
t |
v l t
=
P+
v
v
L+
P+
L+
Ruler
Long
a.
P
=
3
= 20,3 mm
|P x P |
x =
1 = |20,020,3|mm = 0,3 mm
x = |20,520,3|mm = 0,2 mm
x
= |20,520,3|mm = 0,2 mm
= max = 0,3 mm
KR =
P
P
KR =
0,3
20,3
PF :
100%
100% = 1,5 % ( 3 AB )
|P P|
|20 , 3 0,3| mm
b.Width
x =
|Lx L|
1 = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
x = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
= 20,0 mm
x = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
L = = 0,5 mm.
max
KR =
L
L
KR =
0,5
20,0
PF:
100%
100% = 2,5% ( 3 AB )
|L L| = |20,0 0,5| mm
c. Height
x =
= 20,0 mm
|T x T |
1 = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
x = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
x = |20,020,0|mm = 0 mm
KR =
T
T
KR =
0,5
20,0
PF :
100%
|T T |
|20,0 0,5| mm
Vbalok = P L T
Vbalok = 20,3 mm 20,0 mm 20,0 mm
Vbalok = 8.120 mm3
8.120 mm3
v=|0,01| +
v
v
KR =
0,6 c m3
8,1 c m3
PF:
100 %
100% = 7,4 % ( 2 AB )
|V V| = 8,1
0,6 cm3
Vernier calipers
a. Long
P
=
3
x =
= 20,3 mm
|P x P |
1 = |20,5020,3|mm = 0,2 mm
x = |20,2020,3|mm = 0,1 mm
x = |20,1020,3|mm = 0,2 mm
P = = 0,2 mm.
max
KR =
P
P
KR =
0,2
20,3
100%
100% = 1 % ( 3 AB )
|P P|
PF :
|20,3 0,2| mm
b. Width
|Lx L|
1 = |20,1520,22| mm = 0,07 mm
= 20,22 mm
x = |20,3020,22| mm = 0,08 mm
x = |20,2020,22| mm = 0,02 mm
KR =
L
L
KR =
0,08
20,22
PF :
100%
100% = 0,4 % ( 4 AB )
|L L| = |20,22 0,08| mm
c. Height
x =
|T x T |
1 = |20,8520,6|mm = 0,25 mm
x = |20,0120,6| mm = 0,59 mm
x = |20,9020,6|mm = 0,3 mm
KR =
T
T
KR =
0,59
20,6
PF :
100%
100% = 2,9 % (3 AB )
|T T |
|20,6 0,59| mm
Vbalok = P L T
Vbalok =
v=
= 20,6 mm
0,2
0,08
|20,3
| |20,22
| |0,59
20,6|
v=
8.456 mm3
v=|0,01| +
v
v
KR =
0,4 c m3
8,4 c m3
PF:
100%
100% = 4,8 % ( 2 AB )
|V V| = 8,4
0,4 cm3
Micrometer screw
a. Long
P
=
3
x =
|P x P |
1 =
|20,4720,3|mm = 0,17 mm
x =
|20,4520,3|mm = 0,15 mm
x =
|20,0120,3| mm = 0,29 mm
= 20,3 mm
P
P
KR =
0,29
20,3
PF :
|P P|
100%
100% = 1,4 % ( 3 AB )
|20,3 0,29| mm
b. Width
= 20,47 mm
x =
|Lx L|
1 =
|20,4720,47|mm = 0 mm
x =
|20,4820,47|mm = 0,01 mm
x =
|20,4720,47|mm = 0 mm
L
L
KR =
0,01
20,47
PF:
100%
100% = 0,05 % ( 4 AB )
|L L| = |20,47 0,05| mm
c. Height
|T x T |
1 =
|20,4220,41|mm = 0,01 mm
x =
|20,4120,41|mm = 0 mm
x =
|20,4120,41|mm = 0 mm
= 20,41 mm
KR =
T
T
KR =
0,01
20,41
PF :
|T T |
100%
100% = 0,05 % ( 4 AB )
=
|20,41 0,05| mm
Vbalok = P L T
Vbalok =
v=
0,01
0,01
|0,29
|
|
|
|
20,3
20,47
20,41|
v=
v=|0,014| +
v
v
KR =
0,13
8,48
100%
Marbles
1
3
v= d
6
|dv |dd
dv=
| |
dv=
( 16 d ) dd
3
1
2
dv= d dd
2
|12 d d|
v=
| |
1 2
d d
v 2
=
v
1
d3
6
|3 d d|v
v=
100% = 1,5 % ( 3 AB )
|V V| = |8,48 0,13| mm
PF :
8481,2 mm3
KR=
v
x 100
v
Ruler
= 16,7 mm
|d d |
1 = |15,516,7|mm = 1,2 mm
x = |17,516,7|mm = 0,8 mm
x = |17,016,7|mm = 0.3 mm
d
PF:
|d d|
|16,7 1,2| mm
1
3
v= d
6
1
v = (3,14 )(16,7 mm)3 = 2437,41 mm3
6
|3 d d|v
v=
|
|
v=
3(1,2)mm
2437,41 mm 3
16,7 mm
v=
3,6 mm
x 2437,41mm 3
16,7 mm
0,54
cm3
v =2437,41mm 3 2,4 cm 3
KR=
v
x 100
v
KR=
0,54 cm3
x 100
2,4 cm3
PF=|v v|
= 22,5
|2,4 0,5|
( 3AB)
cm
Vernier calipers
|d xd |
1 =
|16,0516,35| mm = 0,3 mm
x =
|16,9516,35| mm = 0,6 mm
x =
|16,0516,35| mm = 0,3 mm
d
PF :
|d d|
|16,35 0,6| mm
1
3
v= d
6
1
3
v = (3,14 )(16,35) = 2.287,34 mm3
6
|3 d d|v
3(0,6)mm
v=|
2.287 mm
16,35 mm |
0,42 mm
v=|
x 2.287 mm
16,31mm |
v=
0,3
v
x 100
v
cm3
= 16,35 mm
KR=
0,3 cm3
x 100
2,3 cm3
PF=|v v|
= 13
( 2 AB)
cm3
|2,3 0,3|
Micrometer screw
|d xd |
1 =
|15,6915,69| mm = 0 mm
x =
|15,7015,69| mm = 0,01 mm
x =
|15,6915,69| mm = 0 mm
d
PF :
= max = 0,01 mm
|d d|
|15,69 0,01| mm
1
v = d3
6
1
3
v = (3,14 )(15,69) = 2021,38 mm3
6
|3 d d|v
v=
|
|
v=
3(0,01)mm
2021,38 m m3
15,69 mm
v=
0,03 mm
x 2021,38 mm3
15,69 mm
0,004
2,02
cm
cm 3
= 15,69 mm
KR=
v
x 100
v
KR=
0,004 cm 3
x 100
2,02 cm 3
PF=|v v|
= 0,19
( 4 AB)
|2,020 0,004|
cm
Mass Measurement
m
v
= mv-1
|m |
m+
|v|
| |
| |
mv
m
mv
v
m+
=|v1| m +
|mv2|
| |
| |
v
=
m+
1
mv
mv
v
1
mv
| | |vv |
m
v
=|
|
|
m
v |
m
=
v =
x =
|v x v|
1 =
|8,18,33|cm 3 = 0,23 cm 3
x =
x =
= 8,33
cm 3
v = = 0,23 cm 3
max
KR =
v
v
KR =
0,23
8,33
100%
100% = 2,8 % ( 3 AB )
PF=|v v|
|8,33 0,23|
cm 3
v =
x =
|v x v|
1 =
x =
x =
= 2,2
cm
v = = 0,18 cm 3
max
KR =
v
v
KR =
0,18
2.2
100%
PF=|v v|
|2,20 0,18|
cm 3
m
=
x =
|mx m |
1 = |67,4567,50|g = 0,05 g
x = |67,5067,50|g = 0 g
x = |67,5567,50|g = 0,05 g
m = = 0,05 g
max
= 67,50 g
KR =
m
m
KR =
0,05
67,50
PF:
100%
100% = 0,07 % ( 4 AB )
|m
m| g=|67,50 0,05| g
b. Ball
m
=
x =
= 5,72 g
|mx m |
1 = |5,655,72| g = 0,07 g
x = |5,755,72| g = 0,03 g
x = |5,755,72| g = 0,03 g
m = = 0,07 g.
max
KR =
m
m
100%
KR =
0,07
5,72
100% = 1,22 % ( 3 AB )
PF:
|m
m| g=|5,72 0.07| g
m
=
x =
|mx m |
1 =
|67,49067,490|g = 0 g
x =
|67,49567,490|g = 0,005 g
x =
|67,49567,490|g = 0.005 g
m = max = 0,005 g.
= 67,490 g
KR =
m
m
KR =
0,005
67,490
PF :
100%
|m
m| = |67,49 0,01| g
b. Ball
m
=
x =
= 5,695 g
|mx m |
1 = |5,6955,695| g = 0 g
x = |5,6955,695| g = 0 g
x = |5,6955,695| g = 0 g
m = = 0,005 g.
max
KR =
m
m
KR =
0,005
5,695
PF:
100%
100% = 0,09 % ( 4 AB )
|m
m| = |5,695 0,005| g
m
=
x =
|mx m |
1 = |67,9368,10|g = 0,17 g
x = |67,7268,10| g = 0,38 g
x = |68,6768,10| g = 0,57 g
m = = 0,57 g.
max
= 68,10 g
KR =
m
m
KR =
0,57
68,10
PF :
100%
|m
m| = |68,10 0,57| g
balok =
m
v
balok =
(68,10 g)
( 8,33 cm3 )
|mm| |vv |
0,57
0,23
=|
|
|
68,10
8,33|
=
8,18 g/cm3
=|0,008| +
= 0,29 g/cm3
KR =
KR =
0,29 g /cm3
3
8,18 g /cm
PF:
100%
b. Ball
m
=
x =
|mx m |
1 =
|7,397,10| g = 0,29 g
x =
|7,517,10| g = 0,41 g
x =
|6,447,10| g = 0,66 g
= 7,1 g
m = = 0,66 g.
max
KR =
m
m
KR =
0,66 g
7,10 g
PF :
100%
100% = 9,29 % ( 3 AB )
|m
m| = |7,10 0,66| g
balok =
m
v
balok =
7,10 g
2,20 c m3
|mm|
|vv |
0,66 g /cm3
7,10 g /cm3
| |
=|0,0009| +
0,18 cm3
2,20 cm3
3,2 g/cm3
= 0,26 g/cm3
KR =
KR =
0,26 g /cm3
3,2 g /cm3
PF:
100%
DISCUSSION
Each measuring instrument has NST and always generates uncertainty. in the first
activity, we measure the length by using a measuring instrument such as ruler, caliper and
micrometer screws. Among this length measuring tool, the tool the higher the precision
micrometer screw which has NST because most kecil.Dalam measurements, frequent
differences in the size of the object and despite using the same tool.
The second activity, we performed measurements of the mass of the beam and
marbles using a measuring instrument balance. Meanwhile, the balance sheet can be
divided into three kinds, namely the balance Ohauss 2610 gr, 311 gr Ohauss balance, and
balance Ohauss 310 gr. The third name is taken within the limits of the balance sheet