Engines

• Jet Propulsion
• Turbojet Engines
• Turbofans or Bypass Engines
• Turboprop Engines
• Ramjets
• Pulse Jets
• Scramjet

Jet Propulsion

A thrust imparts forward motion to an object, as a reaction to the rearward expulsion of a

high-velocity liquid or gaseous stream.

A simple example of jet propulsion is the motion of an inflated balloon when the air is
suddenly discharged. While the opening is held closed, the air pressure within the balloon is
equal in all directions; when the stem is released, the internal pressure is less at the open end
than at the opposite end, causing the balloon to dart forward. Not the pressure of the escaping
air pushing against the outside atmosphere but the difference between high and low pressures
inside the balloon propels it.

An actual jet engine does not operate quite as simply as a balloon, although the basic
principle is the same. More important than pressure imbalance is the acceleration to high
velocities of the jet leaving the engine. This is achieved by forces in the engine that enable
the gas to flow backward forming the jet. Newton's second law shows that these forces are
proportional to the rate at which the momentum of the gas is increased. For a jet engine, this
is related to the rate of mass flow multiplied by the rearward-leaving jet velocity. Newton's
third law, which states that every force must have an equal and opposite reaction, shows that
the rearward force is balanced by a forward reaction, known as thrust. This thrusting action is
similar to the recoil of a gun, which increases as both the mass of the projectile and its
muzzle velocity are increased.

High-thrust engines, therefore, require both large rates of mass flow and high jet-exit
velocities, which can only be achieved by increasing internal engine pressures and by
increasing the volume of the gas by means of combustion. Jet-propulsion devices are used
primarily in high-speed, high-altitude aircraft, in missiles, and in spacecraft. the source of
power is a high-energy fuel that is burned at intense pressures to produce the large gas
volume needed for high jet-exit velocities. The oxidizer required for the combustion may be
the oxygen in the air that is drawn into the engine and compressed, or the oxidizer may be
carried in the vehicle, so that the engine is independent of a surrounding atmosphere.

Turbojet Engines

The most widely used atmospheric engines are turbojets. After air has been drawn into the
engine through an inlet, the air pressure is increased by a compressor before it enters the
combustion chamber. The power required to drive the compressor is provided by a turbine
that is placed between the combustion chamber and the nozzle.

Practically all airborne jet engines use an axial-flow compressor, in which the air flows
generally in the direction of the shaft axis through alternate rows of stationary and rotating
blades, called stators and rotors. The blades are arranged so that the air enters each row at a
high velocity. As it flows through the blade passage the air is decelerated to a lower velocity,
thereby increasing the pressure. Modern axial-flow compressors can increase the pressure
24 times in 15 stages, with each set of stators and rotors making up a stage.

The compressed air then enters the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel vapor
and then burned. For best performance, the combustion temperature should be the maximum
obtainable from the complete combustion of the oxygen and the fuel. This temperature,
however, would make the turbine too hot; turbine inlet temperatures, which currently limit
turbojet performance, cannot exceed about 1100° C (about 2000° F) because of the thermal
limitations of the materials. To reduce the temperature of the turbine inlet, only part of the
compressed air is burned. This is achieved by dividing the air as it enters the combustion
chamber. Part of the air is mixed with the fuel and ignited; the remainder is used to cool the
turbine.
In the turbine, which acts in opposite fashion to the compressor, the gases are partially
expanded through alternate stator and rotor passages. At the entry to each blade row, the
velocity is low, allowing the gas to expand and speed up in the passage while it turns the
rotor. The turbine provides the power to drive the compressor, to which it is connected by a
shaft through the center of the engine, and it also provides the power for the fuel pump,
generator, and other accessories.

The gases, which are now at an intermediate pressure, are finally expanded through the
rearward-facing nozzle to reach the desired high jet-exit velocity. The greatest thrust would
be obtained if the nozzle expanded the gases to the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.
In practice, however, such nozzles would be too large and too heavy. Actual nozzles are
made shorter in order to provide higher exit pressures and a somewhat reduced engine
performance.

A turbojet engine cannot start directly from rest; the engine must first be induced to spin by
an external starting motor. The fuel is then ignited by a heated plug. Once the engine is
running, however, combustion is maintained without spark plugs. The thrust delivered by a
turbojet decreases as the surrounding air temperature increases because the decreased density
of the hot air reduces the mass flow through the engine. On hot days, takeoff thrust can be
increased by injecting water at the compressor inlet and allowing the evaporating water to
cool the air. In military engines, bursts of speed or additional thrust for takeoff and climb can
be provided by a second burner, or afterburner, installed between the turbine and the nozzle.
In the afterburner, more fuel is added to burn the oxygen in the air that is not used in the
combustion chamber; this process increases both the air volume and the jet velocity. The low
efficiency of an afterburner, however, restricts its use to situations requiring a great burst of
speed.
Turbofans or Bypass Engines

The turbofan engine is an improvement on the basic turbojet. Part of the incoming air is only
partially compressed and then bypassed in an outer shell beyond the turbine. This air is then
mixed with the hot turbine-exhaust gases before they reach the nozzle.

A bypass engine has greater thrust for takeoff and climb, and increased efficiency; the bypass
cools the engine and reduces noise level. In some fan engines the bypass air is not remixed in
the engine but exhausted directly. In this type of bypass engine, only about one-sixth of the
incoming air goes through the whole engine; the remaining five-sixths is compressed only in
the first compressor or fan stage and then exhausted. Different rotational speeds are required
for the high- and low-pressure portions of the engine. This difference is achieved by having
two separate turbine-compressor combinations running on two concentric shafts or twin
spools. Two high-pressure turbine stages drive the 11 high-pressure compressor stages
mounted on the outer shaft, and 4 turbine stages provide power for the fan and 4 low-
pressure compressor stages on the inner shaft.

Current research in turbojet and turbofan engines is largely directed to achieving more
efficient operation of the compressors and turbines, to devising special turbine-blade cooling
systems to permit higher turbine-inlet temperatures, and to reducing jet noise.

Turboprop Engines

In a turboprop engine a propeller mounted in front of the jet engine is driven either by a
second, or free, turbine or by additional stages from the turbine that supplies power to the
compressor. About 90 percent of the energy of the expanding gases is absorbed in the
turbine portion that drives the propeller, leaving only about 10 percent to accelerate the
exhaust jet. The exhaust jet, therefore, contributes only a small fraction to the overall
propulsive thrust. Turboprops have certain advantages for small and medium-sized planes at
speeds of up to about 480 to 640 km/hr (about 300 to 400 mph). They cannot compete,
however, with turbojets or fanjets for very large planes and for higher speeds.

Ramjets

The air rushing toward the inlet of an engine flying at high speeds is partially compressed by
the so-called ram effect. If the air speed is high enough, this compression can be sufficient to
operate an engine without either compressor or turbine.

The ramjet has been called a flying stovepipe, because it is open at both ends and has only
fuel nozzles in the middle. A straight stovepipe would not work, however; a ramjet must
have a properly shaped inlet-diffusion section to produce low-velocity, high-pressure air at
the combustion section, and it must also have a properly shaped exhaust nozzle. Ramjets can
operate at speeds above 320 km/hr (about 200 mph), although they become practical for
military applications only at very high or supersonic speeds. Because the ramjet depends on
the compression of the inrushing air for its operation, a vehicle powered by a ramjet must
first be accelerated by other means to a sufficiently high speed.
Pulse Jets

A pulse jet is similar to a ramjet, except that a series of spring-loaded shutter-type valves is
located ahead of the combustion section. In a pulse jet, combustion is intermittent or pulsing
rather than continuous. Air is admitted through the valves, and combustion is initiated, which
increases the pressure, closing the valves to prevent backflow through the inlet. The hot gases
are expelled through the rear nozzle, producing thrust and lowering the pressure to the point
that the valves may open and admit fresh air. Then the cycle is repeated.

The most widely known pulse jet was the German V-1 missile, or buzz bomb, used near the
end of World War II, which fired at a rate of about 40 cycles per sec. The pulsing effect can
also be achieved in a valveless engine, or wave engine, in which the cycling depends on
pressure waves traveling back and forth through a properly scaled engine. A pulse-jet engine
delivers thrust at zero speed and can be started from rest, but the aximum possible flight
speeds are below 960 km/hr (600 mph). Poor efficiency, severe vibration, and high noise
limit its use to low-cost, pilotless vehicles.

Scramjet

In the scramjet the air can be mixed with fuel and ignited while still traveling at
supersonic speeds. As a result, temperature increases and pressure losses due to shocks are
greatly reduced. Because the scramjet work on the ramjet principle at supersonic speeds, the
name scramjet, short for supersonic combustion ramjet, is quite fitting. The scramjet,
however, has its own set of problems. One of these is the fact that there is very little time for
ignition and combustion to take place, because the fuel-air mixture is moving so fast through
the combustion zone. Hydrogen is probably the only fuel that has rapid enough ignition and
combustion properties. Even though the idea of the scramjet is quite simple and it essentially
does not have any moving parts, it still represents a real technological challenge. Facilities
are now available for use in the development of scramjets, at least up to Mach 8. The design
and analysis of the scramjet also requires a tremendous amount of computer power, which is
now available with the new generation of supercomputers. Like the ramjet, the scramjet is
not capable of accelerating from zero velocity. Indeed, the scramjet cannot really start
operating before speeds of about Mach 6. Other propulsion devices are needed to get the
scramjet up to its operating speed, thus the reason for interest in the combined-cycle engine.