Advances in Biological Research 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

ISSN 1992-0067
IDOSI Publications, 2015
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.abr.2015.9.4.9516

Tick Borne Hemoparasitic Diseases of Ruminants: A Review

Yitayew Demessie and Samuel Derso
Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Gondar, P.O.Box:196, Gondar, Ethiopia
Abstract: Tick borne diseases are caused by different microorganisms and transmitted by ticks. They are the
most prevalent and devastating diseases in the developing countries all over the world. The objective of this
paper is to review tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants. Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of
ruminants such as Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis and Theileriosis remain most important in tropics areas.
Anaplasmosis, a rickettsial disease of blood caused by Anaplasma marginale and characterized by progressive
anemia, jaundice and fever without hemoglobinuria. Babesiosis is the other tick- borne disease caused by
protozoan of the genus Babesia and characterized by haemolytic anemia and fever, with hemoglobinuria. It is
a disease with a world-wide distribution affecting many species of mammals with a major impact on
cattle.Theilerioses is also a tick borne protozoal disease in ruminants caused by hemoprotozoan parasites
belonging to the genus Theileria. Theileria parva, is the most pathogenic species in Africa cause a disease
called East coast fever which is characterized by enlargement of superficial lymph nodes and a sustainable
fever. Losses from tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants like reduction of milk and meat production,
restricting the introduction of susceptible cattle breed with superior genetics, costs from death and abortion
as well as costs for treatment and control purposes are taking away the benefits of livestock owner and nation.
Effective diagnosis of tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants is helpful to implement appropriate
prevention and control strategies. Tick control, chemoprophylaxis and immunoprophylaxis are the basic
methods to control tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants.
Key words: Anaplamoisis

Babesiosis

Ruminant

Theileriosis

INTRODUCTION

Tick Borne

resulting in anemia, jaundice, anorexia, weight loss and

infertility. The occurrence and importance of hemoparasite
is a reflection of complex interaction involving the
causative organisms, vector, the vertebrate hosts and the
environment [4].
Arthropod transmitted hemoparasitic diseases are
economically important vector-borne diseases of tropical
and subtropical parts of the world including Ethiopia.
Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants are
caused by the Babesia, Theileria and Anaplasma species
and all are intracellular parasite species [5].
Anaplasmosis is a vector borne infectious blood
disease in cattle caused by the rickettsial parasites,
Anaplasma (A) marginale and A. central in cattle and
A. ovis in small ruminants. It occurs primarily in worm
tropical and subtropical areas. The disease is not
contagious but transmitted most commonly by ticks.
It can also be transmitted via contaminated surgical
instruments, biting flies and mosquitoes. The intracellular

Hemoparasitic diseases have a global distribution,

stretching from the polar circle to the equator. This is due
to the fact that their vectors, ticks and blood sucking flies
have a global distribution. Tick borne hemoparasites
includes all tick-borne organisms which are visible
with light microscope and which occur in the circulating
blood as part of their normal life-cycle [1]. The most
important hemoparasites are Babesia, Theileria and
Anaplasma. These hemoparasites are transmitted through
ticks [2].
Hemoparasites are of great economic impact on
livestock affecting 80% of the world cattle population and
causes economic loss due to morbidity and mortality.
Hemoparasite is a major threat to food security especially
among the livestock dependent communities within the
sub saharan Africa [3]. Haemoparasites have generally
been shown to cause destruction of red blood cells

Corresponding Author: Samuel Derso, Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Gondar, P.O.Box:196, Gondar, Ethiopia.

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parasites destroy the red blood cells. It causes anemia,

fever, weight loss, breathlessness, uncoordinated
movements, abortion and death [6].
Babesiosis is a haemolytic disease caused by intra
erythrocytic protozoan of the genus Babesia. The disease
is characterized by fever (40-42C) which may be sudden
in onset, anemia, icterus, hemoglobinuria, listless,
anorexic, jaundice and death. It is a disease of small and
large ruminants. Bovine babesiosis is caused by multiple
species: Babesia (B) bigemina, Babesia divergens,
Babesia bovis and Babesia major. Two species, B.
bigemina and B. bovis, have a considerable impact on
cattle health and productivity in tropical and subtropical
countries [7, 8].
Theilerioses is a group of tick borne disease caused
by Theilaria (T) species. The most important species are
T. parva and T. annulata which result death in cattle in
tropical and subtropical areas of the world [6]. Bovine
Theileria species cause severe and mild infections in their
hosts. Two of them, T. annulata and T. parva, cause
lymphoprolipherative disease with high mortality and
morbidity in cattle, commonly known as Tropical
Theileriosis and East Coast fever, respectively [9]. East
coast fever is an acute disease of cattle and characterized
by high fever, swelling of the lymph nodes, dyspnea and
high mortality which has greater effect on Africa [6].
Control of tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of
ruminants using effective methods such as vector control,
chemoprophylaxis and immunization is crucial to control
tick borne hemoparasitic diseases and to increase the
productivity of animals by improving their health
conditions in the tropics and other parts of the world
where tick borne diseases are prevalent [9]. Therefore, the
objective ofthis seminar paper is:

significant vectors in field and it has been shown that

strains of A. marginale also co evolve with particular
tick strain. After feeding on an infected animal, trans
stadial transmission may occur. Transovarial transmission
may occur although even in a single host Boophilus
species [6]. Anaplasmosis may also be spread
mechanically by infected hypodermic needle, castrating,
spaying and dehorning instruments, blood transfusion
and embryo transplant. Additionally intra uterine
infections also occur in cattle but much less frequently in
field cases than in experimental once. Anaplasma can
transmit by biting flies of the family Tabanidae [9].
Geographic distribution: Anaplasma is found endemic
in all six populated continents of the world; mostly in the
tropics and subtropics because of the broad range of
vectors and the difficulties of efficient vector control [10].
The disease is an important economical factor even with
a developed veterinary service [13].
Risk factor: Breeds; Bos taurus breeds are more likely
to develop acute Anaplasmosis than crossbred Zebu, but
Bos indicus are not commonly affected because of their
resistance to heavy tick resistance [14]. Anaplasma
species can cause infections in bovine population of all
age categories where severity and mortality rate increases
with augmentation of animal age. Anaplasmosis infection
is higher in female than male animals due to hormonal
disturbances, due to its use in milk production, draught
power and breeding system which pose it to weakened
immune system [5]. In temperate regions seasonal
occurrence of the disease is associated with the
occurrence of the vectors in which prevalence of
Anaplasmosis is found higher in hot and humid weather
associated with the abundance of vector ticks [10].
Life Cycle: The developmental cycle of A. marginale in
ticks is complex and coordinated with the tick feeding
cycle (Figure 1). Infected erythrocytes taken into ticks
with the blood meal provide the source of A. marginale
infection for tick gut cells. After development of A.
marginale in tick gut cells, many other tick tissues
become infected, including the salivary glands, from
where the rickettsiae are transmitted to vertebrates during
feeding. At each site of infection in ticks, A. marginale
develops within membrane bound vacuoles or colonies.
The first form of A. marginale seen within the colony is
the reticulated (Vegetative) form, which divides by binary
fission, forming large colonies that may contain hundreds
of organisms. The reticulated form then changes into the
dense form, which is the infective form and can survive
outside the host cells. Cattle become infected with A.
marginale when the dense form is transmitted during tick

To review tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of

ruminants
Tick Borne Hemoparasitic Diseases of Ruminant
Anaplasmosis
Etiology: Anaplasmosis is caused by the members of
genus Anaplasma (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae).
In cattle, this disease is caused by A. marginale and A.
centrale; later less pathogenic than former [10] where as
in sheep and goats A. ovis is the important causative
agent [11].
Epidemiology: Transmission: Anaplasmoiss is not
contagious; numerous species of tick vectors (Boophilus,
Dermacenter, Rhipicephalus, Ixodes and Hyalomma) can
transmit Anaplasma species [12]. Not all of those are likely
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Fig. 1: Life cycle of A. marginale Source: Kocan et al. [14]

feeding via the salivary glands [14]. Once Anaplasma
entered in to the blood; the organisms enters the red
blood cells by invaginating the cell membrane so that a
vacuole is formed; thereafter it divides to form an
inclusion body containing up to eight initial bodies
packed together [15].

abortion and mortality without hemoglobinemia and

hemoglobinuria during acute phase of the infection [16].
The most marked clinical signs of Anaplasmosis are
anemia and jaundice, the latter occurring late in the
disease [17]. Affected animals may die suddenly from
hypoxia if they are handled roughly [18].

Pathogenesis: The incubation period of infection varies

with the number of organisms in the infective dose and
ranges from seven to 60 days, with an average of 28 day
[14]. A.marginale invades and multiplies in red blood
cells. As the disease progresses, infected and even
uninfected red blood cells are destroyed mainly in the
liver and spleen, resulting in progressive hemolytic
anemia and even death in severe cases, the number of
infected erythrocytes increases drastically and
phagocytosis by reticuloendothelial cells of parasitized
erythrocytes lead to development of hemolytic anemia
and icterus [11].
Depending upon the strain and the susceptibility of
the host, from 10-90% of erythrocytes may be parasitized
in the acute stage of the infection [9]. Cattle that survive
acute infection develop persistent infections characterized
by cyclic low-level rickettsemia. Persistently infected
cattle have lifelong immunity and are resistant to clinical
disease on challenge exposure. However, persistently
infected cattle serve as reservoirs of A. marginale
because they provide a source of infective blood for both
mechanical and biological transmission by ticks [14].

Diagnosis: Clinical diagnosis of Anaplasmosis is

performed by observing anemia, icterus and constipation.
The presence of tick vectors or numerous biting Diptera
may give an additional indication [19]. In endemic areas,
Anaplasmosis in adult cattle showing chronic anemia
without haemoglobinuria leading to cachexia [20].
Microscopic examination of Giemsa stained blood
films Anaplasma inclusion in the red cells are usually
sufficient for diagnosis. Under microscope A. marginale
are seen as small, round, dark red inclusion bodies
located near the periphery of red blood cells as indicated
in Figure. 2 [15].
Serological methods such as Enzyme-Linked
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), complement fixations test
(CFT), or card agglutination test have been used to detect
antibodies in animals which have recovered from infection
[21]. CFT has been used extensively in the past, but, it
lacks sensitivity and doesnt detect some carrier. Card
agglutination test is sensitive, simple, rapid and can be
used in the field. ELISA using a positive and negative
antigen can eliminate non-specific reaction [19]. For the
determination of the persistently infected cattle molecular
diagnosis is mostly applicable [22].
At necropsy, pale and icteric carcass and organs,
splenomegally, constipation, congestion of the liver and
hardening of the omasum are indicative of Anaplasmosis
[19].

Clinical Sign: Anaplasmosis ischaracterized by fever,

weight loss, decreased milk production, pale mucous
membranes, severe anaemia, jaundice, hyper-excitability,
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bovine Anaplasmosis worldwide. Vaccines for the control

of Anaplasmosis can be divided into two major types: live
and killed vaccines. Both types of vaccines rely on the
use of A. marginale from infected bovine erythrocytes.
Both types induce protective immunity that reduces or
prevents clinical disease, but these vaccines do not
prevent cattle from becoming persistently infected with A.
marginale [9].
Chemotherapy, probably used more often for
prevention of Anaplasmosis in the United States than in
other areas of the world, is expensive and often not
applicable to range cattle and the intensive use of
antibiotics bears the risk of causing selection of resistant
strains [14].
The introduction of the disease into herds by carrier
animals should be prevented by prior serological testing.
Attention should also be given to preventing iatrogenic
transmission with instruments used for injections or
surgical operations by disinfection after use on each
animal. The eradication of Anaplasmosis is not a
practicable procedure in most countries at the present
time because of the wide range of insects which are
capable of carrying the disease,the long period of
infectivity of carrier animals and, in some areas, the
presence of carriers in the wild animal population [9].In
endemic areas, control measures are aimed at minimizing
stress in indigenous reared cattle [18].

Fig. 2: Blood smear was analyzed by Giemsa staining

Anaplasma like structure is to detect in one of the
erythrocyte (Arrow). Source: Noaman et al. [22]
Differential diagnosis: Anaplasmosis has to
distinguish from other infections that cause fever, anemia,
icterus in the absence of haemoglobinuria. Thus, the
following diseases can be considered as differential
diagnosis:
Babesiosis
often
associated
with
haemoglobinuria and specific vector ticks are always
present. Trypanosmosis occurs in regions infested by
tsetse flies, tabanids and other biting flies. Theileriosis
often characterized by swollen lymph nodes and specific
vector ticks in the region.Certain intoxication by copper or
plant [19].
Treatment: Tetracycline compounds are effective in
treatment if given early in the course of the disease and
especially before the parasitaemia has reached its peak.
Tetracycline is effective when injected at five to ten
mg/kg, provided the treatment is repeated two times at 24
hour interval. The treated animal is not free from
Anaplasma after treatment, but can be eliminated
completely by a longer treatment [19]. More recently
imidocarb has been shown to be effective and may also
used to sterilize carrier animals [15]
Symptomatic treatment such as blood transfusion,
drugs that stimulates erythropiosis, drugs which protects
liver cells may help recovery [19].

Economic Importance: Bovine Anaplasmosis causes

important economic loss in most countries, mainly due to
the high morbidity and mortality in susceptible cattle
herds. The losses due to Anaplasmosis are measured
through several parameters: low weight gain, reduction in
milk production, abortion, the cost of Anaplasmosis
treatments and mortality [14].
Babesiosis: The disease also called piroplasmosis, Cattle
tick fever, Red water fever or Taxes fever [8].
Etiology: The causative agents of Babesiosis are specific
for particular species of animals. In cattle: B. bovis, B.
bigemina, B. divergens and B. major [9].B. ovis and B.
motasi are known to be pathogenic agents in sheep and
goats [23].

Prevention and Control: Methods for the control of

Anaplasmosis have consists of tick control with
acaricides, chemotherapy for prevention and vaccination.
Weekly dipping in an acaricide is used in tropical areas to
control this disease. Animals that are to be introduced
into an enzootic area should be vaccinated. Vaccination
has been an economical and effective way to control

Epidemiology: Transmission: Babesia species is

transmitted by hard ticks in which Babesia passes
transovarially, via the egg, from one tick generation to the
next [24, 25].
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Life Cycle: Babesia multiplies in erythrocytes by

asynchronous binary fission, resulting in considerable
pleomorphism (Figure. 3). This replication eventually
gives rise to gametocytes that are ingested by the vector
tick. Conjugation of gametocytes occurs in the tick gut
followed by multiplication by multiple fission and
migration to various tissues including the salivary glands.
Further development occurs in the salivary glands before
transmission. The ovaries are also invaded, which leads
to transovarial transmission [32]. The host gets the
infection when the larva sucks blood. After one moulting
the larva transforms into nymph which also infect as larva.
Nymph transforms into adult after moulting and they
transmit infection in similar way [30]. The infective stage
of Babesia, sporoziote, enters in to the host when the tick
sucks blood [19].

Geographic
occurrence:
Babesiosis
occurs
throughout the world [23]. However,the distribution of the
causative protozoa is governed by the geographical and
seasonal distribution of the insect vectors [9]. The vector
of Babesia, Boophilus (B) microplus is wide spread in
tropics and subtropics [26].
Host occurrence: Bovine Babesiosis associated with
B. bigemina and B. bovis is an important disease of
tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. Both
species are transmitted transovarially by Boophilus ticks,
but only tick larvae transmit B, bovis, where as nymphs
and adults transmit B. bigemina and B. divergens. Bovine
Babesiosis transmitted by Ixodes ricinus is widespread.
Small ruminants Babesiosis is caused by B. ovis [27].
Risk Factors: Host factor: Bos indicus breeds of cattle
are more resistance to Babesiosis than Bos Taurus [28].
This is a result of evolutionary relationship between Bos
indicus cattle, Boophilus species and Babesia [9].
Because of natural selection pressure, indigenous
populations, having lived for a long time with local ticks
and tick-borne diseases, have developed either an innate
resistance or an innate ability to develop a good immune
response to the tick or tick-borne hemoparasitic disease
in question. Sheep were highly susceptible to B. ovis than
goats [29]. It is frequently stated that there is an inverse
age resistance to Babesia infection in that young animals
are less susceptible to Babesiosis than older animals; the
possible reason is passive transfer of maternal antibody
via colostrum. The severity of the clinical Babesiosis
increases with age [15, 30].

Pathogenesis: Babesia produces acute disease by two

principle mechanism; hemolysis and circulatory
disturbance [33]. During the tick bite, sporozoites are
injected into the host and directly infect red blood cells.
In the host, Babesia sporozoites develop into piroplasms
inside the infected erythrocyte resulting in two or
sometimes four daughter cells that leave the host cell to
infect other erythrocytes [34]. It invades erythrocyte and
cause intravascular and extravascular hemolysis [33].
The rapidly dividing parasites in the red cells produce
rapid destruction of the erythrocytes with accompanying
haemoglobinaemia, haemoglobinuria and fever. This may
be so acute as to cause death within a few days, during
which the packed cell volume falls below 20% which will
lead to anemia. The parasitaemia, which is usually
detectable once the clinical signs appear, may involve
between 0.2% up to 45% of the red cells, depending on
the species of Babesia [25].

Pathogen Factor: Many Intra-erythrocyte hemoparasites

survive the host immune system through rapid antigenic
variation which has been demonstrated for B. bovis and
B. bigemina [9]. B. bovis is the most pathogenic organism,
resulting in high mortality rates among susceptible cattle
[31]. The effects of B. ovis are usually less severe than B.
motasi [24].

Clinical Sign: Affected animals suffered frommarked rise

in body temperature, loss of appetite, cessation of
rumination, labored breathing, emaciation, progressive
hemolytic anemia, various degrees of jaundice (Icterus)
from paleness in mild cases to severe yellow discoloration
of conjunctival and vaginal mucous membranes in more
progressive cases; haemoglobinuria, accelerated heart
and respiratory rates, ocular problems and drop in milk
production.The fever during infections in some cases
cause abortion to pregnant cattle [7]. Coffee colored urine
is the characteristics clinical feature of Babesiosis [30].
Babesia parasites cause both acute and persistent
subclinical disease in cattle [35].

Environmental Factor: There is a seasonal variation in the

prevalence of clinical Babesiosis, the greatest incidence
occurring soon after the peak of the tick population. Of
the climatic factors, air temperature is the most important
because of its effect on tick activity; higher temperatures
increase its occurrence.Heaviest losses occur in marginal
areas where the tick population is highly variable
depending on the environmental conditions [9].
Babesiosis infection in cattle mostly reaches peak in
summer [7].
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Fig. 3: Life-cycle diagram of Babesia species

Source: Gray [32]
Thin and Thick Blood Smears: Blood smear
examination has been considered to be the standard
technique for routine diagnosis, particularly in acute
cases, but not in sub-clinical infections where the
parasitemia is usually much lower [35, 39]. Thin blood
smears were the first method to detect Babesia parasites
in clinical samples, a method still used today very
effectively in most diagnostic laboratories.Blood is
usually collected, combined with an anticoagulant and
smeared on a glass slide, air-dried, fixed with methanol
and stained with Giemsa or a similar stain for several
minutes. The slide is then washed thoroughly and dried.
Intra-erythrocytic parasites are observed under a
microscope using a 100X objective and a drop of
immersion oil. The observation of paired Intraerythrocytic merozoites is indicative of infection but there
are other stages of the parasite like the trophozoites,
which present different forms and sizes depending on the
species and these make their detection difficult and time
consuming [39]. B. bigemina is larger in size and having
paired structure at an acute angel to each other in the
erythrocyte while B. bovis is smaller in size and having
paired forming an obtuse angel to each other [7].
Merozoites of B. bovis are usually found in the center of
erythrocyte where as merozoites of B. bigeminaare pearshaped [20].B. motasi is pyriform in shape; B. ovis has
rounded shape and marginally located inside the
erythrocytes [40].

Ovine Babesiosis is a progressive hemolytic anemia

disease of sheep [36]. High rise of body temperature,
anorexia, dyspnea, haemoglobinurea, emaciation, pale
mucous membrane, jaundice, constipation and
recumbency were the main clinical signs in both sheep
and goats. Chronically infected sheep are usually
symptomless, except for parasitemia and unthriftiness
[24]. Animals that recover from the acute disease remain
infected for a number of years with B. bovis and a few
months in the case of B. bigemina. No clinical signs
appear during this carrier state [6].
Neurological signs are exhibited due to B. bovis
infectionas erythrocytes get adhered to the capilliaries of
the brain like nystagmus, circling movement, head
pressing, hyperesthesia, convulsion, ataxia, teeth grinding
and muscle tremor [30].
Diagnosis: Accurate and correct diagnosis of Babesial
infections plays an important role in monitoring,
management and control of infection [35]. Clinical
symptoms, because of their unspecificity, cannot be used
to make a correct diagnosis [37].
Microscopy Detection Methods: Microscopic examination
still cheapest and fastest methods used to identify
Babesia parasites [38]. Identification of the different
stages of the parasite in mammalian or arthropod host
tissues can be used for direct diagnosis purpose [39].
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Fig. 4: Giemsa stained Babesia species inside the bovine erythrocytes (Thin arrow) where as thick arrow shows an
uninfected bovine erythrocyte. Source: Chaudhry et al. [26]
Another technique developed to detect low levels of
parasitemia, especially in cases where B. bovis is
involved, is based on thick smears of infected blood
stained with Giemsa (Figure. 4). The advantage of the
thick smear is that a large amount of erythrocytes is
analyzed in a reduced amount of space; therefore the
probability of finding infected cells is ten times higher
than in the thin smear [39].

IFAT is based on the recognition of parasite antigens by

serum antibodies in the blood of the tested animal.It is
easy to do but requires a good quality antigen, which is
difficult to obtain [39].
Molecular Diagnosis: Molecular methods aimed to
detect nucleic acids have been very useful when
immunological methods do not work. Detecting nucleic
acids is an indirect way of detecting the parasite so they
are still considered indirect methods. However, the
sensitivity and specificity of these methods are very
high [39].

Brain Smears: When a bovine has died and it is

presumed to be from Babesiosis caused by B. bovis due
to presence of nervous clinical signs, identification of the
parasite can be done by brain smears [26]. In this case, a
small sample of grey matter of the cerebral cortex is placed
on a slide and the tissue is smeared using another slide.
The brain tissue is fixed and stained. The diagnosis is
based upon observation of brain capillaries filled with
infected erythrocytes. Almost one hundred percent of
erythrocytes present in the brain capillaries are infected.
Smears of other organs as the kidney or liver can also be
carried out with good results [39].

Polymerase Chain Reaction: PCR is more sensitive and

specific technique and offers an alternative approach for
the detection of Babesiosis [39]. An advantage of this
method is that it allows identification of the parasite in the
early stage of disease which enables early diagnosis,
implementation of therapy and avoidance of
complications [37].
Treatment: The success of the treatment depends on
early diagnosis and the prompt administration of effective
drug. The first specific drug used against bovine
Babesiosis was Trypan blue, which is a very effective
compound against B. bigemina infections, however, it did
not have any effect on B. bovis and it had the
disadvantage of producing discoloration of animals flesh,
so it is rarely used. Diminazene aceturate, which is widely
used currently in the tropics as a Babesiacide, was
withdrawn from Europe for marketing reasons [41].
Imidocarb is the principal Babesiacide used in animals, the
only one that consistently clears the host of parasites and
for over 20 years, it has been used in the treatment and
prophylaxis of Babesiosis and Anaplasmosi. Imidocarb
retained in edible tissues of ruminants for long periods

Immunological Methods: Serological tests, including

indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and ELISA are
capable of detecting antibodies of Babesia in sub-clinical
infections. Drawbacks of these tests are the occurrence of
false-positive and false-negative results, involving crossreactive antibodies and/or atypical specific immune
responses [27]. Another drawback is that antibodies can
be detected even months after recovery of infection
though no active infection is prevalent,so these methods
cannot help in revealing the exact picture of prevalence of
infection at that particular point [35].
IFAT is the most widely used test for the detection of
antibodies to B. bovis and B. bigemina but serological
cross reactions make species diagnosis difficult [26].
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after treatment [39]. The combination of imidocarb

dipropionate and oxytetracycline is the most effective
treatment of Babesiosis in sheep and goats [24].
In addition, supportive therapy such as blood
transfusions, anti-inflammatory drugs, tick removal, iron
preparations, dextrose, vitamin B complex, purgatives and
fluid replacements, may be necessary in severe cases of
Babesiosis [39]. Vitamin E also acts as supportive therapy
as vitamin E ameliorates the oxidative effect of Babesia by
increase antioxidant effect [42].

the tick before the infective sporozoite develop in the

salivary gland [25]. Significant factors currently affecting
the control of Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis include
increased resistance to acaricides by ticks and the
numerous drawbacks of the current live vaccines [45].
Economic Importance: Recently Babesia becomes the
most widespread parasite due to exposure of 400 million
Cattle to infection through the world, with consequent
heavy economic losses such as mortality, reduction in
meat and milk yield and indirectly through control
measures of ticks. Babesiosis, especially in cattle has
great economic importance, because unlike many other
parasitic diseases, it affects adults more severely than
young cattle, leading to direct losses through death and
the restriction of movement of animals by quarantine laws
[8, 46]. The disease is also a barrier to improving
productivity of local cattle by cross-breeding due to the
high mortality of genetically superior but highly
susceptible cattle, especially dairy cattle, imported from
Babesia-free areas [47]. The consequence is that the
quality of cattle in endemic areas remains low, therefore
impeding the development of the cattle industry and the
wellbeing of producers and their families [39].

Prevention and Control: Epidemiological surveillance is

the important aspect to control Babesiosis [43]. Active
prevention and control of Babesiosis is achieved by three
main methods: immunization, chemoprophylaxis and
vector control. Ideally, the three methods should be
integrated to make the most cost-effective use of each and
also to exploit breed resistance and the development and
maintenance of enzootic stability [44].
Chemotherapy/chemoprophylaxis: Several groups of
compounds have been used in the chemical control of
Babesiosis. Of these, only imidocarb dipropionate,
diminazene aceturate and tetracycline antibiotics remain
freely available in most endemic countries.
Chemoprophylaxis is not a viable long-term alternative to
effective immunization, but imidocarb and diminazene
have been used to protect cattle for several months
against Babesiosis [44]. At dosage of three mg/kg,
imidocarb provides protection for Babesiosis for around
four weeks and will eliminate B. bovis and B. bigemina
from carrier animals [6].

Theileriosis
Etiology: Theileria species, tick transmitted, intracellular
protozoan parasites infecting leukocytes and erythrocytes
of wild and domestic large and small ruminants. In cattle:
T. parva,T. annulata, T. mutans, T. velifera, T.
tarurotragi and T. buffeli [19]. In small ruminants: T.
lestoquardi, T. ovis and T. separate [30]. T. annulata and
T. parva are considered to be the most pathogenic
species of Theileria affecting cattle [48]. T. lestoquardi
(formerly T hirci) is the most virulent species in sheep and
goats [6].

Immunization: Using blood from carrier animals has been

practiced for many years in tropical areas and more
recently in Australia [15] Vaccination has been done with
varying degree of success with live and dead whole
parasite and isolated parasite antigen.Several findings
support the development of vaccines against Babesiosis.
First, cattle which recover from a primary Babesia
infection or that have been immunized with attenuated
parasites are resistant to challenge infection. Second,
immunization of cattle with native Babesia antigen extracts
or culture-derived supernatants containing secreted
Babesia antigens elicit protective immunity against both
homologous and heterologous challenge [9].

Epidemiology: Transmission: Economically important

Theileria species that infect cattle and small ruminants are
transmitted by ixodid ticks of the genera Rhipicephalus,
Amblyomma, Hyalomma and Haemaphysali [49]. Theileria
sporozoites are transmitted to animals in the saliva of the
feeding tick [30].
The most economically important species in Africa is
T. parva [50]. Three subspecies are recognized in T.
parva, namely T. parva parva causing classical East
Coast Fever (ECF). T. parva lawrencei responsible for
Corridor disease transmitted from buffalo to cattle and T.
parva bovis, the causing agent of Zimbabwe Theileriosis,
a more benign form also known as January disease[50].

Vector Control: it is done by repeated treatment of cattle

with acaricides in areas of high challenge; such treatment
may require to be carried out twice weekly in order to kill
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Advan. Biol. Res., 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

Fig. 5: A generalized life cycle for the Theileria using T. parva as an example.
Source: Mans et al. [57].
Table 1: A comparison of three species of Theileria of veterinary importance
Species
Host
Vector
Disease
T. parva
Cattle
Rhipicephalus
East Coast Fever
T. annulata
Cattle
Hyalomma
Mediterranean or Tropical Theileriosis
T. hrici
Sheep and goats
Hyalomma
Malignant ovine (caprine) Theileriosis
Source: Kaufaman [20]

It is important to emphasize that endemic region of T.

annulata and T. parva do not overlap [51] however, there
were reports of coexistence in southern Sudan [52].

Distribution
East and Central Africa
North Africa, South Europe, Middle East, Asia
North Africa, South Europe, Middle East. Asia

hosts are their ability to exist free in the host cell

cytoplasm and their ability to transform the host cell
reversibly, leading to uncontrolled proliferation of the
parasite and the host cell [54].

Host Sensitivity: T. parva is highly virulent for European

dairy cattle, however, the indigenous cattle breeds and
African buffaloes in endemic areas have a natural
resistance to this Theileria species [9]. The introduction
of T. parva infection into a previously unexposed cattle
population results in an epidemic situation with mortality
up to 95% in all age categories of cattle. When the disease
is established, the older animals that have survived
primary infection become immune. In these situations,
only calves and newly introduced stocks are at risk of
primary infection and mortality is estimated high. T.
annulata highly virulent for European dairy cattle but
infection in local breed cattle is mild [19]. T. hirci causes
clinical illness and mortalities in sheep than in goats [53].

Environmental Factor: Theileriosis occurs when there is

much tick activity, mainly during summer but a single tick
can cause fatal infection [55]. The pattern of seasonal
occurrence of Rhipicephalus (R) appendiculatus (Vector
of T. parva) is determined by climate [50]. R.
appendiculatus is most active following onset of rain,
outbreak of ECF may be seasonal or, where rainfall is
relatively constant, may occur at any time [15]
Host Factor: Increasing age is associated with increased
T. parva sero prevalence [56]. The frequency of
occurrence of ECF is higher in female than in male cattle
[55].

Risk Factor
Agent Factor: The two unique features of the
leukoproliferative Theileria parasites in their vertebrate

Life Cycle: Generalized life cycles for the Theileria genus

include secretion of infective sporozoites during tick
feeding into the feeding site (Figure 5). Sporozoites then
218

Advan. Biol. Res., 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

infect leukocytes and multiply by merogony, after

which merozoites are released, which invade red
blood cells thereby establishing the piroplasm stage.
During a next feeding cycle, larval or nymphal vector
ticks ingest piroplasms and the released parasites
undergo syngamy in the tick gut, forming a zygote,
the only diploid stage. The zygote divides into motile
kinetes that infect the tick gut epithelial cells and
migrate to the haemolymph and subsequently infect the
salivary glands. After moulting and commencement of
feeding by the tick, sporogony results in the
multiplication of sporozoites in the salivary gland acini
before injection into the feeding site by nymphs or adult
ticks [57].

Clinical signs of ECF characterized, unlike Tropical

Theileriosis, by the absence or limited intensity of anemia
and high frequency of respiratory sign. Other symptoms
include; diarrhea, corneal opacity leading to blindness
and subcutaneous edema [19]. In susceptible cattle, ECF
is characterized by enlargement of superficial lymph
nodes starting with the parotid lymph node, a sustainable
fever and diverse clinical signs associated with invasion
of non lymphoid tissues with parasitized lymphoblast.
ECF causes high mortality with death occurring
approximately three weeks after infection, mainly as a
result of severe pulmonary oedema [59].
Malignant Theileriosis of sheep and goats is usually
acute and highly fatal disease of adult animals manifested
by high fever associated with conjunctival and nasal
discharge, jaundice, enlargement of superficial lymph
nodes,emaciation, reduced appetite, labored breathing
and sometimes hemoglobinurea [60, 61].

Pathogenesis: Sporozoites of T. parva are injected into

the bovine host by the tick in its saliva. The sporozoites
then enter lymphocytes and develop into schizonts in the
lymph node draining the area of attachment of the tick,
usually the parotid node. Infected lymphocytes are
transformed to lymphoblasts which continue to divide
synchronously with the schizonts so that each daughter
cell is also infected [15]. Eventually, infected
lymphoblasts are disseminated throughout the lymphoid
system and in non lymphoid organs where they continue
to proliferate. Later, some schizonts differentiate into
merozoites, are released from the lymphoblasts and invade
erythrocytes which lead to development of anemia. The
dominating pathological lesion is generalized lymphoid
proliferation resulting from uncontrolled proliferation of Tlymphocytes containing schizonts. This is followed later
by necrosis of infected lymphoblasts induced by
cytotoxic T-Iymphocytes. The severe lymphocytolysis
often leads to immunosuppression. Terminally, the animal
develops severe pulmonary edema, probably due to
release of vasoactive substances from lymphocytes
disintegrating in the lungs. Erythrocytic indices are
usually unchanged, but there may be terminal anemia in
January disease [9].

Diagnosis: Tentative diagnosis of Theileriosis in the field

is mainly based on clinical signs and tick infestation on
the infected animals. However, confirmation of the
diagnosis depends on microscopic examination of blood
and lymph node smears stained with Giemsa in acute
cases [58, 62].
Microscopic Examination: The presence of multinucleate
intracytoplasmic and free schizonts, in lymph node biopsy
smears, is a characteristic diagnostic feature of acute
infections with T. parva and T. annulata [59]. Piroplasm
of T. hirci appeared as a small oval, round or dotes- like
inside erythrocytes and machroschizont in large
lymphocyte [60]. Microscopic examination alone is not a
fully reliable method of diagnosis unless coupled with
other serological and molecular diagnostic assay [63].
Serological Diagnosis: The main weaknesses of
serological tick-borne disease diagnosis have been
reported as cross reactivity, low specificity and sensitivity
and being poor at detecting low piroplasm levels in carrier
animals [64].

Clinical Findings: Tropical Theileriosis of cattle

characterized
by
lymphproliferative
disorders
associated with lymph nodes enlargement in its early
phases. The first lymph nodes involved are the pre
scapular lymph node as a result of the predilection sites
of the vector ticks and by lymph destructive disorders
associated with fever, pronounced leukopenia, diarrhea,
lateral recumbency and marked anemia in its late
phases[15] Weight loss, weakness, anorexia, conjunctival
petechia and cough are the most common symptoms [58].

Molecular Diagnosis: PCR technique: PCR technique can

be used as a gold standard method and also can be used
for screening of T annulata carrier cattle. PCR is highly
sensitive and specific method, which used to detect the
rate of native carrier cattle harboring T. annulata [65].
Treatment: Chemotherapeutic agents such as
parvaquone,
buparvaquone
which
is
given
intramuscularly and halofuginone, coccidostat given per
219

Advan. Biol. Res., 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

Fig. 6: Giemsa stained blood smears of infected cattle reveal the presence of intra-erythrocytic forms (Arrows)
morphologically compatible with theilerial piroplasms. Some of the infected erythrocytes showed morphological
disorders represented by round-shaped appearance and irregular thorn-like Protrusions. Source: Hassan [55]
orally are available to treat clinical T. parva and T.
annulata infections. Treatments with these agents do not
completely eradicate Theilerial infections leading to the
development of carrier states in their hosts [20].
Oxytetracycline has a therapeutic effect if given at the
time of infection; they are no value in the treatment of
clinical cases [25].

Quarantine measures, particularly with respect to

importation of livestock from endemic areas into regions
where suitable tick vectors exist, are of great importance
[9].
Another method of Theileriosis control is cattle
movement restriction from Theileriosis-specified areas.
Movements within endemic areas are allowed. However,
movements from endemic areas to non-endemic areas are
allowed on the following conditions: the animals to be
moved must test negative serologically by IFAT, they are
treated with acaricide before they are moved to insure that
they are tick-free, they are subjected to compulsory
quarantine under close veterinary supervision [50].

Prevention and Control: The main methods in the

prevention control of ECF include tick control, cattle
movement control, host immunization and chemotherapy
and integrated control that combines any of the methods
Gachohi et al. [56].
Tick Control Methods: Includes direct application of
acaricides to cattle through dipping, spray races, hand
spray, pour-ons and hand dressing. However, acaricides
have their own disadvantages; they are expensive, ticks
can easily develop resistance to them and they can be
detrimental to the environment [56].
The most cost effective and sustainable control
method is immunization. Vaccines against Theileriosis are
of two types; the sporozoite vaccine and the schizont
vaccine but the latter is preferred [30]. Vaccination against
T. parva is based on a method of infection and treatment
in which cattle are given a subcutaneous dose of tickderived sporozoites and a simultaneous treatment with a
long-acting tetracycline formulation. This treatment
results in a mild or in apparent ECF reaction followed by
recovery [66]. Efforts have been made to produce anti tick
vaccination to immunize animal by using whole somatic
antigen of tick and protein of salivary gland [30].

Economic Importance: Tropical Theileriosis threatens an

estimated 250 million cattle and acts as a major constraint
on livestock production and improvement in many
developing countries [67, 68]. Total economic losses
because of Tropical Theileriosis include three main
parameters: production losses, control costs and other
indirect economic losses [69].
T. parva infection poses a significant threat to the
livestock sector in two ways: through the economic
impact of the disease from cattle morbidity and mortality
and production losses in all production systems, as well
as from the costs of the measures taken to control ticks
and the disease. The costs of acaricide application, which
is the primary means of tick control, is estimated to range
between US$6 and US$36 per adult animal in Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda. The disease further prevents the
introduction of the ECF susceptible but more productive
exotic breeds of cattle, hampering the development of the
livestock sector considerably [56]. The financial losses
incurred, directly and indirectly, by ECF are extremely
high. With more than 38% of the African total bovine
population affected and an estimated mortality of 1.1
million cattle per year. ECF remains probably the most

Chemotherapy: Oxytetracyclines are effective in

controlling Theileriosis if given at the same time as
infection as applied to block both parasite and disease
development [50].
220

Advan. Biol. Res., 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

important cattle disease in terms of economic losses and

restriction of livestock development in affected countries
of eastern, central and southern Africa [19]. ECF was
estimated to have been responsible for 170 million US
dollars worth of economic loss in 1989 alone and limits
introduction of more productive exotic (Bos taurus) cattle
in much of eastern, central and southern Africa [49].

immune response of cattle to ticks and parasites.

Therefore, based on this conclusion the following
recommendations are forwarded:
Economic losses from tick borne hemoparastic
diseases ruminants are very high so that concerned
organization should give attention to control and
eradicate them.
Since chemical control can result in resistance and
environmental contamination, environmentally friend
control mechanisms like vaccination and biological
methods should be further developed.
Awareness should be created on mode of
transmission, control and prevention methods of tick
borne hemoparasitic diseases to livestock owners.
Proper identification and characterization of ticks
involved in the transmission of disease should be
done to implement particular control strategy.
New vaccines and drugs should be designed that
eliminates carrier states of hemoparasites in
ruminants.

Epidemiology of Tick Borne Hemoparasite of Ruminants

in Ethiopia: Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases
transmitted by the major tick species in Ethiopia are
Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis and benign Theileriosis. The
principal biological vector of A. marginale namely B.
decoloratus,
Hyalomma
marginatumrufipes,
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi are prevalent in Ethiopia.
The vectors of B. bigemina in Ethiopia are B. decoloratus,
B. annulatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi. The
vectors of T. mutans; Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi and
Ambylomma variegatum are also commonly found in
different regions of Ethiopia [70].
In Cattle: T. velifera, T. mutans, T. orientalis complex and
T. annulata were found in northern Ethiopia(Addis
Zemen, Humera andSheraro) in which T. annulata, the
cause of Tropical Theileriosis, was the first report in
Ethiopia, Humera. In small ruminants: T. ovis and T.
separata found also in these areas [71].
Indigenous cattle breeds such as Horro and Borna are
more resistance to tick infestation than others [70].

ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
In the first place, I would like to thank God for his
invaluable gift and innumerable favor upon me
throughout all works of my life.
Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude and
heartfelt thanks to my advisor Dr. Samuel Derso for his
unreserved advice and devotion of his time for correcting
this paper. I also thank Dr Samson Leta the course
coordinator for his overall guidance on the course.
Finally, I would like to indicate my gratefulness to all
my brothers for their moral and financial support.

CONCLUSION
Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases are the major
bottleneck of livestock development in the tropics
especially in developing countries. The major tick borne
hemoparasitic diseases with heavy economic losses are
mainly of Protozoal and Rickettssial diseases such as
Theileriosis, Babesiosis and Anaplasmoisis. These tick
borne hemoparasitic diseases impair the export and import
trade of live animal and animal products (Meat, milk, hide
and skin) by down grading their quality and fear of the cotraders. Control of tick borne diseases is crucial in
improving livestock health services and animal
productivity. There are different control strategies which
vary from region to region as well as from area to area.
Potential control methods for tick borne pathogens
include tick control, vaccines (Against ticks and
parasites) and drugs (Against ticks and parasites).
Successful application of control strategies will be
dependent upon thorough understanding of parasite
developmental cycles, biology of the tick vectors and the

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