MA10209 Algebra 1A

Sheet 8 Problems and Solutions v0: GCS

17-xi-12
The course website is http://people.bath.ac.uk/masgcs/diary.html

Hand in work to your tutor by 15:15, Monday Nov 26.

P
1. A polynomial ni=0 ai X i is monic if an = 1. We will work in R[X], the ring of polynomials
in X with coefficients in R. In each case, is the given statement true or false?
(a) The zero polynomial is monic.
Solution This is false, because the zero polynomial does not have a leading term.
(b) The sum of two monic polynomials is monic.
Solution This is false, because X + X = 2X.
(c) The difference of two monic polynomials is monic.
Solution This is false, because (X 2 + 2X) X 2 = 2X.
(d) The product of two monic polynomials is monic.
Solution This is correct, because if f, g R[X] and f 6= 0 6= g, then the leading term
of f g is the product of the leading terms of f and g.
(e) Every polynomial is a product of a non-zero real number and a monic polynomial.
Solution This is incorrect, because the zero polynomial cannot be so expressed.
2. Work in Q[X]. Divide X 5 + 4X + 1 by X 2 + 1 to leave a remainder of smallest possible
degree. Expressed more formally, find polynomials q, r Q[X] with deg r < 2 such that
X 5 + 4X + 1 = q (X 2 + 1) + r.
Solution I will show how to do this by long-division on a board, but I am not prepared
to typeset that! Here is a version which is easier to insert in this document: Notice that
X 5 + 4X + 1 X 3 (X 2 + 1) = X 3 + 4X + 1. Also X 3 + 4X + 1 = X(X 2 + 1) + 5X + 1.
Therefore
X 5 + 4X + 1 = X 3 (X 2 + 1) X(X 2 + 1) + 5X + 1
so
X 5 + 4X + 1 = (X 3 X)(X 2 + 1) + 5X + 1
as required.
3. Let R be a ring. A polynomial f R[X] of positive degree is called irreducible if whenever
g, h R[X] are such that f = gh, then either g or h has degree 0 (i.e. is a non-zero constant).
Let f1 = X 2 2 and f2 = X 2 + 2.
(a) Is either f1 or f2 irreducible, viewed as an element of Q[X]?
Solution If either were reducible, it would have two linear factors
(i.e. two factors

of
degree 1). No linear polynomial with rational coefficients has 2 as a root, since 2 is
irrational. Thus X 2 2 has no non-trivial factorization in Q[X]. Also X 2 + 2 has no real
roots, so it can have no linear factor with coefficients in Q.

(b) Is either f1 or f2 irreducible,

viewed

as an element of R[X]?
Solution f1 = (X 2)(X + 2) is reducible in R[X]. However X 2 + 2 has no real
root, and so cannot have a linear factor with coefficients in R.
(c) Is either f1 or f2 irreducible, viewed as an element
of C[X]?

Solution Neither is irreducible, for f1 = (X 2)(+ 2) and f2 = (X i 2)(+i 2).

4. Suppose that C. By considering + and , prove that there is f R[X] of degree 2
such that f () = 0 (i.e. is a root of f ).
Solution + = + = s R and = = p R. Therefore is a root of X 2 sX + p
which can be written (X )(X ).
5. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that if f C[X] and deg f > 0, then there is
C such that f () = 0. A proof of this result is beyond the scope of this course, but
assume it for the purposes of this question. The remainder theorem (to be proved in lectures
on Monday Nov 14) may be helpful in parts of the following problems.
(a) Prove that every irreducible polynomial in C[X] has degree 1.
Solution Suppose that f C[X] has degree at least 1. By the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra f has a root C. Now divide f by X as best you can. There are
polynomials q, r with the degree of r at most 0 so that f = q(X )+r with r a constant.
Evaluating at we see that f () = 0 = 0 + r so r = 0. If f is irreducible, this forces q
to be a non-zero constant and so deg f = 1.
(b) Prove that every irreducible polynomial in R[X] has degree at most 2.
Solution Suppose that f R[X] is irreducible in R[X]. By the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra f has a root C. If R, we divide f by X with remainder a constant
r as in the previous part. Once again r = 0 for the same reason, and f has degree 1. If
6 R, then let m = (X )(X ) R[X]. There must be polynomials q, r R[X]
with f = qm + r and r of degree at most 1. Evaluating at we find that is a root
of r. Thus r cannot have degree 1, else it would have as a root and would be real.
Therefore r is constant and, as before r = 0. Now f = qm is irreducible so q must be a
non-zero real number and deg f = 2.
(c) Suppose that f C[X] has degree n 1. Prove that f has at most n roots in C.
Solution We use induction on n = deg f . If n = 1, then the result holds. Next suppose
that n > 1. By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, there is C such that f () = 0.
There are polynomials q, r C[X] with r a constant such that f = q(X ) + r and
evaluating at 0, we find that r = 0. Now deg f = deg q + 1 and q has at most n 1
complex roots by induction. Any root of f must either be or a root of q. Therefore f
has at most n roots in C.
(d) Suppose that f R[X] has degree n 1. Prove that f has at most n roots in R.
Solution By part (c), f has at most n roots in C, so it certainly has at most n roots in
R C.
6. Suppose that R is a ring. Show that R is an integral domain if, and only if, R[X] is an integral
domain.
Solution The constants form a copy of R. Therefore if R[X] is an integral domain, then
R is an integral domain too. Conversely, suppose that R is an integral domain and f, g are
non-zero polynomials in R[X]. Let the leading term of f be aX m and the leading term of g be
bX n . Then the leading term of f g is abX m+n because ab 6= 0 (since R is an integral domain).
Therefore f g 6= 0.


a b
7. Let G be the set of 2 2 real matrices of the shape
such that ac 6= 0.
0 c

(a) Suppose that J G and JA = AJ = A for all A G. Prove that



1 0
J = I2 =
.
0 1

Solution Let K =

1 1
0 1


G. Then JK = K yields


a a+b
0
c


=

1 1
0 1


.

Therefore a = c = 1 and b = 0.
(b) Show that if A, B G, then AB
 G. 
 0 0 
a b
a b
Solution Suppose that A =
and B =
. Then
0 c
0 c

AB =

aa0 ab0 + bc0

0
cc0


.

Notice that aa0 bb0 = (ab)(a0 b0 ) 6= 0.

(c) Show that if A G, then there is B G such that AB = BA = I2 .
Solution The matrix B does the job where

 1
a
ba1 c1
.
B=
0
c1
(d) Deduce that G is a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution We have established multiplicative closure, inversion closure, and notice that
I2 G. Therefore G is a group.
8. Suppose that G is the set of n n real matrices with all entries 0, except that in each row
and each column, there is a single non-zero entry.
(a) Prove that G is a group under matrix multiplcation.
Solution Notice that In G. Suppose that A, B G. The rows of B are the rows of B
are the rows of In , each multiplied by a non-zero scalar. The effect of premultiplying
by A is to once again multiply each row by a non-zero scalar, and to permute the rows.
Therefore AB G. Given A, then write B for the matrix obtained from A by replacing
each non-zero entry by its multiplicative inverse, and then transposing the matrix (see
Problem 9). This does the job. We have established multiplicative closure, inversion
closure, and notice that In G. Therefore G is a group.
(b) Find a finite subgroup of G which has n! elements.
Solution The set of permutation matrices form a subgroup of size n!. These are the
matrices in G such that each non-zero entry is 1. There are n choices for where the 1
goes in the first row, then n 1 choices of the location of the 1 in the second row, and
so on. There are therefore n! such matrices. The product of two elements of G is an
element of G. To see this, suppose that A, B G. The rows of B are the rows of the
identity matrix In , but possibly written in another order. The effect of pre-multiplying
B by A is to re-order the rows of B, so the result is still a matrix which has the same
rows at In , written in some order, and so is an element of G. The identity matrix is in
G. Finally if A G, then AT G, and AAT = AT A = In (see Problem 9). Therefore G
is a group.

(c) Find a finite subgroup of G which has 2n (n!) elements.

Solution This time we vary the group described in part (b) by allowing the non-zero
entries to be 1 or 1. The proof that these matrices form a group is very similar to that
in part (b). The only difference is that a matrix is in this group if, and only if, its rows
are plus or minus (independently) the rows of In .
9. If A is an n n matrix with real entries, we define the transpose of A = (aij ) to be the matrix
AT = (bij ) where for each i and j, we have bij = aji .
T
T T
(a) Suppose that A and B are n n matrices with real entries.
Pn Prove that (AB) = B A .
aul blv so the entry in row i
Solution The entry in row
and column
Pu
Pnv of AB is l=1P
n
T
and column j of (AB) is l=1 ajl bli = l=1 bli ajl . This is nl=1 cil dlj where B T = (cij )
and AT = (dij ). Therefore (AB)T = B T AT .

(b) Let G be the set of n n matrices with real entries such that AAT = AT A = In , where
In is the relevant identity matrix. Prove that G is a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution Notice that In G. Also (AT )T AT = AT (AT )T = AAT = AT A = In so AT
is in G, and moveover AT is the inverse of A. The only issue remaining is multiplicative
closure. Suppose that A, B G, then (AB)(AB)T = (AB)(B T AT ) by the previous
part. Therefore (AB)(AB)T = (A(BB T ))AT by associativity of matrix multiplication.
Now BB T = In so (AB)(AB)T = AAT = In . Similarly (AB)T (AB) = (B T (AT A))B =
B T B = In . Therefore AB G, and so G is a group.
(c) Find infinitely many 2 2 matrices with real entries such that AAT = AT A = I2 .
Solution Consider the matrices of the form


cos sin
.
=
sin cos
These are distinct if 0 < 2 (and correspond to rotation about the origin through
). Notice that 0 = I2 , 1 2 = 1 +2 and the inverse matrix of is both and
T .
10. (Tutor pacifier) Find all f R[X] such that q Q if, and only if, f (q) Q.
Solution Not yet! Here is a solution to Problem 10 of Sheet 6. The statements was this.
Suppose that In = {1, 2, . . . , n}, and Sn denotes the symmetric group consisting of all bijections f : In In . We suppose that n > 1. A transposition is any t Sn such that t is not
the identity, but t fixes n 2 elements of the domain. Suppose that g Sn . Prove that g is
the composition of at most n transpositions.
Solution If n = 2, then let (12) denote the transposition swapping 1 and 2. Then (12)(12) =
id, and (12) = (12), so every element of S2 is the product of at most 2 transpositions. Now
suppose that Sn . Suppose that (n) = r 6= n. In that case, (rn) fixes n. In this case by
induction on n, this permutation being viewed as an element of Sn1 , then (rn) is (by induction) the product of at most n 1 transpositions (each of which fixes n). Now premultiply
(multiply on the left) by (rn) to express as the product of at most n transpositions in Sn .
On the other hand, it is possible that (n) = n. In that case is expressible as a product of
at most n 1 transpositions (in Sn1 , by induction).